QAMPBELL COLLECTION PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER ENGLISH SERIES No. XIII AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK Published by the University of Manchester at THE UNIVERSITY PRESS (H. M. McKECHNiE, M.A., Secretary) 23 LIME GROVE, OXFORD ROAD, MANCHESTER LONGMANS, GREEN & CO. LONDON : 39 Paternoster Row, E.G. 4 NEW YORK : 55 Fifth Avenue BOMBAY : Hornby Road CALCUTTA : 6 Old Court House Street MADRAS : 167 Mount Road AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK BY W. J. SEDGEFIELD, M.A., LITT.D, SMITH PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE MANCHESTER: AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON, NEW YORK, ETC. : LONGMANS, GREEN & CO. 1922 PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER No. CLIII A II rights reserved PREFACE THIS Anglo-Saxon Verse-Book is an anthology in which the most representative and original parts of our earliest poetic literature are brought together. The selections are arranged under headings in accordance with their literary affinities, the idea of an organic whole being throughout emphasized. The anthology is intended to illus- trate a course of study, whether private or in university lectures, of Anglo-Saxon self-expression in literature. The requirements of the literary student receive, perhaps for the first time in such a book, as much attention as those of the philologist. The introductory notes make up a sort of running commentary which it is hoped will send the student to such works as The Cambridge History of English Literature, vol. i. ; A. Brandt's Geschichte der altenglischen Literatur ; ten Brink's History of English Literature, vol. i. ; and the valuable studies by Professors Earle, Chambers, Lawrence, Chadwick, and other English, American, German, and Scandinavian scholars, who have worked in the Anglo-Saxon field. The most novel features of the selections here given are the inclusion of Widsith and Exodus, and the full use that has been made of Beowulf, a poem which is in itself almost a literature. An Anglo-Saxon Prose-Book on lines similar to those of the present book is in preparation, which, if auspices are good, may see the light within a reasonable time. W. J. SEDGEFIELD. MANCHESTER, August 1922. CONTENTS PAGES PREFACE ...... GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY . . 1-27 i) Widsith. (2) Waldere. (3) Deor. (4) Legend and Story in Beowulf: (a) The Scyld- ing Dynasty, (b) Sigemimd and Fitela. (c} Offa's Queen, (d) Frisians, Danes, and Jutes. (e) Danes and Heathobards. (/) Geats and Franks, (g) Geats and Swedes. (h} The Brosings' Necklace. (5) The Fight at Finnsburh. II. ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING . 28-48 (6) The Wanderer. (7) The Seafarer. (8) A Woman's Complaint. (9) The Husband's Message. (10) Wolf and Eadwacer. (11) Elegiac and Moralizing Passages in Beowulf: (a) The Arrogant Ruler, (b) Buried Treasure. (c) An Inexpiable Crime. (12) A Bad Character. ( 1 3) The Fates of Men. III. NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE . . 49-79 (14) Beowulf: (a] The Swimming-match, (b) The Fight with Grendel. (c} The Haunts of the Ogres, (d) The Visit to the Pool of Monsters. vii viii CONTENTS PAGES (<?) Beowulf's Fight with the Dragon. (/) Beo- wulf's Obsequies, (g) Hero-Lays in the making. (ft) Scenes in Heorot. (/') Beowulf is made « a Hereditary Chief. (/) Weapons and Armour. (15) The Battle of Brunanburh. (16) The Battle of Maldon. IV. BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN .... 80-103 (17) (a) Csedmon's Hymn. (b) Bede's Death-song. (18) Biblical and Religious Passages in Beowulf: (a) The Minstrel sings the Story of Creation. (b) The Curse of Cain. (c) Heathen Sacrifices. (d] Hidden Treasure. (e) Selected Shorter Passages. (19) Exodus. (20). Cynewulf: (a) Crist, (b} Elene. V. MISCELLANEOUS ..... 104-124 (21) Gnomic and Didactic : (a) The Ways of Creation. (b} The Gifts of Men. (<:) A Father's Advice. (22) Riddles. (23) Rhyme Poem. (24) Late A.-S. and Transitional Verse. APPENDIX ON ANGLO-SAXON VERSIFICATION . 125 NOTES ..... I31 V GLOSSARY. . . 193 NAMES OF PERSONS AND PLACES 243 I. GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY 1. WIDSITH In this, one of the earliest surviving A.-S. poems, we have perhaps the first written expression in a vernacular speech of that race-consciousness of the Germanic peoples to which Latin and Greek writers, with Tacitus at their head, bear witness. In a few introductory lines (1-9) we are told how the minstrel Widsith, ' the far-travelled,' visited in the train of the Lady Ealhhild the court of the great Gothic king Ermanric. Widsith then in person proceeds to give a list of Germanic peoples and their rulers, occasionally adding comments of his own and boasting of his wide experience as a traveller (10-56). Next he gives another list, this time of widely scattered races and tribes which he claims to have visited (57-87). Then follows an account of a splendid gift made to him by Ermanric, of another made by Ealhhild, and of his visits to the various rulers of peoples allied with or owing allegiance to Ermanric (88-134). The poem ends with a few lines on the functions of a minstrel. Scholars are agreed that the poem consists of an original nucleus with later additions. There can be little doubt, for example, that 11. 75-87, where Greeks, Egyptians, Indians, Israelites, Scots, Picts, etc. are mentioned haphazard, are the addition of some well-meaning monk who wished to bring his gazetteer up to date, or at least to make it more complete. But the original version of the poem may well have included lists of Germanic tribes and their rulers, as such mnemonic lists are met with elsewhere in old Germanic records, e.g. in Bede's Ecclesiastical History, and the Introduction to the Winchester version of the A.-S. Chronicle, as well as in the Icelandic muster-rolls and hero-lays. The mere recital by the bard of the names of famous heroes and their peoples would deeply stir the hearers, to whom each hero's name would recall lays in which his deeds were sung. As the Germanic chiefs mentioned in Widsith lived be- tween the middle of the third and the middle of the sixth century A.D., it is clear that the poem cannot be regarded as the actual record of a traveller. Its real value is, as Dr. Chambers well says, * that it shows us what was the stock- in-trade of the old Anglian bard.' He says further, 'We have such a survey of Germanic geography and legend as might have been made by a gleeman who drew his lore from the traditions of the ancient Angel. From this point of view everything drops into its right place : the knowledge shown of the Anglo-Frisian tribes and of their legends, of their immediate neighbours, and the more or less complete ignorance of everything else, with the one exception of Gothic saga, become at once intelligible. ' * Professor W. P. Ker, in his Medieval English Literature, p. 28, says, ' The poem is a kind of fantasia, intended to call up by 1 Widsith, p. 165. I B 2 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY allusion the personages of the most famous stories ; it is not an epic poem, but it plays with some of the plots of heroic poetry familiar throughout the whole Teutonic region.' Widsitk is preserved in a MS. written in the West-Saxon literary dialect of the end of the tenth century. The original poem must have been composed in Northumbria, perhaps before the end of the seventh century. The .early date of the original nucleus of the poem is established by considerations of geography and heroic legend, supported by the evidence of language and metre. WldslS maSolade, wordhord onleac se pe (monna) masst mae^pa ofer eor]?an, folca geondferde ; oft he (on) flette gepah mynelicne mappum. Him from Myrgingum 5 3e]?ek> onwocon. He mid Ealhhilde, fselre freo]?uwebban, forman sl]?e HreScyninges ham gesohte eastan of Ongle, Eormanrlces, wra]?es wabrlogan. Ongon J?a worn sprecan j 10 * Fela ic monna gefraegn mabgjmm wealdan ; ' sceal ]?eod(n)a gehwylc ]?eawum lifgan, 1 eorl aefter 6]?rum e<51e rsedan, ' se ]?e his ]?eodenstol gepeon wilej Para waes (H)wala hwlle selasf" ond Alexandreas ealra ricost monna cynnes, ond he msest gej»ah ]?ara ]?e ic ofer foldan gefrsegen haebbe^) weold Hunum, Eormanrlc Gotum, * Becca Baningum, Burgendum Gifica. \ 20 ' Casere weold Creacum ond Gaelic Finnum, ' Hagena Holmry^um ond He0den Glommum. ' Witta weold Swabfum, Wada Haelsingum, ' Meaca Myrgingum, Mearchealf Hundingum. * Peodrlc weold Froncum, Pyle Rondingum, 2 5 ' Breoca Brondingum, Billing Wernum, ' Oswine weold Eowum, ond Ytum Gefwulf, ' Fin Folcwalding Fresna cynne.) ' Sigehere lengest Sae-Denum weold, c Hnaef Hocingum, Helm Wulfingum, ,0 ' Wald Woingum, Wod Pyringum, 2. masr]>a. 4. hine. 5. asjjele. 21. holmrycum ; henden I. WIDSITH ; ' Saeferft Sycgum, Sweom Ongend^eow, ' Sceafthere Ymbrum, Sceafa Longbeardum, ' Hun Haetwerum, ond Holen Wrosnum. J ^ 1 Hringweald waes haten Herefarena cyning^, * 35 'Offa weold Ongle, Alewih Denum_y ' se waes ]mra manna modgast ealra ; ' no hwae]?re he ofer Offan eorlscype fremede, ' ac Offa geslog aerest monna ( cnihtwesende cynerlca maest ; 4° * nsenig efeneald him eorlscipe maran ' on orette ane sweorde ' merce gemaerde wi5 Myrgingum 1 bl Flfeldore ; heoldon forS si}?]?an ' Engle ond Swaefe swa hit Offa geslog.) 45 * Hro]?wulf ond HroSgar heoldon lengest * sibbe aetsomne, suhtorfaedran, * si]?]?an hy forwrsecon Wicinga cynn ' ond Ingeldes ord forbigdan, ' forheowan aet Heorote HeaSobeardna ]?rym.) 50 ' Swa ic geondferde fela fremdra londa ' geond ginne grund ; godes ond yfles "/ 1 freomeegum feor folgade wide. ic cunnade cnosle bidseled, X ' For]?on ic maeg singan ond secgan spell, 55 'm'jenan fore mengo in meoduhealle, ' hu me cynegode cystum dohten.y c Ic waes mid Hunum ond mid Hre5-Gotum, ' mid Sweom ond mid Geatum ond mid Su]?-Denum. ' Mid Wenlum ic waes ond mid Waernum ond mid Wlcingum. 60 ' Mid Gef ]?um ic waes ond mid Winedum ond mid Gefflegum. ' Mid Englum ic waes ond mid Swsefum ond mid J^nenum. 1 Mid Seaxum ic waes ond (mid) Sycgum ond mid Sweordwerum. 'Mid Hronum ic waes ond mid Deanum ond mid Hea]?o- Reamum. ' Mid Pyringum ic waes ond mid Prowendum 65 { ond mid Burgendum, ]?£er ic beag ge]?ah ; ' me J?ser GuShere forgeaf glaedlicne ma]?]?um ' songes to leane ; naes ]?aet saene cyning.^/ ' Mid Froncum ic waes ond mid Frysum ond mid Frumtingum. 4 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY ' Mid Rugum ic wses ond mid Glommum ond mid Rumwalum./ 70 ' Swylce ic wses on Eatule mid ^Elfwine, 1 se haefde moncynnes mine gefrsege * leohteste bond lofes to wyrcenne, * heortan unhneaweste hringa gedales, ' beorhtra beaga, beam Eadwines.7 75 'Mid Sercingum ic wses ond mid Seringum. c Mid Creacum ic wses ond mid Finnum ond mid Casere, * se ]?e wmburga geweald ante, ' vfiolena ond wilna ond Wala rices./ ' Mid Scottum ic waes ond mid Peohtum ond mid Scride-Finnum. 80 ' Mid Lid-Wlcingum ic waes ond mid Leonum ond mid Long- beardum, * Mid HseSnum ond mid HsereJ^um ond mid Hundingum, ' Mid Israhelum ic wses ond mid Exsyringum, c mid Ebreum ond mid Indeum ond mid Egyptum. ' Mid Moidum ic wses ond mid Persum ond mid Myrgingum, 'ond Mofdingum ond ongend Myrgingum ' ond mid Amothingum. Mid East-Pyringum ic wses ' ond mid Eolum ond mid Istum ond Idumingum.y 1 Ond ic wses mid Eormanrice ealle J?rage, ' }?ser me Gotena cyning gode dohte ; go ' se me beag forgeaf, burgwarena fruma, 1 on ]?am siexhund wses smsetes goldes ' gescyred sceatta scillingrlme ; *J?one ic Eadgilse on seht sealde, 'mlnum hleodryhtne, J»a ic to ham bicwom, 'leofum to leane, J>ses ]?e he me lond forgeaf, ' mines fseder e]?el, frea Myrginga. ' Ond me ]?a Ealhhild 6]?erne forgeaf, 'dryhtcwen dugu]?e, dohtor Eadwines. 1 Hyre lof lengde geond londa fela, 100 *J?onne ic be songe secgan sceolde 1 hwser ic under swegl(e) selast wisse 'goldhrodene cwen giefe bryttian. ' Donne wit Scilling sclran reorde ' for uncrum sigedryhtne song ahofan, 'hlude bi hearpan hleo)?or swinsade; 78. wiolane. 81. haelejmm. I. WIDSITH 5 ']?onne monige men modum wlonce * wordum sprecan, ]?a J>e wel cu]?an, 'j?set hi nsefre song sellan ne hyrdon. 'Donan ic ealne geondhwearf e]?el Gotena; no 'sohte ic a (ge)sl]?a J>a selestan ; ']?33t wses innweorud Earmanrlces^/ * HeScan sohte ic ond Beadecan ond Herelingas, ' Emercan sohte ic ond Fridlan ond Eastgotan, ~* ' frodne ond godne faeder Unwenes.y 115 'Seccan sohte ic ond Beccan, Seafolan ond peodric, * Hea]?orlc ond Sifecan, Hli}»e ond Incgen]?eow. * Eadwine sohte ic ond Elsan, ^Egelmund ond Hungar, — ' ond ]?a wloncan gedryht Wi]?-Myrgin^a.y * Wulfhere sohte ic ond Wyrmhere ; ful oft j?aer wig ne alaeg, 120 {]?onne Hrseda here heardum sweordum ^ ' ' ymb Wlstlawudu wergan sceoldon 'ealdne e]?elst6l ^Etlan leodum.^ ' Rsedhere sohte ic ond Rondhere, Rumstan ond Glslhere, ' WiJ?ergield ond Freo]?eric, Wudgan ond Haman \\ 125 'ne waeran J>8et gesi]?a ]?a ssemestan, ' J»eah ]?e ic hy anihst nemnan sceolde. c Ful oft of ]?am heape hwmende fleag ' giellende gar on grome J>eode ; ' wrasccan J>£er weoldan wundnan golde, 130 'werum ond wlfum, Wudga ond Hama./ ' Swa ic J?set symle onfond on ]?£ere feringe, *J?aet se bty leofast londbuendum, ' se J>e him God syleS gumena rice ' to gehealdenne, ]?enden he her 135 Swa scrl]?ende gesceapum hweorfaS gleomen gumena geond grunda fela, ]?earfe secgaS, J>oncword spreca]?, simle suS o]?]?e norS sumne gemetaS gydda gleawne, geofum unhneawne, 140 se ]?e fore dugu]?e wile dom arseran, eorlscipe asfnan, o}> ]?3et eal scaeceS, leoht ond Hf somod ; lof se gewyrceS, hafaS under heofonum heahfaestne dom. GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY 2. WALDERE This fragment of a hero-lay, preserved by a happy chance on two vellum leaves in the Royal Library of Copenhagen, is important as confirming the testimony of Beowulf w\& Widsith to the fact that the Anglo-Saxons were inter- ested in the stories of Germanic heroes other than those of ' the two seas.' The tale of Walther (Waldere), the West Gothic hero of Aquitaine, is known to us from several continental versions, one of which, written about the middle of the tenth century by the St. Gall monk Ekkehard, comes nearer to the English version than the others. Walther, who has lived for years as a hostage at the court of Attila (/Etla), flees homeward, taking with him his lady-love the Bur- gundian princess Hildegund (Hildegyth) and much treasure. He is attacked in a mountain-pass by the Burgundian king Gunther (Guthhere) at the head of a small band of warriors including Hagen (Hagena) the Frank, Walther's old friend. Ekkehard tells us that after a desperate fight Walther slays all his foes except Gunther and Hagen, who retire to the plain. On the following day these two again fall upon Walther, as he comes down from the pass with Hilde- gund. After hours of fighting they make peace. According to the A.-S. fragment Waldere, exhausted by the struggle, offers Guthhere the famous sword Mimming and treasure for a respite. Guthhere refuses (1. 28) and the fight is renewed, Hagena succeeding Guthhere. In the first part of the fragment Hilde- gyth is encouraging her lover ; the second part contains the end of a speech by Guthhere followed by Waldere's reply. It is noteworthy that though the A.-S. poem is earlier than Ekkehard's version and nearer to the original story it shows a Christian editing which is hardly perceptible in Waltharius Manufortis. In early times A.-S. ecclesiastics were much more inclined than their successors to compromise with the popular interest in hero-legend, to which they dexterously imparted an edifying religious colouring. We can only guess at the length of the original poem. The probability is that even with the discursive treatment shown in the fragment which has sur- vived the total number of lines did not much exceed one thousand. 1 hyrde hyne georne : 1 hum Welande[s] wore ne geswlceft 4 monna senigum ]?ara 5e Mimming can ' hear(d)ne gehealdan. Oft aet hilde gedreas 5 c swatfafg] ond sweordwund sec(g) setter 6]?rum. ' ^Etlan ordwyga, ne last 5ln ellen nu gy[t] 'gedreosan to dsege, dryhtscipe (feallan). ' ac is se daeg cumen, ' J?aet Su scealt aninga 6?>er twega, 10 'Iff forleosan oblfe lange dom 'agan mid eldum, .ZElfheres sunu. 1 Nalles ic Se, wine mm, wordum clde, II. WALDERE 1 5y ic 5e gesawe aet 5am sweord/legan '5urh edwitscype teniges monnes 15 'wig forbugan o55e on weal fleon, 'lice beorgan, 5eah ]?e la<5ra fela {5mne byrnhomon billum heowun, 1 ac 5u symle furSor feohtan sohtest, ' mail ofer mearce. Dy ic 5e metod ondred, 20 ' ]?aet 5u to fyrenlice feohtan sohtest ' ast 5am se^stealle, oSres monnes ' wlgrsedenne. WeorSa 5e selfne 'godum dsedum, Senden 5ln God recce. ' Ne murn 5Q for Si mece ; <5e wearS maSma cyst 25 'gifeffe to eoce unc. Dy Su GuGhere scealt ' beot forblgan, <5ses 5e he 5as beaduwe ongan * m(i)d unryhte Merest secan ; * forsoc he 5am swurde ond 5am syncfatum, { beaga msenigo ; nu sceal bega leas 30 ' hworfan from 5isse hilde, hlafurd secan, ' ealdne e]?el, o55e her ser swefan, 'gif he5a B 4 [me]ce bseteran ' buton 5am anum 5e ic eac hafw 35 ' on stanfate stille gehlded. ' Ic wat ]?aet (h)i/ Sohte Deodric Widian ' selfum ons[en]don ond eac sine micel 1 ma5ma mid 51 mece, monig o5res mid him ' golde gegirwan, iulean genam, 40 ' l^aes 5e hine of nearwum Nl5hades mseg, 1 Welandes beam, Widia ut forlet ' 5urh fffela gefeald for5 onejtte.' Waldere ma5elode, wiga ellenrof, haefde him on handa hildefrofre, gu5billa gripe, gyddode wordum : ' Hwset, 5u hum wendest, wine Burgenda, 1 ]?set me Hagenan hand hilde gefremede 13. sweordwlegan. 21. aststealle. 29. MS. has beaga for bega 34. hafa. 36. for hit Sohte MS. has ic Sohte. 8 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY ' ond getwsemde [fe]<5ewigges ; feta, gyf Su dyrre, ' set <5us heaSuwerigan hare byrnan. 50 ' Stand<?S me her on eaxelum ^Ifheres laf * god ond geapneb, golde geweorSod, 'ealles unscende aeSelinges reaf 'tohabbanne, bonne ha(n)d wereS ' feorhhord feondum : ne biS fah wiS me, 55 'bonne unmsegas eft ongynnaS, ' mecum gemetaS, swa ge me dydon. ' Deah mseg sige syllan se Se symle byS * rec^n ond r^edfest ryh[ta] gehwilces ; * se 5e him to 5am halgan helpe gelifeS, 60 ' to Gode gioce, he J>8er gearo findeS, ' gif Sa earnunga ser geSenceS ; 'J>onne moten wlance welan britnian, ' aehtum wealdan ; J?set is .... I 3. DEOR A minstrel named Deor tells us that after years of service he has been sup- planted in his lord's favour by a rival, Heorrenda, who has received the land which had been previously granted to Deor. In his misery Deor tries to comfort himself by recalling unhappy events in hero-story which had at length passed away and lost their bitterness. This little piece, one of the very few A.-S. poems with a personal note, might well have been placed in the next section, but its references to famous events and personages of legend make it more convenient to include it with the other poems relating to Germanic story. Particularly notice- able is the refrain, unique in A.-S. poetry, which divides the main part of the poem into strophes (stanzas) of varying lengths. Weland him be weamum wraeces cunnade, anhydig eorl earfo]?a dreag, hsefde him to gesi]?be sorge ond longa]?, wintercealde wrace ; wean oft onfond, c siJ?J?an hine Ni<5had on nede legde, swoncre seonobende on syllan monn. Pass ofereode, pisses swa maeg. Beadohilde ne waes hyre bro]?ra dea]? on sefan swa sar swa hyre sylfre ]?ing ; 10 ]?32t heo gearollce ongieten hsefde, ]?set heo eacen wses ; sefre ne meahte ge]?encan hu ymb J?set sceolde. 50. standatS. 58. recon. 62. mtoten. i. wurman. 4. wrsece. III. DEOR 9 Paes ofereode, ]?isses swa mseg. We ]?aet (be) MseShilde monge gefrugnon : 15 wurdon grundlease Geates frige, J?set hi(m) seo sorglufu sleep ealle binom. Paes ofereode, pisses swa mseg. Deodric ante J^ritig wintra Mgeringa burg; ]?set waes monegum cuj?. 20 paes ofereode, ]?isses swa mseg. We geascodan Eormanrlces wylfenne ge]?6ht ; ahte wide folc Gotena rices ; ]?set wses grim cyning. Sset secg monig sorgum gebunden, 25 wean on wenan, wyscte geneahhe ]?set ]?3es cynerlces ofercumen wsere. Pses ofereode, pisses swa maeg. SiteS sorgcearig sselum bidaeled, on sefan sweorceft; sylfum ]?ince5 30 ]?set sy endeleas earfoSa dsel. Maeg ]?onne ge]?encan J>set geond ]?as woruld witig Dryhten wende]? geneahhe : eorle monegum are gesceawaS, wislicne blaed, sumum weana dabl. 35 Pset ic bi me sylfum secgan wille, ]?set ic hwlle waes Heodeninga scop, dryhtne dyre ; me waes Deor noma. Ahte ic fela wintra folgacS tilne, holdne hlaford, o]? J>aet Heorrenda nu, 40 leoScraeftig monn, londryht ge]?ah, J?aet me eorla hleo ser gesealde. Paes ofereode, ]?isses swa maeg. 4. LEGEND AND STORY IN BEOWULF Beo'w^tlf, the longest and finest of the surviving A.-S. poems, is a story or rather two stories of adventure, and is perhaps the first romance to be written in a Germanic language. It consists of two parts, (i) the visit of Beowulf the young Geat prince to the court of Hrothgar the Danish king, his slaying in the royal hall Heorot of two man-eating ogres, Grendel by name, and his return home laden with gifts ; (2) the fight, fifty years later, of Beowulf with a fire- breathing dragon, his death and funeral obsequies. The poem thus consists of two folk-tales recounting the slaying of monsters, set in a framework of Germanic 10 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY hero-story. Some of the details in BeowulPs adventure and even some of the names have their counterparts in Icelandic sagas of a much later date than our poem, while the dragon-slaying story meets us several times in Germanic legend, e.g. in the Volsunga saga and the Nibelungenlied. To the student of Germanic origins the most interesting part of Beowulf lies perhaps in the passages which recall the old stories of feuds and battles between various Germanic (including Scandinavian) peoples. At least one of these * digressions ' from the main narrative (No. 4 F) has been shown to rest on a his- torical basis, while the rest, though unconfirmed by other sources save for a few of the names, most probably contain a nucleus of historical fact with an accretion of legend. It is interesting to note that some of the names of Germanic peoples and their rulers which figure in the Widsith lists come to life, as it were, in these digressions of Beowulf > while another A.-S. poem, the Fight at Finns bur h (No. 5), is generally considered to be a lay describing the details of a fight alluded to in one of the Beowulf episodes (No. 4 D). When and where was Beowtilf written, what manner of man wrote it, was it an original work or a translation, what were its sources, have we the original form of the poem or a later interpolated version ? These questions and others have been discussed with much learning and acumen by many scholars during the last hundred years. The general view nowadays is that the poem was written down, if not actually composed, in the north of England early in the eighth century by an Englishman, probably but not necessarily an ecclesiastic, familiar with courts and refined, i.e. aristocratic, society ; further, that we have in the sole extant MS. a copy of the original form of the poem, which was not a translation or adaptation of a Scandinavian original but the work of a man of talent, well versed in legendary lore and a master of the Old English poetical technique. It is possible that Beowulf was composed for a particular occasion and for a particular circle of hearers, such as a royal court or the brethren of a monastery, who, as we learn from several sources, were fond of listening to tales of heroic prowess and adventure. The biblical and religious allusions and sentiments scattered through our poem would still further commend it to a religious society. Though Beowulf deals exclusively with continental Germanic story, its tone, style and metre are entirely English, being quite different from those of the much later Scandinavian poetry. The author was familiar, as were his hearers (or readers), with the countless lays about Danes, Swedes, etc. which were still sung by gleemen all over the land. Beowulf represents the highest level reached by the surviving A.-S. poetry, both in its plan and in its execution, as well as in its language and versification. The tone is invariably grave, wise and restrained ; the narrative sustained and sinewy, the scenes and events clearly visualized and portrayed. The text of the poem is written in the West-Saxon literary dialect of the tenth century, into which the early Northumbrian poems were turned in later times for the sake of southern readers and hearers. A. THE SCYLDING DYNASTY 11. 1-63 This is the opening passage or prologue of the poem ; it is a recapitulation of part of the history of the Danish royal family, doubtless familiar to those for whom the poet wrote. IV. LEGEND AND STORY IN BEOWULF I I Hwset, we Gar-Dena in geardagum }?eodcyninga ]?rym gefrunon, hu Sa se]?elingas ellen fremedon. Oft Scyld Scefing scea]?ena ]?reatum 5 monegum m£eg]?um meodosetla ofteah ; egsode eorl(as), sy<5<5an aerest wearS feasceaft funden ; he }>33s frofre gebad, weox under wolcnum, weorftmyndum ]mh, oS J>aet him seghwylc ymbsittendra 10 ofer hronrade hyran scolde, gomban gyldan ; ]?get wses god cyning. Daim eafera wses sefter cenned geong in geardum, Jxme God sende folce to frofre ; fyrenSearfe ongeat, 15 ]>d hie £er drugon aldor[le]ase lange hwile. Him j^ses Hffrea, wuldres wealdend, woroldare forgeaf ; Beowulf wses breme — bleed wide sprang — Scyldes eafera, Scedelandum in. 20 Swa sceal [geong g]uma g5de gewyrcean, fromum feohgiftum, on fseder [ser]ne J7aet hine on ylde eft gewunigen wilgestyas, ]?onne wig cume, leode gelsesten ; lofdsedum sceal 25 in mseg}?a gehw^w man ge]?eon. Him Sa Scyld gewat to gescaephwile felahror feran on frean waere ; hi hyne ]?a astbseron to brimes faroSe, swsese gesij^as, swa he selfa bsed, 30 ]?enden wordum weold wine Scyldinga, leof landfruma, lange ante. Pair set hylSe stod hringedstefna Isig ond utfus, ae]?elinges faer ; aledon ]?a leofne ]?eoden, 35 beaga bryttan, on bearm scipes, maerne be mseste. Paer waes madma fela of feorwegum fraetwa gelseded. Ne hyrde ic cymlicor ceol gegyrwan 9. J>ara ymbsittendra. 15. ])aet. 25. gehwsere. I 2 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY hildewsepnum ond heaSowsedum, 40 billum ond byrnum ; him on bearme laeg madma msenigo, J?a him mid scoldon on flodes sent feor gewitan. Nalaes hi hine labssan lacum teodan, J>eodgestreonum, J?on(ne) ]?a dydon 45 be hine set frumsceafte for<5 onsendon ainne ofer ySe umborwesende. pa gyt hie him asetton segen g[yl]denne heah ofer heafod, leton holm beran, geafon on garsecg ; him wses geomor sefa, 50 murnende mod. Men ne cunnon secgan to soSe selenedenafe, hasleS under heofenum, hwa ]?sem hlseste onfeng. Da W85S on burgum Beowulf Scyldinga, leof leodcyning, longe ]?rage 55 folcum gefrsege — fasder ellor hwearf, aldor of earde — o}> ]?set him eft onwoc heah Healfdene ; heold ]?enden lifde gamol ond guSreouw glaede Scyldingas. Deem feower beam for5 gerimed 60 in worold wocun, weoroda rabswa Heorogar, ond HroSgar ond Halga til ; hyrde ic J?aet (. . . . waes On)elan cwen, Heafto-Scilfingas healsgebedda. B. SlGEMUND AND FlTELA 11. 874-900 While the party of thanes is riding home to Heorot after a visit to Grendel's haunts, one of them, to beguile the journey, chants lays about Sigemund the famous outlaw and dragon-slayer and his nephew Fitela. Welhwylc gecwseS ]?set he fram Sigemunde(s) secgan hyrde ellendsedum, uncu]?es fela, Wselsinges gewin, wide siSas ]?ara ]?e gumena beam gearwe ne wiston, fsehSe ond fyrena, buton Fitela mid hine, 51. seleraedenne. IV. LEGEND AND STORY IN BEOWULF I 3 70 ]?onne he swulces hwaet secgan wolde, earn his nefan, swa hie a waeron set niSa gehwam nydgesteallan ; haefdon ealfela eotena cynnes sweordum gesseged. Sigemunde gesprong 75 sefter deaSdsege dom unlytel, sy]?<5an wiges heard wyrm acwealde, hordes hyrde ; he under harne stan, ae]?elinges beam, ana geneSde frecne dsede ; ne wses him Fitela mid ; 80 hwae]?re him gesselde Sset ]?aet swurd ]?urhwod wrsetlicne wyrm, J>aet hit on wealle aetstod, dryhtlic iren ; draca morSre swealt. Hsefde aglseca elne gegongen ]?3et he beahhordes brucan moste 85 selfes dome ; saebat gehlod, baer on bearm scipes beorhte fraetwa Waelses eafera ; wyrm hat gemealt. Se waes wreccena wide mserost ofer wer]?eode, wigendra hleo 90 ellendsedum ; he f>aes ser onSah. C. OFFA'S QUEEN 11. 1931—1962 The Beowulj poet, speaking of Hygd, the gentle, kindly, young queen of Hygelac, king of the Geats, contrasts her with the queen of Offa, king of the Angles, who before her marriage displayed a most violent and bloodthirsty temper. The princess who kills her suitors is a common theme of legend. The story of Offa the Angle was in later times transferred to Offa, the Mercian king ; see Widsith (No. 1) 1. 35 n. wseg fre(o)mu folces cwen, firen ondrysne ; neenig ]?aet dorste deor gene]?an swaesra gesiSa nefne sinfrea 95 ]?aet hire andseges eagum starede, ac him waelbende weotode tealde handgewri]?ene ; hra]?e seoJ>San waes 85. gehleod. 91. mod |>rySo. 14 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY sefter mundgripe mece ge^inged, ]?aet hit sceadenmael scyran moste, 100 cwealmbealu cySan ; ne biS swylc cwenlic J>eaw idese to efnan, ]?eah 5e hio aenlicu sy, ]?aette freoSuwebbe feores ons^ce aefter ligetorne leofne mannan ; huru ]?aet onhohsnod(e) Hemwinges mseg. 105 Ealodrincende 63er ssedan, }?aet hio leodbealewa l^s gefremede, inwitniSa, sySSan Merest wearS gyfen goldhroden geongum cempan, aetfelum diore, sySSan hio Offan flet 1 10 ofer fealone flod be fseder lare siSe gesohte ; Saer hio sySSan wel in gumstole gode maere Hfgesceafta lifigende breac, hiold heahlufan wiS haele]?a brego, 115 ealles moncynnes mine gefrsege Ipone selestan bi ssem tweonum, eormencynnes ; for)?am Offa waes geofum ond guSum garcene man wide geweorSod, wisdome heold 120 e5el sinne; ]?onon Eom^ir woe haeleSum to helpe, Hem(m)inges maeg, nefa Garmundes, nI5a crseftig. joi. efnanne. 102. onsaece. 104. hem ninges. in. well. 116. ]>aes. 120. geomor. D. FRISIANS, DANES, AND JUTES The Tragic Story of Finn and Hengest (11. 1063-1 1 59) After the banquet in Heorot at which Beowulf and his little band are the guests of honour, the court minstrel begins to chant a lay recounting the tragic story of Finn, king of the Frisians, and Hengest, the Danish chief. The poet does not give us the actual lay, but an account, partly narrative, partly allusive comment, of the events leading to Finn's death. These events, familiar as they must have been to the poet's hearers or readers, are rather obscure to us, and various attempts have been made by scholars to reconstruct the story. The sequence of events seems to have been as follows : Finn is away from his IV. LEGEND AND STORY IN BEOWULF I 5 central kingdom (the Frisian islands), perhaps on the mainland opposite (Holland) ; he has brought with him a bodyguard of Jutes. These Jutes quarrel with a band of Danes, countrymen of Finn's wife Hildeburh, and make an attack on the hall of Hnaef the Danish prince, Hildeburh's brother. The attack, which lasts five days, is described in the Fight at Finnsburh (No. 5), which should be read in conjunction with the Beonvulf episode. Finn finds himself obliged to intervene and joins in the assault on the hall. Hnsef is slain, but the leadership of his Danes passes to Hengest, who makes such a good defence that Finn, who has by this time lost most of his officers (11. 140, 141 infra), offers him terms of peace. The terms are, that Hengest and his Danes shall have equal honour and privileges with Finn's Jutes, and further that they shall not be taunted with having made peace with the slayers of their chief Hnsef. Hengest agrees to the terms and the peace is solemnly ratified, after which the bodies of the slain princes, Hildeburh's brother(s) and son(s), are placed together on the funeral pile and burned, while the queen laments her dead (11. 177, 178). Hengest accompanies Finn to Friesland and stays there during the winter, loyally observing the treaty of peace. But with the advent of spring, thoughts of revenge stir within his breast ; he returns to his people and takes service with Hunlafing the Dane. Egged on by Guthlaf and Oslaf, who are, perhaps, survivors of the fight in Hnsef's hall, a party of Danes sets out for Friesland, slays Finn, burns and plunders his palace, and returns home with Finn's Danish queen. The story is a tragedy of inner conflict. Honour and loyalty require that Hengest shall not make peace with the slayer of his prince, but fight on to death or victory. Yet, he reflects, Finn did not kill Hnsef by treachery but in fair fight, moreover in the offered peace-terms Finn shows delicacy and consideration for the feelings of Hengest and his Danes ; there is no dishonour then, no betrayal of the dead ; so he accepts peace. During the winter his conscience gives him no rest ; the inbred ideas of honour and loyalty reassert themselves in full strength. We are not told that Hengest helped to kill Finn, but we may be sure that he ' took it out ' of the Jutes. The Beowulf story of Finn and Hengest, together with the account of the egging on of the young Heathobard warrior (see next Selection), and the passage about the slaying of one brother by another, show us what a wealth of dramatic motives must have lain in the old hero-lays, and how finely the Anglo-Saxon minstrel-poets were able to handle them. wses sang ond sweg samod aetgaedere fore Healfdenes hildewisan, I2c gomenwudu greted, gid oft wrecen ; Sonne healgamen Hr6J?gares scop aefter medobence rnaenan scolde * • • • • Finnes eaferum, Sa hie se fser begeat. HseleS Healf-Dena, Hnaef Scyldinga, 130 in Freswsele feallan scolde. Ne huru Hildeburh herian ]?orfte Eotena treowe ; unsynnum wearS I 6 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY beloren leofum set j?am /mdplegan, bearnum ond broSrum ; hie on gebyrd hruron *35 gare wunde; J?set wses geomuru ides. Nalles holinga Hoces dohtor meotodsceaft bemearn sy]?San morgen com, Sa heo under swegle geseon meahte mor]x)rbealo maga, J?3er he(o) ser mseste heold 140 worolde wynne. Wig ealle fornam Finnes ]?egnas nemne feaum anum, J?85t he ne mehte on J>£em meSelstede wig Hengeste wiht gefeohtan ne ]?a wealafe wige for]?ringan 145 }?eodnes Segne ; ac hig him ge]?ingo budon ]?3et hie him 6<5er flet eal gerymdon, healle ond heahsetl, ]?aet hie healfoe geweald wiS Eotena beam agan moston, ond aet feohgyftum Folcwaldan sunu 150 dogra gehwylce Dene weor]x)de, Hengestes heap, hringum wenede efne swa swISe, sincgestreonum fsettan goldes, swa he Fresena cyn on beorsele byldan wolde. 155 Da hie getruwedon on twa healfa fseste frioSuwaere ; Fin Hengeste elne unflitme aSum benemde J»aet he )?a wealafe weotena dome arum heolde, ]?3et Sser senig mon 1 60 wordum ne worcum wsere ne braece, ne J»urh inwitsearo sefre gemsenden, Seah hie hira beaggyfan banan folgedon Seodenlease, ]?a him swa ge]?earfod waes. Gyf J?onne Frysna hwylc freeman spruce 165 Saes mor]?orhetes myndgiend wsere, ]?onne hit sweordes ecg setifan scolde. A3 wses gesefned, ond icge gold ahsefen of horde. Here-Scyldinga betst beadorinca wass on bsel gearu ; 133. hildplegan. 147. healfre. 164. frecnen. 166. IV. LEGEND AND STORY IN BEOWULF I 7 170 aet j?aem ade waes e]?gesyne swatfah syrce, swyn ealgylden, eofer irenheard, seeding manig wundum awyrded ; sume on waele crungon. Het Sa Hildeburh set Hnsefes ade 175 hire selfre suna sweoloSe befaestan, banfatu baernan ond on bail don, eame on eaxle ; ides gnornode, geomrode giddum ; guS^rin^ astah, wand to wolcnum, waelfyra maest 1 80 hlynode for hlawe ; hafelan multon, : bengeato burston ; Sonne blod setspranc laSbite lices. Lig ealle forswealg, gsesta gifrost, ]?ara Se J>a^r guS fornam bega folces ; wsss hira blsed scacen. 185 Gewiton him 5a wigend wica neosian freondum befeallen, Frysland geseon, hamas ond heaburh. Hengest Sa gyt waelfagne winter wunode mid Finn(e) el(ne) un/litme ; eard gemunde, 190 ]?eah ]?e he (ne) meahte on mere drifan hringedstefnan ; holm storme weol, won wi5 winde ; winter y]?e beleac isgebinde, o]? 5aet o]?er com gear in geardas, swa nia gyt de5 195 ]?a(m) Se syngales sele bewitiaS, wuldortorhtan weder. Da waes winter scacen, faeger foldan bearm ; fundode wrecca, gist of geardum ; he to gyrnwraece swISor J>6hte ]?onne to seelade, 200 gif he torngemSt ]?urhteon mihte " ]?aet he (wiS) Eotena beam inne gemunde. Swa he rie forwyrnde worodraedenne ]?onne him Hunlafing hildeleoman, billa selest, on bearm dyde ; 205 ]?aes weeron mid Eotenum ecge cu<5e. Swylce ferhSfrecan Fin eft begeat 175. sunu. 177. earme. 178. guSrinc. 1 88. finnel unhlitme. 202. woroldraedenne. I 8 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY sweordbealo sliSen set his selfes ham, sibSan grimne gripe GuSlaf ond Oslaf sefter ssesiSe sorge msendon, 210 setwiton weana dsel; ne meahte wsefre mod forhabban in hrebre. Da wses heal roden feonda feorum, swilce Fin slaegen, cyning on corbre, ond seo cwen numen. Sceotend Scyldinga to scypon feredon 215 eal ingesteald eorScyninges, swylce hie set Finnes ham findan meahton sigla searogimma. Hie on sablade drihtlice wrf to Denum feredon, Iseddon to leodum. E. DANES AND HEATHOBARDS Inciting to Revenge (11. 2020—2069) On his return home Beowulf relates to King Hygelac his adventures. De- scribing how Hrothgar's daughter Freawaru, betrothed to Ingeld the Heathobard prince, moved among the revellers at Heorot, encouraging them to drink, he prophesies a renewal of the disastrous feud between the Danes and the Heatho- bards, and describes how an old Heathobard warrior will incite a young one to murder a Dane. We have here a dramatic * moment,' rising above mere narrative. The feud between the Danes and the Heathobards is mentioned in Widsith (No. 1), 11. 45-49. 220 'Hwllum for [djugufte dohtor HroSgares 'eorlum on ende ealuwsege bser, *]?a ic Freaware fletsittende 'nemnan hyrde, bser hlo [nae]gledsinc ' haeleSum sealde ; slo gehaten [is], 225 'geong goldhroden, gladum suna Frodan; 1 [h]afaS bses geworden wine Scyldinga, f rices hyrde, ond J>aet rsed talaS, ' J>aet he mid Sy wife waelfsehSa dsel, ' ssecca gese/^te. Oft selS <?nhw<?ar(f) 230 *aefter leodhryre; lytle hwile ' bongar bugeS, J>eah seo bryd duge. * Maeg bses bonne of byncan Seod«<? HeaSobeardna 211. hroden. 229. gesette ; oft selS onhwearf S. ; oft seldan hwaer MS. 232. fteoden. IV. LEGEND AND STORY IN BEOWULF I 9 ' ond ]?egna gehwam ]?ara leoda, * ]?onne he mid faemnan on flett gaeS, 235 'dryhtbearn Dena, dugutfe biwenede. ' On him gladiaS gomelra lafe, ' heard ond hringmael, HeaS<?bear(d)na gestreon, 'J?enden hie Sam waepnum wealdan moston, ' oS Saet hie forlseddan to Sam lindplegan 240 ' swsese geslSas ond hyra sylfra feorh. ' Ponne cwiS get beore se Se beo(r)n gesyhS, ' eald aescwiga se Se call gem[an] 'garcwealm gumena — him biS grim sefa — 'onginneS geomormod geong[um] cempan 245 'Jmrh hreSra gehygd higes cunnian, * wigbealu weccean, ond J>aet word acwyS : " Meaht Su, mm wine, mece gecnawan, "jxme ]?m (frod) faeder to gefeohte baer " under heregriman hindeman siSe, 250 " dyre Iren, J?aer hyne Dene slogon, " weoldon wselstSwe, sySSan WiSergyld laeg <( sefter hsele]?a hryre, hwate Scyldungas. " Nu her ]?ara banena byre nathwylces "frsetwum hremig on net gseS, 255 "morSres gylpeS ond ]?one ma3]?um byreS, "J?one )?e Su mid rihte rsedan sceoldest." ( ManaS swa ond myndgaS msela gehwylce * sarum wordum oS Saet ssel cymeS * ]?set se fasmnan j^egn fore faeder dsedum 260 ' aefter billes bite blodfag swefeS, ' ealdres scyldig ; him se 63er ]?onan MosaS [lijfigende, con him land geare. 'Ponne bioS [ajbrocene on ba healfe * aSsweor^ eorla ; [syS]5an Ingelde 265 ' weallaS waelniSas ond him wiflufan ' aefter cearwselmum colran weorSaS. * Py ic HeaSobear(d)na hyldo ne telge, { dryhtsibbe dsel, Denum unfsecne, 'freondscipe fsestne.' 235. duguffa. 237. heaSa bearna. 241. beah. 264. 20 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY F. GEATS AND FRANKS In the following three passages we find allusions to an event which has a foundation in historical fact. Gregory of Tours relates in his Historia Francorum that ' Danes ' under their king Chochilaicus attacked the Attoarii, a Prankish tribe dwelling on the lower Rhine, and were defeated by the Frankish king Theudebert, son of Theuderic, and their king Chochilaicus slain. In another early account of the event the leader of the invaders is spoken of as Huiglaucus qui imperavit Getis. These events took place near the site of the modern city of Cleves about the year 517 A. D. It is to be noted that the three allusions in Beowulf 'to the invasion are made by the poet, by Beowulf himself, and by a retainer of the hero respectively (see also infra, 11. 430 ff.). For the origin of the Franks see Widsith (No. 1), 1. 24 n. 1. 11. 2354-2366 270 No ]?aet Isesest waes hondgemot(a), J?air mon Hygelac sloh, sySSan Geata cyning guSe rsesum, freawine folca, Freslondum on, HreSles eafora, hiorodryncum swealt 275 bille gebeaten ; ]xman Biowulf com sylfes crsefte, sundnytte dreah ; haefde him on earme [ana] J^rittig hildegeatwa, ]?a he to holme [sta]g. Nealles Hetware hremge ]?orf[t]on 280 feSewiges, ]?e him foran ongean linde baeron ; lyt eft becwom fram J?am hildfrecan hames niosan. 2. 11. 2501-2508 Sy55an ic for dugeSum Dseghrefne wearS to handbonan, Huga cempan j 285 nalles he 5a fraetwe Frescyning(e), breostweorSunge, bringan moste, ac in compe gecrong cumbles hyrde, seeding on elne. Ne wses ecg bona, ac him hildegrap heortan wylmas, 290 banhus gebraec. 3. 11. 2910-2921 Nu ys leodum wen orleghwlle, sySSan under(ne) 287. cempan. IV. LEGEND AND STORY IN BEOWULF 2 I Froncum ond Frysum fyll cyninges wide weorSeS. Waes sio wroht scepen 295 heard wiS Hugas, sySSan Higelac cwom faran flotherge on Fresna land, basr hyne Hetware hilde genaegdon, elne geeodon mid ofermaegene J?set se byrnwiga bugan sceolde, 300 feoll on feSan ; nalles fraetwe geaf ealdor dugoSe ; us waes a sySSan Merewioingas milts ungyfeSe. G. GEATS AND SWEDES The references to the feuds between these peoples are more detailed than any other of the Germanic ' digressions ' in Beowulf. The Swedes at the beginning of the sixth century A.D. dwelt to the N. and N. E. of the two great lakes Wener and Wetter ; the Geats occupied part of the territory now known as Gotarike to the S. and S.W. of these lakes and thus were a maritime people whose coasts were within easy sail of the Danish islands. The chief city of the Geats was probably situated near the modern Goteborg. At a later period the Geats were conquered by the Swedes and became part of the Swedish kingdom, retaining however for centuries their national characteristics. 1. 11. 2472-2489 Beowulf, while taking leave of his followers before going to fight the dragon, recalls the events of his youth. He tells of the wars which followed the death of his grandfather Hrethel. Pa waes synn ond sacu Sweona ond Geata ofer wid [wjaeter, wroht gemsene, 305 hereniS hearda, sySSan HreSel swealt. OngenSeowes eaferan waeran frome, fyrdhwate ; freode ne woldon ofer heafo healdan, ac ymb Hreosna-Beorh eatolne inwitscear oft gefremedon. 310 Paet maegwine mine gewraecan, faahSe ond fyrene, swa hyt gefrsege waes, ]?eah 5e 6Ser hi/ ealdre gebohte, heardan ceape j HaeScynne wearS, Geata dryhtne, gu5 onssege. 297. gehnaegdon. 306. o$5e him ongenSeowes. 312. his. 22 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY 315 Pa ic on morgne gefrsegn mseg oSerne billes ecgum on bonan stselan, J?£er Ongenbeow Eofores niosaS; guohelm toglad, gomela Scylfing hreas (hilde)blac ; bond gemunde 320 fsehSo genoge, feorhsweng ne ofteah. 2. 11. 2922-2998 ,The messenger who announces to the Geats the death of Beowulf recalls past feuds between Swedes and Geats. He continues the story begun by Beowulf. Ne ic \.o SweoSeode sibbe o5Se treowe wihte ne wene, ac waes wide cu<5 ]?3ette OngenSIo ealdre besnySede HaeScen Hre]?ling wiS Hrefna-Wudu, 325 J?a for onmedlan serest gesohton Geata leode GuS-Scilfingas. Sona him se froda fseder Ohtheres, eald ond egesfull, ondslyht ageaf, abieat brimwisan, bryd a/feorde 330 gomela iomeowlan golde berofene, Onelan modor ond Ohtheres, ond 5a folgode feorhgeniSlan oS Saet hi oSeodon earfoSlice in Hrefnes-Holt hlafordlease. 335 Besset 5a sinherge sweorda lafe wundum werge, wean oft gehet earmre teohhe ondlonge niht, cwaeS he on mergenne meces ecgum getan wolde, sum(e) on galgtreowu(m) 340 (fuglum) to gamene. Frofor eft gelamp sarigmodum somod serdsege, sySSan hie Hygelaces horn ond byman, gealdor ongeaton, J?a se goda com leoda dugoSe on last faran. 345 Wses sio swatswaSu Sw(e)ona ond Geata, wselrees weora, wide gesyne, hu Sa folc mid him fsehSe towehton. 321. te. 328. hondslyht. 329. abreot ; aheorde. IV. LEGEND AND STORY IN BEOWULF 23 Gewat him Sa se goda mid his gaedelingum, frod felageomor, fsesten secean, 350 eorl Ongenjno ufor oncirde — hsefde Higelaces hilde gefrunen, wlonces wigcrseft, wiSres ne truwode ]?aet he ssemannum onsacan mihte, heaSolISendum, hord forstandan, 355 beam ond bryde; beah eft ]x>nan eald under eorSweall. Pa waes sent boden Sweona leodum, segn Higelace ; freoSowong ]?one for5 ofereodon, sySSan HreSlingas to hagan J?rungon. 360 pser wearS OngenSiow ecgum sweordtf, blondenfexa, on bid wrecen, ]?aet se ]?eodcyning Safian sceolde Etffores anne dom ; hyne yrringa Wulf Wonreding wsepne gersehte, 365 )?3et him for swenge swat aedrum sprong forS under fexe. Naes he forht swaSeh, gomela Scilfing, ac forgeald hraSe wyrsan wrixle waelhlem ]?one, sySSan Seodcyning J?yder oncirde. 370 Ne meahte se snella sunu Wonredes ealdum ceorle hondslyht giofan, ac he him on heafde helm jer gescer, ]?aet he blode fah bugan sceolde, feoll on foldan ; nses he f^ege ]?a git, 375 ac he hyne gewyrpte, ]?eah 5e him wund hrine. Let (J?a) se hearda Higelaces J>egn brad(n)e mece, ]?a his broSor laeg, ealdsweord eotonisc entiscne helm brecan ofer bordweal ; Sa gebeah cyning, 380 folces hyrde waes in feorh dropen. Da wseron monige )>e his mseg wriSon, ricone arserdon, 5a him gerymed wearS )?set hie waelstowe wealdan moston. Penden reafode rinc oSerne, 385 nam on OngenSIo irenbyman, 360. sweordum. 363. eafores. 24 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY heardswyrd hilted ond his helm somod, hares hyrste Higelace bser. He <5[am] frsetwum feng ond him faegre gehet leana [mid] leodum ond gelseste swa ; 390 geald bone guSrses Geata dryhten, HreSles eafora, J?a he to ham becom, lofore ond Wulfe mid ofermaSmum, sealde hiora gehwaeSrum hund busenda landes ond locenra beaga — ne Sorfte him Sa lean oSwitan 395 mon on middangearde, sySSa(n) hie Sa mserSa geslogon — ond Sa lofore forgeaf angan dohtor hamweorSunge, hyldo to wedde. 3. 11. 2379-2396 The Beowulf poet relates events long subsequent to those described in the preceding passages. Ongentheow, the Swedish king, was succeeded on the throne by his son Ohthere, who in turn was followed by his brother Onela. The former's two sons, having quarrelled with their uncle Onela, fled to the court of Hygelac's son, Heardred, now king of the Geats. Onela pursued his nephews and killed Heardred, who had taken their part. Beowulf succeeded Heardred as king of the Geats and afterwards helped Eadgils to take vengeance on his uncle Onela. Hyne wrsecmsecgas ofer sae sohtan, suna Ohteres ; 400 hsefdon hy forhealden helm Scylfmga, ]?one selestan sabcyninga bara 5e in Swiorice sine brytnade, meerne beoden ; him beet to mearce wearS. He basr (f)or feorme feorhwunde hleat 405 sweordes swengum, sunu Hygelaces, ond him eft gewat OngenSioes beam hames mosan, syc^an Heardred laeg ; let Sone bregostol Blowulf healdan, Geatum wealdan ; baet wses god cyning. 410 Se Saes leodhryres lean gemunde uferan dogrum, Eadgilse wearS feasceaftum freond, folce gestepte ofer sse side sunu Ohteres wigum ond waepnum ; he gewraec sy^an 415 cealdum cearsISum, cyning ealdre bineat. 389. gelaesta. 404. orfeorme. V. THE FIGHT AT FINNSBURH 25 H. THE BROSINGS' NECKLACE 11. 1192-1211 Hrothgar's queen, Wealhtheow, gives Beowulf a splendid collar as a reward for having slain the two Grendel monsters. It was comparable to the legendary Brosinga mene, the Brisinga men of the Icelandic Edda, where the necklace is worn by the goddess Freyja. But in the Edda there is no mention of Eormenric's possession of the treasure. Him waes ful boren ond freondlajm wordum bewaegned, ond wunden gold estum geeawed, earmreade twa, hraegl ond hringas, healsbeaga msest 420 ]?ara ]?e ic on foldan gefraegen haebbe. Nsenigne ic under swegle selran hyrde hordmaSm haelejm, sy]?San Hama setwaeg to )>2ire byrhtan byrig Brosinga mene, sigle ond sincfaet ; searoniSas Ueah 425 Eormenrices, geceas ecne rsed. Pone bring haefde Higelac Geata, nefa Swertinges, nyhstan siSe, siS]?an he under segne sine ealgode, wselreaf werede ; hyne wyrd fornarn 43° sy]?(5an he for wlenco wean ahsode, fsehSe to Frysum ; he J?a frsstwe wseg, eorclanstanas, ofer ySa ful, rice ]?eoden ; he under rande gecranc. Gehwearf ]?a in Francna fse]?m feorh cyninges, 435 breostgewsedu, ond se beah somod. 5. THE FIGHT AT FINNSBURH This fragment of a lay, describing the attack on Hnsef's hall by Finn's followers, must be read in connexion with the Finn ' episode ' in Beowulf (see No. 4 D supra). The relation to each other of the two narratives has been touched on in the introductory note to that episode. With its mixture of narrative and speeches the Fight at Finnsburh has a literary affinity with Waldere and the Battle of Maldon. That its subject and the names in it are part of the Germanic hero-story is not of itself clear proof of antiquity, for these stories were current till at least the beginning of the tenth century. The evidence of the language and style of the poem is not conclusive, though both 423. here. 424. fealh. 26 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY differ from those of the early poetry. The versification also differs considerably from that of Widsith, Beowulf and other A.-S. poems generally admitted to be of early date. [ horjnas byrnaS nsefre.' HleoJ?rode Sa hea/ogeong cyning : ' Ne Sis ne dagaS eastan, ne her draca ne fleogeS, * ne her Sisse healle hornas ne byrna<5, 5 * ac her for}? beraS fugelas singaS, * gylleS grseghama, guSwudu hlynneS, ' scyld scefte oncwyS. Nu scyneS ]?es mona ' waSol under wolcnum ; nu arisaS weadseda 10 'Se Sisne folces niS fremman willaS. 1 Ac onwacnigeaS nu, wigend mine, eowre ^anda, hkgea)? on ellen, on orde, wesaS on mode.' Da aras maenig goldhladen Segn, gyrde hine his swurde ; 15 Sa to dura eodon drihtlice cempan, SigeferS and Eaha hyra sword getugon, and set 6]?rum durum Ordlaf and Gu]?laf, and Hengest sylf hwearf him on laste. Da gyt Garulf GuSere styr^de, 20 Saet he swa freolic feorh forman si]?e to Ssere healle durum hyrsta ne babre, nu hyt ni]?a heard anyman wolde ; ac he fraegn ofer eal undearninga, deormod haele]?, hwa 3a duru heolde. 25 ' Sigefer]? is mm nama, ic com Secgena leod, ' wrec^rea wide cuS ; faela ic weana gebad, ' he^rdra hilda. De is gyt her witod, * swae]?er Su sylf to me secean wylle.' Da wses on zoealle waelslihta gehlyn, sceolde cel(/)<?^ bor^/ ^renum on handa, banhelm berstan ; buruhSelu dynede, oS set Ssere gu5e Garulf gecrang ealra ierest eorSbuendra, 2. hearo geong. 12. habbaS landa ; hie gea]?. 13. ]>indaS. 19. styrode. 21. baeran. 25. nama cwej) he ic. 26. wrecten. 27. heordra. 29. healle. 30. celses bortJ genumon handa. V. THE FIGHT AT FINNSBURH 27 GuSlafes sunu, ymbe hyne godra faela, 35 hwearnYcra hrsea;. Hraefen wandrode sweart and sealobrun ; swurdleoma stod, swylce eal Finn(e)s burh fyrenu wsere. Ne gefrsegn ic nsefre wur)?licor set wera hilde sixtig sigebeorna sel gebaeran, 40 ne nefre sw/tne medo sel forgyldan, Sonne Hnaefe guldan his haegstealdas. Hig fuhton fif dagas swa hyra nan ne feol, drihtgesISa, ac hig Sa duru heoldon. Da gewat him wund haelecS on waeg gangan, 45 ssede }?aet his byrne abrocen wsere, heresceorpum hror, and eac waes his helm <5yr(e)l. Da hine sona fraegn folces hyrde hu 5a wigend hyra wunda genseson hwae]?er Saera hyssa 35. hwearflacra hraer. 37. finnsburuh. 40. ne nefre swa noc hwitne medo. II. ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING This section contains practically all that has,' survived of what a modern reader will regard as the most permanent and poetical part of Anglo-Saxon verse, i.e. the subjective element, which bears witness that our remote ancestors were men and women with sentiments and emotions like ourselves. When we read the lyrics of ancient China, of Greece and Rome, the centuries fall away and our mood attunes itself to that of old-time singers ; even so is it when we listen to the complaint of an Anglo-Saxon minstrel who has lost his lord and is a wanderer in distant lands, or of an Anglo-Saxon woman who longs for her absent lover ; or again, to the musings of a wise old man on the ways of mankind and the world. 6. THE WANDERER This poem, like the next one, expresses longing, regret and disillusion ; both of them speak the language of the heart. The Wanderer is a monologue by an old or elderly man who has long survived his lord and now, journeying far from home, has no friend to whom he may confide his sorrows, for he is too proud and sensitive to unbosom himself to strangers. He yearns to see the old faces and lives the old days over again, then awakes to the dreary present. He moralizes on the vanity of earthly things, the passing away of men and of the world itself, and finally he seeks consolation in his heavenly Father. In this poem and the next, the first sixty lines or so are the expression of personal feeling ; the remaining lines are somewhat trite moralizing. Judged by their language and metre these poems may be nearly as old as Beowulf^ but here, as in other cases, the internal evidence is not decisive as to the date of composition. There is a noticeable absence in the Wanderer of 'kennings ' or equivalents, which are such a prominent feature of A.-S. poetry ; see Appendix, § 5. Oft him anhaga are gebideS, Metudes miltse, }?eah J>e he modcearig geond lagulade longe sceolde hreran mid hondum hrimcealde SJE, 5 wadan wraeclastas ; wyrd biS ful arsed. Swa cwaeS eardstapa earfeba gemyndig, 28 VI. THE WANDERER 29 wraj>ra wselsleahta, winemaga hryre : Oft ic sceolde ana uhtna gehwylce mine ceare cwij^an ; nis nu cwicra nan 10 ]>e ic him modsefan minne durre sweotule asecgan. Ic to so]?e wat ]?35t bi]? in eorle indryhten ]?eaw j?ajt he his fer(h)Slocan faeste binde, healde his hordcofan, hycge swa he wille. 15 Ne maeg werig mod wyrde wiSstondan, ne se hreo hyge helpe gefremman ; for Son domgeorne dreorigne oft in hyra breostcofan bindaS faeste. Swa ic modsefan minne sceolde 20 oft earmcearig, eSle bidseled, freomsegum feor feterum sselan, si]?]?an geara iu goldwine mm(n)e hrusan heolster biwrah ond ic hean Jjonan wod wintercearig ofer wa]?ema gebind, 25 sohte sele dreorig sinces bryttan, hwaer ic feor o]?]?e neah findan meahte J?one }>Q in meoduhealle min(n)e wisse, o]?)?e mec freondleas(n)e frefran wolde, wenian mid wynnum. Wat se J>e cunnaS 30 hu slij?en biS sorg to geferan ]?am )?e him lyt hafaS leofra geholena ; waraS hine wrseclast, nales wunden gold, fer(h)Sloca freorig, nalaes foldan blabd ; gemon he selesecgas ond sinc]?ege, 35 hu hine on geoguSe his goldwine wenede to wiste ; wyn eal gedreas. For Ipon wat se }>e sceal his winedryhtnes leofes larcwidum longe for]x)lian, Sonne sorg ond slaip somod aetgaedre 4° earmne anhogan oft gebindaS — SinceS him on mode J?aet he his mondryhten clyppe ond cysse ond on cneo lecge honda ond heafod, swa he hwilum aer in geardagum giefstolas breac. 14. healdne. 23. heolstre. 30 ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING 45 Donne onwsecneS eft wineleas guma, gesihS him biforan fealwe wegas, banian brimfuglas, braedan fe]?ra, hreosan hrim ond snaw hagle gemenged. Ponne beoS J?y hefigran heortan benne, 50 sare aefter swsesww ; sorg bi5 geniwad J»onne maga gemynd mod geondhweorfeS ; greteS gliwstafum, georne geondsceawaS secga geseldan ; swimmaS eft on weg, fleotendra fer(h)5 no ]?£er fela bringeS 55 cuSra cwidegiedda ; cearo biS geniwad ]?am }>e sendan sceal swlj^e geneahhe ofer waj»ema gebind werigne sefan. For J?on ic ge]?encan ne mseg geond ]?as woruld for hwan modsefa min ne gesweorce 60 ]?onne ic eorla Hf eal geond]?ence, hu hi fserlice flet ofgeafon, modge maguj^egnas. Swa ]?es middangeard ealra dogra gehwam dreoseS ond fealle]? ; for J?on ne mseg we^rSan wis wer ser he age 65 wintra dael in woruldrice. Wita sceal ge]?yldig, ne sceal no to hatheort, ne to hraedwyrde, ne to wac wiga, ne to wanhydig, ne to forht, ne to faegen, ne to feohgifre, ne nsefre gielpes to georn, ser he geare cunne. 7° Beorn sceal gebidan, ]?onne he beot spriceS, o]) ]?aet collenfer(h)5 cunne gearwe hwider hre]?ra gehygd hweorfan wille. Ongietan sceal gleaw hsele hu gaestlic biS, J>onne ealre }>isse worulde wela weste stondeS, 75 swa nu missenlice geond }?isne middangeard winde biwaune weallas stonda]?, hrime bihrorene, hrySge ]?a ederas. WoriaS ]?a winsalo, waldend HcgaS dreame bidrorene ; duguS eal gecrong 80 wlonc bi wealle ; sume wig fornom, ferede in forSwege ; sumne fugel o]?b3er 50. swaesum S., swaesne MS. 53. oft. 64. weariSan. 74. ealle. VI. THE WANDERER 3 I ofer heanne holm ; sumne se hara wulf deaSe gedselde ; sumne dreorighleor in eorSscraefe eorl gehydde. 85 YJ?de swa J?isne eardgeard selda Scyppend, o}> ]?33t burgwara breahtma lease, eald enta geweorc idlu stodon. Se ]?onne ]?isne wealsteal wise gej?ohte ond ]?is decree lif deope geond]?ence9, 9° fr5d in fer(h)(5e, feor oft gemon waelsleahta worn ond J>as word acwiS : ' Hwaer cwom mearg ? hwser cwom mago ? hwslr cwom ma]?)>um. gyfa? 4 hwser cw5m symbla gesetu ? hwser sindon seledreamas ? * Eala, beorht bune ! eala, byrnwiga ! 95 « eala, }?eodnes ]?rym ! hu seo J?rag gewat, * genap under nihthelm swa heo no waere ! ' StondeS nu on laste leofre dugu]?e * weal wundrum heah, wyrmlicum fah ; ' eorlas fornoman asca ]?ry]?e, ico 'wsepen wselgifru, wyrd seo msere, ' ond J?as stanhleo]?u stormas cnyssaS ; 'hr!5 hreosende hrusa(n) bindeS, ' wintres woma, }>onne won cymeS, 1 nipeS nihtscua, nor]?an onsendeS 105 'hreo haeglfare haelejmm on andan. ' Eall is earfoSlic eorj?an rice, ' onwendeS wyrda gesceaft weoruld under heofonum ; ' her biS feoh Isene, her biS freond laene, ' her biS mon laene, her biS mseg Isene ; no 'eal J)is eor)?an gesteal idel weor]?eS.' Swa cwaeS snottor on mode, gesset him sundor aet rune. Til bi]> se J?e his treowe gehealdeS; ne sceal njefre his torn to rycene beorn of his breostum acyj^an, nem]?e he ser ]?a bote cunne, eorl mid elne gefremman. Wei biS )?am ]?e him are seceS, n^ frofre to Faeder on heofonum, J?aer us eal seo fsestnung stondeS. 102. hruse. 32 ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING 7. THE SEAFARER We can hardly doubt that this poem is by the same author as the preceding one ; there is the same sadness, self-pity, longing and weariness. If anything, the feeling is more intense, with alternations of phase ; now the hardships of sea-life are uppermost in the writer's thoughts, now the irresistible call of that life. After 1. 64 the poem, like the preceding one, relapses into conventional moralizing. We have omitted 22 or 23 lines with which the poem ends in the MS., as they are definitely religious rather than moralizing. It is possible that the latter part of this poem and of the Wanderer may have been later ' tail- pieces ' added by some monk for purposes of edification. Mseg ic be me sylfum soSgied wrecan, sibas secgan, hu ic geswincdagum earfoShwile oft browade, bitre breostceare gebiden hsebbe, 5 gecunnad in ceole cearselda fela, atol yba gewealc, baer mec oft bigeat nearo nihtwaco set nacan stefnan, bonne he be clifum cnossa<5. Calde gebrungen mine fet wseron, forste gebunden, 10 caldum clommum ; beer ba ceare seofedun hat ymb heortan ; hungor innan slat merewerges mod. Paet se mon ne wat, be him on foldan faegrost limpe<5, hu ic earmcearig iscealdne see 15 winter wunade wrseccan lastum, ( ), winemeegum bidroren, bihongen hrimgicelum ; haegl scurum fleag. Peer ic ne gehyrde butan hlimman sae, iscaldne wseg, hwilum ylfete song ; 20 dyde ic me to gomene ganetes hleobor ond huilpan sweg fore hleahtor wera, msew singende fore medodrince. Stormas beer stanclifu beotan, beer him stearn oncwaeS isigfebera ; ful oft baet earn bigeal 25 urigfebra (. ). Neenig hleomsega, feasceaftig fer(h)3, feran meahte. For bon him gelyfeS lyt se be ah Hfes wyn, 9. waeron mine fet. VII. THE SEAFARER 33 gebiden in burgum bealosijm hwon, wlonc ond wmgal, hu ic werig oft 30 in brimlade bidan sceolde. Nap nihtscua, nor)?an sniwde, hrim hrusan bond, haegl feol on eor]?an, corna caldast. For ]?on cnyssaS nu heortan ge]?ohtas, J?aet ic hean streamas, 35 sealty]?a gelac, sylf cunnige ; monaS modes lust majla gehwylce fer(h)S to feran, J?ast ic feor heonan el]?eodigra card gesece. For J>on nis ]?aes modwlonc mon ofer eor]?an 40 ne his gifena ]?aes g5d, ne in geogu]?e to J?3es hwset, ne in his d^edum to J?aes deor, ne him his dryhten to J?aes hold, }>3et he a his ssefore sorge nsebbe, to hwon hine dryhten gedon wille. Ne bi]? him to hearpan hyge ne to hring]?ege 45 ne to wife wyn ne to worulde hyht ne ymbe owiht elles nefne ymb y5a gewealc, ac a hafaS longunge se ]?e on lagu fundaS. Bearwas blostmum nimaS, byrig faegriaS, wongas wlitig(i)a3, woruld onetteS ; 50 ealle ]?a gemoniaS modes fusne sefan to si<5e, )?am ]?e swa ]?ence5 on flodwegas feor gewita^ ; swylce geac monaS geomran reorde, singeS sumeres weard, sorge .beodeS 55 bitter in breosthord. Past se beorn ne wat, secg esteadig, hwaet ]?a sume dreogaS ]?e ]?a wraaclastas widost lecgaS. For ]?on nu mm hyge hweorfeS ofer hre]?erlocan, mm modsefa mid merefl5de 60 ofer hwaeles e]?el hweorfeS wide, eor}?an sceatas ; cyme<5 eft to me gifre ond grsedig, gielleS anfloga, hweteS on (h)waelweg hre]?er unwearnum ofer holma gelagu ; for J>on me hatran sind 65 Dryhtnes dreamas J?onne ]?is deade lif, 52. gewitaft. 56. easteadig secg. D 34 ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING Isene on londe ; ic gelyfe no ]?aet him eorSwelan ece stondaS. Simle ]?reora sum J?inga gehwylce, ser his tid aga, to tweon weor]?eS : 70 adl o]?]?e yldo o]?]?e ecghete fsegum fromweardum feorh o<5]?ringe(5. For Jxm (is) ]?aet eorla gehwam seftercwe]?endra, lof lifgendra, lastworda betst, ]?aet he gewyrce, ser he on weg scyle : 75 fremman on foldan wiS feonda mj? deorum dsedum deofle togeanes ]?aet hine aelda beam aefter hergen ond his lof si]?]?an lifge mid englum awa to ealdre, ecan Hfes blsed, 80 dream mid duge]?um. Dagas sind gewitene, ealle on median eor]?an rices ; ne (a)ron nu cyningas ne caseras ne goldgiefan swylce iu waeron, jxmne hi msest mid him ni3er]?a gefremedon 85 ond on dryhtlicestum dome lifdon ; gedroren is ]?eos duguS eal, dreamas sind gewitene ; wuniaS ]?a wacran ond f>as woruld healda]?, brucaS ]?urh bisgo. Bleed is gehnseged, eorj^an indryhto ealdaS ond searaS, sw^ nu monna gehwylc geond middangeard ; yldo him on fareS, onsyn blacaS, gomelfeax gnornaS, wat his iuwine, se]?elinga beam, eor]?an forgiefene. Ne maeg him J>onne se flseschoma, ]?onne him J»aet feorg losaS, ne swete forswelgan ne sar gefelan ne hond onhreran ne mid hyge J>encan. Peah he grsef wille golde stregan, broker his geborenum, by^gan be deadum ma]?mum mislicum f>aet he ne mid wille, 100 ne mseg ]?8ere sawle J?e bi}> synna ful gold to geoce for Godes egsan, Jxmne he hit ser hydeS, ]?enden he her leofaS. • •••••«. 67. stondeS1, 69. ege, 82. naeron. 98. byrgan. 99. hi. VIII. A WOMAN'S COMPLAINT 35 8. A WOMAN'S COMPLAINT A woman gives utterance to her despair and longing for her lover, who has been driven into exile by his enemies. She is forced to live in a cave hollowed beneath an oak in a wild mountain glen, where she spends her days in sorrow. She calls down misfortune on the head of the man who is the cause of her troubles. This moving little poem is a genuine lyric, which for sincerity and direct appeal to our hearts challenges comparison with the songs of any literature. Together with Wolf and Eadivacer and the Husband's Message it represents all that has survived of A.-S. love poetry. Fortunately they have escaped the attentions of the moralizing ecclesiastics who have come near spoiling some of the genuine poetry of the Anglo-Saxons. At the same time we must not forget that more of the A.-S. lyrics might have survived if they had received such attentions. Ic J?is giedd wrece bi me ful geomorre ; mmre selfre siS ; ic baet secgan mseg, hwaet ic yrm]?a gebad sibban ic up weox, niwes obbe ealdes, no ma bonne nu ; 5 a_ic wite wonn minra wrsecsiba. ^Erest mm hlaford gewat heonan of leodum ofer yba gelac ; haefde ic uhtceare hwsbr mm leodfruma londes wsere ; Sa ic me feran gewat folgaS secan, TO wineleas wrsecca, for minre weaj>earfe. Ongurmon ]?get J?ses monnes magas hycgan J>urh dyrne ge]?oht ]?9et hy todaelden unc, ]?ast wit gewidost in woruldrice lifdon laSlicost ond mec longade. 1 5 Het mec hlaford mm her heard niman ; ahte ic leofra lyt on bissum londstede, holdra freonda. ForJ?on is min hyge geomor, <5a ic me ful gemaecne monnan funde heardsaeligne, hygegeomorne, 20 rnod mibendne, morbor hycgend(n)e. Ful oft wit beotedan blibe gebaerum )?set unc ne gedselde, nemne deaS ana, owiht elles. Eft is ]?aet onhworfen, is nu ( . . .) swa hit no wsere, 25 freondscipe uncer. Sceal ic feor ge neah 2 1 MS. order of half lines reversed. 36 ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING mines felaleofan fsehSu dreogan. Heht mec mon wunian on wuda bearwe under actreo in ]?am eorSscrsefe ; eald is ]?es eorSsele, eal ic eom oflongad ; 30 sindon dena dimme, dunu uphea, bitre burgtunas, brerum beweaxne, wic wynna leas. Ful oft mec her wra]?e begeat fromsi]? frean. Frynd sind on eor]?an leofe lifgende, leger weardiaS, 35 bonne ic on uhtan ana gonge under actreo geond ]?as eorSscrafu. Peer ic sittan mot sumorlangne daeg, bser ic wepan mseg mine wraecsi]?as, earfo]?a fela, forj»on ic sefre ne mseg 40 ]?3ere modceare mlnre gerestan, ne ealles ]?3es longaj>es ]?e mec on J?issum life begeat A scyle geong mon wesan geomormod, heard heortan ge}>oht, swylce habban sceal bll]?e gebsero, eac ]?on breostceare, 45 sinsorga gedreag ; sy aet him sylfum gelong eal his worulde wyn, sy ful wide fah feorres folclondes, ]?aet mm freond siteS under stanhli]?e storme behrimed, wine werigmod, wsetre beflowen on dreorsele. DreogeS se mm wine micle modceare ; he gemon to oft wynlicran wic. Wa biS J?am f>e sceal of lango]?e leofes abidan. 9. THE HUSBAND'S MESSAGE A piece of wood with letters carved on it is speaking to a woman. After telling her its own history it says that it has been sent with a message by the man with whom in former days she exchanged vows of love and constancy. Forced by his enemies to flee from his native land, he has now won wealth and position in a foreign country, and he sends the wooden messenger to exhort his mistress to cross the sea as soon as ever the cuckoo sings, and share with him his good fortune. On the wood are carved five rune-letters, which when re- arranged, form the word 'sword.' By this the man shows his mistress that he 45. sinsorgna. ix. THE HUSBAND'S MESSAGE 37 remembers the vows which once he swore on his sword, the most solemn way of taking an oath ; (for another interpretation see note to 11. 66 ff. ). We print here as one poem the two short pieces which immediately follow Riddle No. 59 of the collection of A.-S. riddles in the codex known as the Exeter Book. The first of these two pieces has always been regarded as a riddle and printed as No. 61 of the collection. The second has hitherto been printed separately under the title of the Husband's Message. But, as Blackburn pointed out in \he Journal of Germanic Philology , iii. I (1900), the two pieces treat of the same theme, are in fact one poem ; moreover the first does not end like the other riddles by asking the reader to guess its meaning. The compiler of the collection failed to notice that the two pieces are one poem. While the form of the whole piece, especially the use of the first personal pronoun by an inanimate object and the use of rune-letters to form an anagram, might perhaps justify its inclusion in our selection of riddles (see No. 24), its tender feeling places it alongside the Woman's Complaint, of which, indeed, it may have been intended to be the complement. Parts of the text, illegible or destroyed in the MS., have been conjecturally restored by the present editor. Ic waes be sonde, ssewealle neah, set merefaro]?e, minum gewunade frumsta]?ole fsest ; fea eenig waes monna cynnes bset minne )?£er 5 on aneede eard beheolde, ac mec uhtna gehwam y5 sio brune lagufaeSme beleolc. Lyt ic wende ]?aet ic ear oj?}?e sI5 sefre sceolde ofer meodu(bence) muSleas sprecan, 10 wordum wrixlan. paet is wundres dsel, on sefan searolic, ]?am J>e swylc ne conn, hu mec seaxes ord ond seo swtyre bond, eorles ingejxmc, ond ord samod, ]?ingum ge]?ydan, ]?set ic wij? ]?e sceolde 15 for unc anum twam serendspraece abeodan bealdlice, swa hit beorna ma, uncre wordcwidas, widor ne msenden. Nu ic onsundran ]>e secgan wille [be] treocyn[ne]. Ic tudre aweox, 20 [ond] mec sel[ces] sceal ellor londes setftan on siSas], sealte strea[mas fus oferferan frean be hse]se. Ful oft ic on bates [bosme] gesohte ]?ser mec mondryhten mm [onsende] 17. widdor. 38 ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING 25 ofer heahhtffu ; com nu her cumen on ceol]?ele, ond nu cunnan sceal hu ]?u ymb modlufan mines frean on hyge hycge. Ic gehatan dear ]?aet J>u J?ier tirfaeste treowe findest. 30 Hwaet, J>ec ]?onne biddan het, se J?isne beam agrof, ]?aet J»u sinchroden sylf gemunde on gewitlocan wordbeotunga ]>e git on serdagum oft gespraecon, J>enden git moston on meoduburgum 35 card weardigan, an lond bugan, freondscype fremman. Hine f^hj>o adraf of sigef>eode ; heht nu sylfa ]>e lustum Isera^ )^aet J?u lagu drefde, si)?J?an J?u gehyrde on hlij^es oran 4° galan geomorne geac on bearwe. Ne laet ]>u }?ec si]?J>an si]?es getwsefan, lade gelettan, lifgendne monn ; ongin mere secan, maewes e]?el, onsite ssenacan, J?3et J>u suS heonan 45 ofer merelade monnan findest, J>ser se J>eoden is J>m on wenum. Ne maeg him worulde willa (gelimpan) mara on gemyndum, ]?aes )?e he me saegde, )x)nne inc geunne alwaldend God 50 [])3et git] setsomne sij?}?an motan secgum ond gesi]?um [sine brytnian, njseglede beagas ; he genoh hafaS fse/(t)an go[ldes. Frea sylfa cwaeS J>aet he on] elj>eode e]?el healde, 55 fsegre fold[an, folgaS haebbe wlanc]ra haslej>a, ]?eah ]?e her min wi[nedryhten] nyde gebaeded nacan ut a}>rong, ond on y]?a (be) gong [ana] sceolde faran on flotweg, fort5si)?es georn 60 mengan merestreamas. Nu se mon hafaG wean oferwunnen ; nis him wilna gad, ne meara ne maSma, ne meododreama 25. heah hofu. 26. scealt. 38. kseram. 53. fedan. X. WOLF AND EADWACER 39 senges ofer eor^an, eorlgestreona, ]?eodnes dohtor, gif he ]?in beneah, 65 ofer eald gebeot incer twega. Gecyr(r)e ic setsomne S(igel), E(ad) geador, EO(lh), W(en) ond D(aeg), a]?e benemnan ]?aet he ]?a wsere ond J?a winetreowe be him lifgendum laestan wolde, 70 ]?e git on serdagum oft gesprsecon. 10. WOLF AND EADWACER Again a woman is speaking ; her lover, an outlaw named Wolf, is, she says, in danger of his life from her kinsmen ; her heart is filled with desire to see him again. Then she seems to fling a taunt at another man, Eadwacer, with whom apparently she is forced to live. The form of this little poem is interest- ing, as it reveals a crude attempt to divide the whole into stanzas of irregular length. The refrain ungelic(e] is us reminds us of the refrain in Deor (No. 3). Each of 11. 4, 9, 13 begins with the name of the woman's lover. We seem to have here an early example of verse-forms which centuries afterwards received such varied development in the Icelandic Ij6<5ahattr. Till recently this poem, which in the MS. immediately precedes the collection of A.-S. Riddles^ was regarded as the first of the riddles and ascribed to Cynewulf. Leodum is mmum swylce him mon lac gife : WillaS hy hine a]?ecgan, gif he on J>reat cymeS. Ungelic is us : Wulf is on lege, ic on oj^erre ; 5 faest is J?3et eglond, fenne biworDen ; sindon wselreowe weras J?ser on ige ; willaS hy hine a]?ecgan, gif he on J»reat cymeS. Ungelice is us : Wulfes ic mines widlastum wenum /fogode 10 ]?onne hit wses renig weder ond ic reotugu sset, J>onne mec se beaducafa bogum bilegde ; waes me wyn to ]?on, waes me hwaej^re eac Ia5. Wulf, mm Wulf, wena me ]?ine seoce gedydon, ]?ine seldcymas, 15 murnende mod, ' nales meteliste. Gehyrest J?u, Eadwacer ? Uncerne ear(m)ne hwelp bireS Wulf to wuda ; ^ 9. dogode. 40 ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING f>aet mon ea]?e tosliteS, ]?sette naifre gesomnad wses, uncer giedd geador. 11. ELEGIAC AND MORALIZING PASSAGES IN BEO WULF Apart from the three passages here reproduced, the moralizing and elegiac vein is not obtrusive in Beowulf, being confined to occasional pithy comments of a line or two. The first of the passages treats of a favourite theme of ancient and mediaeval writers, the progress to power of the arrogant, vainglorious ruler and his ultimate fall. The second passage begins with an apostrophe to the earth, in which the dragon's treasure is hidden, and goes on to dwell on the fate of those who once possessed the treasure and are now passed away. The theme and tone are those of the Wanderer and the Seafarer. The third selection is interesting as presenting us with an example of a moral dilemma in a tragic situation. The tragic note we have already seen in the incident of the old Heathobard warrior who incites the young one to avenge his father on the Dane who slew him and in the story of Finn (see Nos. 4 D and E). A. THE ARROGANT RULER 11. 1724-57 Hrothgar is speaking in a moralizing vein to Beowulf. Wundor is to secgan hu mihtig God manna cynne }?urh sidne sefan snyttru brytta<5, card ond eorlscipe ; he ah ealra geweald. 5 Hwilum he on (h)lwan hworfan laiteS monnes modge]?onc maeran cynnes, seleS him on ej?le eorban wynne to healdanne, hleoburh wera, gedeS him swa gewealdene worolde dailas, 10 side rice, J>aet he his selfa ne maeg his unsnyttrum ende ge)?encean ; wunaS he on wiste, no hine wiht dwele<5 adl ne yldo, ne him inwitsorh on sefan sweorceS, ne gesaca ohwser 15 ecghete eoweS, ac him eal worold wendeS on willan ; he j?set wyrse ne con oS ]?set him on innan oferhygda dsel 5. lufan IseteS hworfan ; hlisan S. 14. gesacu. XI. ELEGIAC AND MORALIZING PASSAGES IN BEOWULF 41 weaxe<5 ond wridaS, J?onne se weard swefeS, sawele hyrde — biS se slabp to fsest — 20 bisgum gebunden, bona swISe neah se ]?e of flanbogan fyrenum sceoteS. Ponne biS on hrej^re under helm drepen biteran strsele, him bebeorgan ne con worn wundorbebodum wergan gastes ; 25 ]?ince<5 him to lytel ]?£et he lange heold, gytsaS gromhydig, nallas on gylp seleS fse//e beagas, ond he ]?a forSgesceaft forgyteS ond forgymeS, ]?8es ]?e him ser God sealde, wuldres waldend, weorSmynda dsel. 2o Hit on endestaef eft gelimpeS J?aet se lichoma Isene gedreoseS, fsege gefealleS ; fehS 6]?er to, se ]?e unmurnllce madmas dsele]?, eorles sergestreon, egesan ne gymeS. 35 Bebeorh J?e Sone bealoniS, Beowulf leofa, secg(a) betsta, ond ]?e ]?set selre geceos, ece rsedas ; oferhyda ne gym, msere cempa. Nu is )?ines msegnes blsed ane hwile ; eft sona bi5 40 ]?aet ]?ec adl o53e ecg eafo]?es getwsefeS, fyres feng, o5Se flodes wylm, gripe nieces, oS3e gares fliht, o55e atol yldo, oSSe eagena bearhtm forsiteS ond forsworcecS ; semninga bi5 45 ]?set Sec, dryhtguma, dea5 oferswySeS. B. BURIED TREASURE 11. 2231-66. waes swylcra fela in Sam eor5[hu]se sergestreon a, swa hy on geardagum gumena nathwylc, eormenlafe £e]?elan cynnes, ]?anchycgende >aer gehydde, deore maSmas. Ealle hie deaS fornam 27. faedde. 42 ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING serran mgelum, ond se an Sa gen leoda duguSe, se Sser lengest hwearf, wearS winege5mor ; wende >aes ylcan, 55 ]?3et he lytel faec longgestreona brucan moste. Beorh eallgearo wunode on wonge waeterySum neah, niwe be naesse, nearocraeftum fsest ; )?£er on innan bser eorlgestreona 60 hringa hyrde h^rdwyrSne dael, faettan goldes, fea worda cwseS : ' Heald ]?u nu, hruse, nu haeleS ne m^ston, ' eorla sehte. Hwaet, hyt 33r on 6e ' gode begeaton ; guSdeaS fornam, 65 'feorhbealo frecne, fyra gehwylcne ' leoda mmra )?ara 5e J?is (lif ) ofgeaf ; 'gesawon seledream. [Ic] nah hwa svveord wege, 'o33e f[eormie] fseted wsege, ' dryncfaet deore ; dug[u5] ellor s<roc. 70 { Sceal se hearda helm [hyrjsted golde ' fsetiim befeallen ; feormynd swefaS ' J>a Se beadogriman by wan sceoldon, * ge swylce seo herepad, sio set hilde gebad * ofer borda gebraec bite iren(n)a, 75 ' brosnaS sefter beorne. Ne maeg byrnan hring ' aefter wigfruman wide feran ' hseleSum be healfe ; n/'s hearpan wyn, 1 gomen gleobeames, ne god hafoc 4 geond ssel swingeS, ne se swifta mearh 80 * burhstede beateS. Bealocwealm hafaS * fela feorhcynna f [or5] onsended.' C. AN INEXPIABLE CRIME 11. 2444—62 Beowulf has been speaking of a sad event in the life of Hrethel, king of the Geats, the father of Herebeald, Haethcen and Hygelac. Haethcen accidentally killed Herebeald with an arrow (miste mercelses). This death is called feohleas 52. si. 60. hardwyrSne. 62. maeston. 69. seoc. 77. nass. XII. A BAD CHARACTER 43 gefeoht, i.e. manslaughter for which no sum of money could compensate, a case unprovided for by tribal law. Beowulf then goes on to moralize on the sad fate of an old father whose son has to pay the penalty of death. Swa biS geomorlic gomelum ceorle to gebidanne J?set his byre ride giong on galgan ; ]?onne he gyd wrece(S), 85 sarigne sang, ]?onne his sunu hangaS hrefne to hroSre, ond he him help^ ne mseg, eald ond infrod, ainige gefremman. Symble biS gemyndgad morna gehwylce eaforan ellorsiS; oSres ne gymeS 90 to gebidanne burgum in innan yrfeweardas, jxmne se an hafaS ]?urh deaSes nyd dseda gefondad. GesyhS sorhcearig on his suna bure winsele westne, windgereste 95 reote berofene ; ridend swef^S, haeleS in hoSman ; nis ]?£er hearpan sweg, gomen in geardum, swylc t>abr iu wseron. GewiteS }?onne on sealman, sorhleoS gaeleS an aefter anum ; ]?uhte him call to rum, oo wongas ond wicstede. Swa Wedra helm aefter Herebealde heortan sorge weallinde wseg, wihte ne meahte on Sam feorhbonan fseghSe gebetan ; no Sy ser he j^one heaSorinc hatian ne meahte 05 laSum dsedum, ]?eah him leof ne waes. 12. A BAD CHARACTER The character and behaviour of an arrogant, spiteful man are described, and his fate is contrasted with that of a good, kind-hearted man. These lines are obviously written by an ecclesiastic as a warning example. The last part of the poem, consisting of thirty-five lines, which describes the punishment after death of the bad man and the heavenly reward of the good, is here omitted. The date cannot be early. Hwset, me frod wita on fyrndagum saegde, snottor ar, sundorwundra fela ; wordhord onwrah witgan larum 86. helpan. 95. swefaS. 3. onwearh. 44 ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING beorn boca gleaw, bodan aircwide, 5 ]?aet ic soSlice si'SSan meahte ongitan bi J?am gealdre Godes agen beam, wilgest on wlcum, ond ]?one wacran swa some scyldum bescyredne on gescead witan. Paet maeg aeghwylc mon ea]?e ge]?encan, 10 se Ipe hine (ne) IseteS on J?as laenan tid amyrran his gemyndum modes gselsan, ond on his daegrime druncen to rice. Ponne monige beo<5 msej^elhergendra, wlonce wigsmi]?as, wmburgum in, 15 sitta]? set symble, soSgied wrecaS, wordum wrixlaS, witan fimdia)?, hwylc aescstede inne in raecede mid werum wunige ; }?onne win hweteS beornes breostsefan, breahtm stigeS, 20 cirm on cor]?re, cwide scralleta]? missenlice. Swa beo)? modsefan d^lum gedseled, sindon dryhtguman ungelice. Sum on oferhygdo )?rymme ]?ringe(3), ]?rinte5 him in innan 25 ungemedemad mod ; sindan to monige ]?3et. BiS j?aet aef]?onca eal gefylled feondes fligepllum, facensearwum ; breodaS he ond bselceS, b65 his sylfes swi]?or micle ]?onne se sella mon, ^o }>enceS J>3et his wise welhwam ]?ince eal unforcu]?. Bi}? ]?aes 6]?er swice, J>onne he ]?33S facnes fintan sceawaS ; wrence]? he ond blence]?, worn ge]?ence}> hinderhoca, hygegar leteS, 35 scurum sceote]?, he ]?a scylde ne wat fseh]?e gefremede, feoh]? his betran eorl fore aefstum, laete]? inwitflan brecan )?one burgweal J?e him bebead Meotud, J>33t he ]?aet wigsteal wergan sceolde. 40 Site]? symbelwlonc, searwum IseteS, wine geweeged, word ut faran, 10. ne S. 19. breahtem. 22. dalum. XIII. THE FATES OF MEN 45 brsefte ]?ringan brymme gebyrmed, sefestum onaeled, oferhygda ful, ni]?um, nearowrencum. Nu }>u cunnan meaht, 45 gif bu byslicne ]?egn gemittest wunian in wicum ; wite ]?e be bissum feawum forSspellum baet baet bib feondes beam, flsesce bifongen ; hafaS frsete Hf grundfusne gaest, Gode orfeorme, 50 wuldorcyninge. ...... 13. THE FATES OF MEN In this poem, with which may be compared portions of the Gifts of Men (No. 21 B), are described the various fortunes which await young men when they leave their parents and go out into the world. There are several pictures of striking vividness, e.g. those of the malefactor on the gallows and of the victim of strong drink. As in the case of the Wanderer and the Seafarer, the first sixty lines or so are superior in quality to the latter part of the poem, which may be a later addition. Ful oft bset gegongeS mid Codes meahtum bsette wer ond wif in woruld cennaS beam mid gebyrdum ond mid bleom gyrwaS, tew/a]? ond tse<rab, oj»]?3et seo tid cymecS, 5 gegseS gearrimum, J?aet ]?a geongan leomu, liffaestan leo)?ti, geloden weorbaS. FergaS swa ond fedaS fseder ond modor, giefaS ond gierwa]? ; God ana wat hwset him weaxendum winter bringaS. 10 Sumum bget gegongeS on geoguSfeore J?set se endestaef earfeS msegum, wealic weorbeS ; sceal hine wulf etan, bar hseSstapa ; hinsib bonne m5dor bimurneS ; ne bi<5 swylc monnes geweald. 1 5 Sumne sceal hunger ahjpban, sumne sceal hreoh fordrifan, sumne sceal gar agetan, sumne gu5 abreotan. Sum sceal leomena leas lifes neotan, folmum aetfeohtan, sum on feSe lef, 4. tennaj) ond taetaj). n. earfeSmaecgum. 15. ahij>an. 46 ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING seonobennum seoc, sar cwanian, 20 murnan meotudgesceaft, mode gebysgad. Sum sceal on holte of hean beame fij?erleas feallan, bi5 on flihte se]?eah, laceS on lyfte, oj?]?£et hingre ne biS w^stm wudubeames ; jxmne he on wyrtruman 25 sigeS sworcenfer(h)S sawle bireafod, fealle]? on foldan, feor(h)S bij? on stye. Sum sceal on fe)?e on feorwegas nyde gongan ond his nest beran, tredan uriglast etyeodigra 30 frecne foldan ; ah he feormendra lyt lifgendra ; laS bij? seghwabr fore his wonsceaftum wineleas haele. Sum sceal on geapum galgan ridan, seomian set swylte, o]?]?aet sawlhord, 35 bancofa blodig, abrocen weorj?e5, ]?3er him hrefn nimeS heafodsyne, sliteS salwigpad saw^lleasne ; no]?er he }>y facne mseg folmum biwergan, la]?um lyftsceaj^an ; bi]? his Hf scaecen, 40 ond he feleleas, feores orwena, blac on beame, bideS wyrde bewegen waelmiste ; biS him werig noma. Sum(ne) on bsele sceal brond fretan frecne Hg fsegne monnan, 45 ]?ser him Hfgedal lungre weorSeS, read re]?e gled ; reoteS meowle, seo hyre beam gesihS brondas Sumum meces ecg on meodubence yrrum ealowosan ealdor o]?]?ringe(S, 50 were winsadum ; biS £er his worda to hraed. Sum sceal on beore ]?urh byreles hond, meodugal maecga, ]?onne he gemet ne con gemearcian his mu]?e mode sine, ac sceal ful earmlice ealdre linnan, 55 dreogan dryhtenbealo dreamum biscyred, 23. lungre 5. , lengre MS. 24. western. 37. sawelleasne. 43. brond ajjecgan S, , brondas j>encan MS. 47. J^ecgan S.t jjeccan MS. XIII. THE FATES OF MEN 47 ond hine to sylfcwale secgas nemnaS, iruenaS mid mu]?e meodugales gedrinc. Sum sceal on geogu]?e mid Codes meahtum his earfoSsij? ealne forspildan, 60 ond on yldo eft eadig weor]?an, wunian wyndagum, ond welan ]?icgan, magmas ond meoduful mgegburge on, ]?aes Ipe senig flra masge ford" gehealdan. Swa missenlice meahtig Dryhten 65 geond eor]?an sceat eallum dseleS, scyreS ond scrifeS ond gesceapo healdeS : sumum eadwelan, sumum earfe)?a d^el, sumum geogo}?e glaed, sumum gu]?e bleed, gewealdenne wigplegan, sumum wyrp O\>]>Q scyte, 70 torhtlicne tir, sumum tsefle craeft, bleobordes gebregd ; sume boceras weor]?a3 wisfseste. Sumum wundorgiefw J?urh goldsmi]?e gearwad weor]?eS ; ful oft he gehyrdeS ond gehyrsteS wel 75 brytencyninges beorn, ond he him brad syleS lond to leane ; he hit on lust ]?ige5. Sum sceal on heape hsele]?uni cweman, blissian set beore bencsittendum, J>aer bi|> drincendra dream se micla. 80 Sum sceal mid hearpan set his hlafordes fotum sittan, feoh ]?icgan, ond a snellice snere wrsestan, Isetan scralle(t)tan ; (s)^ear^/e]?e(r) hleapeS, naegl neome^ende ; bi]? him neod micel. 85 Sum sceal wildne fugel wloncne atemian, heafoc on honda, oj?]?set seo heoroswealwe wynsum weorJ>eS ; dej? he wyrplas on, fede]? swa on feterum fi]?rum dealne, \{zre}> lyftswiftne lytlum gieflum, 90 o]?]?aet se waslisca wsedum ond dasdum his setgiefan eaSmod weorJ?eS, ond to hagostealdes honda gelsered. 63. forh. 70. tiir. 72. -giele. 83. sceardfej>er S. ; the MS. has geg.ro se J>e. 84. neome cende. 89. lepe)?. 48 ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING Swa wrsetlice weoroda geond middangeard monna crseftas 95 sceop ond scyrede, ond gesceapo ferede seghwylcum on eor]?an eormencynnes. For]?on him nu ealles jxrnc ^ghwa secge, J>e he fore his miltsum monnum scrifeS. 93. weoroda Nergend S., weorod anes god MS. III. NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE In this section we have limited our choice to Beowulf , the Battle of Brunan- burh, and the Baffle of Mai don, as these are almost the only native poems of narration not adapted from Latin works or dealing with subjects taken from the Bible. A fine specimen of a narrative poem on a biblical theme is Exodus (No. 19) ; another is Judith. Some of the A.-S. Riddles (No. 22) contain striking descriptions of natural phenomena. Other good descriptive passages occur in the Phoenix ^ the Panther, etc. 14. BEOWULF A. THE SWIMMING-MATCH 11. 499-589 Beowulf and his little band of followers have been admitted into King Hrothgar's hall and have taken their seats at the mead-bench. Unferth, the court orator and wit, is jealous of the attention shown to Beowulf, and tries to belittle his prowess. He makes a slighting mention of Beowulfs famous swimming-match with Breca, saying that Breca was the victor. Stung by the taunt, Beowulf describes the match in detail and ends his speech with a crushing attack on Unferth. HunferS ma]?elode, Ecglafes beam, Ipe set fotum saet frean Scyldinga, onband beadurune — wses him Beowulfes sIS, modges merefaran, micel sefjmnca, 5 forjxm ]?e he ne u]?e bggt senig 65er man sefre mserSa ]?on ma middangeardes gehedde under heofenum J>onne he sylfa — : * Eart ]?u se Beowulf, se J>e wiS Brecan wunne, ' on sidne sse ymb sund flite, i o ' Seer git for wlence wada cunnedon ' ond for dolgilpe on deop waeter 1 aldrum ne]?don ? Ne inc senig mon, 49 E 5O NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE ' ne leof ne laS, belean mihte ' sorhfullne sIS, ]?a git on sund reon. 1 5 ' Pair git eagorstream earmum J?ehton, ' mabton merestrieta, mundum brugdon, ' glidon ofer garsecg ; geofon y]mm weol ' (J?urh) wintrys wylm. Git on wseteres seht ' seofon niht swuncon ; he ]?e set sunde oferflat, 20 ' hsefde mare maegen. Pa hine on morgentid * on Hea]?o-R^m«s holm up setbser ; 'Sonon he gesohte swsesne eSel, ' leof his leodum, lond Brondinga, 'freoSoburh faegere, j^ser he folc ahte, 25 * burh ond beagas. Beot eal wiS ]?e ' sunu Beanstanes soSe gelseste. { Donne wene ic to ]?e wyrsan gej'ingej, ' 5eah }>u heaSorsesa gehwa^r dohte, ' grimre guSe, gif >u Grendles dearst 30 ' nihtlongne fyrst nean bidan.' Beowulf maj>elode, beam Ecg]?eowes : * Hwset ! J?u worn fela, wine mm HunferS, 'beore druncen, ymb Brecan spraece, ' saegdest from his sI5e. S63 ic talige 35 ']?3et ic merestrengo maran ahte, ' earfe]?o on y)?um, Sonne aenig 6]?er man. 4 Wit J>aet gecwsedon cnihtwesende ' ond gebeotedon — wabron begen )?a git ' on geogoSfeore — ]?aet wit on garsecg ut 40 ' aldrum neSdon, ond ]?s3t geaefndon swa. * Haefdon swurd nacod, ]?a wit on sund reon, ' heard on handa ; wit unc wiS hronfixas ' werian ]?6hton. No he wiht fram me ' flodyj^um feor fleotan meahte 45 'hra]?or on holme; no ic fram him wolde. ' Da wit setsomne on sse wseron 4 fif nihta fyrst o]> ]?aet unc flod todraf, 1 wado weallende, wedera cealdost, ' nipende niht, ond nor]?an wind ' heaSogrim onhwearf; hreo wasron y]?a. 21. heajjoraemes. 27. ge])ingea. 50. ondhwearf. XIV. BEOWULF 51 'Wses merefixa mod onhrered, ' ]?aer me wiS la<5um Hcsyrce mm 1 heard hondlocen helpe gefremede, 1 beadohrsegl broden on breostum laeg, 55 'golde gegyrwed. Me to grunde teah {fah feondscaSa, fssste haefde ' grim on grape ; hwse]?re me gyfe]?e wear<5 1 )?3et ic aglsecan orde genehte, ' hildebille ; heaj?orses fornam 60 ' mihtig meredeor J?urh mine hand. ' Swa mec gelome laSgeteonan * ]?reatedon Dearie ; ic him }?enode ' deoran sweorde, swa hit gedefe wses. ' Naes hie Ssere fylle gefean hsefdon, 65 * manfordJedlan, ]?aet hie me ]?egon ; 1 symbel ymbsseton saegrunde neah, * ac on mergenne mecum wunde * be ySlafe uppe Isegon, 4 sweo(r)dum aswefede, ]?sst syS)?an na 70 ' ymb brontne ford1 brimliSende ' lade ne letton. Leoht eastan com, ' beorht beacen Codes ; brimu sw^redon, ' J?3et ic ssensessas geseon mihte, * windige weallas. Wyrd oft nere<5 75 'unfsegne eorl, J^onne his ellen deah. Hwae^ere me gesselde ]?&st ic mid sweorde ofsloh niceras nigene ; no ic on niht gefraegn ( under heofones hwealf heardran feohtan, * ne on egstreamum earmran mannon ; So ' hw^]?ere ic fara feng feore gedigde, ' sl]?es werig. Da mec sae oj>baer, 1 flod sefter faroSe, on Finna land, 1 wtfdu weallendu. No ic wiht fram ]?e ' swylcra searoniSa secgan hyrde, 85 ' billa brogan. Breca nsefre git ' set heaSolace, ne gehwae]?er incer, 1 swa deorlice dsed gefremede ' fagum sweordum — no ic ]?ass (fela) gylpe — 70. forS S. ; ford MS. 72. swa)>redon. 80. hwa]>ere. 83. wudu. 5 2 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE * ]?eah 5u binum broftrum to banan wurde, 9° ' heafodmsegum ; bses bu in helle scealt ' werhSo dreogan, beah bin wit duge.' B. THE FIGHT WITH GRENDEL 11. 710-823 It is night-time, the feasting is over, Hrothgar and his Danes have left the royal hall. Beowulf remains behind waiting for the monster's coming ; his small band of followers lie around him sleeping ; he alone is awake. Grendel approaches, breaks in the door of the hall and enters. Beowulf seizes him by the arm and a terrific struggle takes place. Da com of more under misthleobum Grendel gongan, Godes yrre baer ; mynte se manscaSa manna cynnes 95 sumne besyrwan in sele bam hean. Wod under wolcnum to bass be he wmreced, goldsele gumena, gearwost wisse faettum fahne ; ne waes J>set forma sIS baet he Hrobgares ham gesohte, ioo nsefre he on aldordagum £er ne sibSan heardran haele healSegnas fand. Com }?a to recede rinc siSian dreamum bedseled. Duru sona onarn fyrbendum fsest, sy]?San he hire folmum hran ; 105 onbrsed J?a bealohydig, Sa he gebolgen waes, recedes muban. Rabe aefter bon on fagne flor feond treddode, code yrremod ; him of eagum stod ligge gelicost leoht unfaeger. 1 10 Geseah he in recede rinca manige, swefan sibbegedriht samod setgaedere, magorinca heap. Pa his mod ahlog ; mynte bast he geda^lde ser J?on daeg cwome, atol aglseca, anra gehwylces 115 Hf wi5 lice, ba him alumpen wass wistfylle wen. Ne waes [baet wy]rd ba gen baet he ma moste manna cynnes Sicgean ofer ba niht. prySswyS beheold, XIV. BEOWULF 53 mabg Higelaces, hu se manscaSa 120 under faergripum gefaran wolde. Ne ]?aet se aglseca yldan ]?ohte, ac he gefeng hratte forman siSe slaipendne rinc, slat unwearnum, bat banlocan, blod edrum dranc, 125 synsnsedum swealh ; sona haefde unlyfigendes eal gefeormod, fet ond folma. ForS near aetstop, nam ]?a mid handa higej?ihtigne rinc on rseste, raehte ^gean(es) 13° feond mid folme ; he onfeng hra]?e inwit]?ancum ond wiS earm gesset. Sona ]?£et onfunde fyrena hyrde ]?set he ne mette middangeardes, eor]?an sceata, on elran men J35 mundgripe maran; he on mode wearS forht on ferhSe, no ]?y ser fram meahte ; hyge waes him hinfus, wolde on heolster fleon, secan deofla gedrseg ; ne waes his drohtoS ]?ser swylce he on ealderdagum £er gemette. I4° Gemunde ]?a se wod(g)a mseg Higelaces xfensprsece, uplang astod ond him faeste wiSfeng. Fingras burston ; eoten waes utweard, eorl fur]mr stop. Mynte se maera, [}>2er] he meahte swa, J45 wide gewindan ond on weg ]?anon fleon on fenhopu ; wiste his fingra geweald on grames grapum. [Pset] waes geocor sIS J?aet se hearmsca]?a to Heorute ateah. Dryhtsele dynede, Denum eallum wearS, I5° ceasterbuendum, cenra gehwylcum, eorlum ealuscer/en. Yrre waeron begen re)?e renweardas ; reced hlynsode. Pa waes wundor micel J>aet se winsele wiShaefde hea]?odeorum, )?aet he on hrusan ne feol, X55 faeger fold(an) bold, ac he ]?3es faeste waes innan ond utan irenbendum, 129. ongean. 140. se goda. 145, widre. 151. ealuscerwen. 54 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE searo]?oncum besmi]x)d. Peer fram sylle abeag medubenc monig mine gefrsege golde geregnad, J?£er ]?a graman wunnon. 1 60 pses ne wendon ear witan Scyldinga ]?set hit a mid gemete manna senig, ^etlic ond banfag, tobrecan meahte, listum tolucan, nymj?e liges fae]?m swulge on swajmle. Sweg up astag 165 mwe geneahhe; NorS-Denum stod atelic egesa anra gehwylcum ]?ara J>e of wealle wop gehyrdon, gryreleoS galan Codes andsacan, sigeleasne sang, sar wanigean 170 helle haefton. Heold hine to faeste se ]?e manna waes maegene strengest on ]?sem dsege J?ysses Hfes ; nolde eorla hleo senige J'inga ]?one cwealmcuman cwicne forlsetan, 175 ne his lifdagas leoda senigum nytte tealde. PBSI genehost brsegd eorl Beowulfes ealde lafe, wolde freadrihtnes feorh ealgian, mseres ]?eodnes, Sser hie meahton swa ; 1 80 hie ]?3st ne wiston, ]?a hie gewin drugon, heardhicgende hildemecgas, ond on healfa gehwone heawan J?6hton, sawle secan, (J>8et) ]?one synscaSan senig ofer eor]?an irenna cyst, 185 guSbilla nan, gretan nolde, ac he sigewsepnum forsworen hsefde, ecga gehwylcre. Scolde his aldorgedal on Ssem daege )?ysses Hfes earmlic wurSan, ond se ellorgast 190 on feonda geweald feor siSian. Da J>83t onfunde se ]?e fela aeror modes myrSe manna cynne fyrene gefremede — he (waes) fag wiS God — )?83t him se lichoma Isestan nolde, 162. hetlic. XIV. BEOWULF 55 195 ac hine se modega mseg Hygelaces haefde be honda ; waes gehwae]?er oSrum lifigende laS. Licsar gebad atol seglaeca; him on eaxle wear<5 syndolh sweotol ; seonowe onsprungon, 200 burston banlocan. Beowulfe wearS guShreS gyfe]?e ; scolde Grendel ]?onan feorhseoc fleon under fenhleoSu, secean wynleas wic ; wiste ]?e geornor ]?aet his aldres waes ende gegongen, 205 dogera daegrim. C. THE HAUNTS OF THE OGRES 11. 1345-76 King Hrothgar tells Beowulf about Grendel and his dam. Ic ]?set londbuend, leode mine, selersedende, secgan hyrde ]?set hie gesawon swylce twegen micle mearcstapan moras healdan, 210 ellorgaestas; Ssera 65er waes, J?aes ]?e hie gewislicost gewitan meahton, idese onlicn^s ; 6Ser earmsceapen on weres waestmum wrseclastas trsed, naefne he waes mara ]?onne senig man 65er ; 215 ]?one on geardagum Grendel nemdo[n] foldbuende ; no hie faeder cunnon, hwse]?er him senig waes aer acenned dyrnra gasta. Hie dygel lond warigeaS, wulfhleoj>u, windige naessas, 220 frecne fengelad, Saer fyrgenstream under naessa genipu nijper gewiteS, flod under foldan. Nis ]?aet feor heonon milgemearces J?aet se mere standeft, ofer ]?aem hongiaS hrin(g)de bearwas, 225 wudu wyrtum faest waeter oferhelmaS. Pser maeg nihta gehwaem niSwundor seon, fyr on flode ; no J?aes frod leofaS 212. onlic noes. 56 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE gumena bearna >set (he) >one grund wite. Deah J?e hseSstapa hundum geswenced, 230 heorot hornum trum, holtwudu sece, feorran geflymed, ser he feorh seleS, aldor on ofre, abr he in wille hafelan (hydan). Nis )?aet heoru stow ; ]?onon ySgeblond up astlgeS 235 won to wolcnum, ]?onne wind styrej> laS gewidru, o<5 ]?aet lyft drysmaj>, roderas reotaS. D. THE VISIT TO THE POOL OF MONSTERS 11. 1399-1441 Pa W3es HroSgare hors gebabted, wicg wundenfeax ; wisa fengel 240 geatolic gen(g)de ; gumfe]?aistop lindhsebbendra. Lastas wseron sefter waldswaj^um wide gesyne, gang ofer grundas, (]?xr heo) gegnum for ofer myrcan mor, magof>egna bser 245 ]?one selestan sawolleasne ]?ara J>e mid HroSgare ham eahtode. Ofereode ]?a 8eJ>elinga beam steap stanhliSo, stige nearwe, enge anpaSas, uncuS gelad, 250 neowle nsessas, nicorhusa fela; he feara sum beforan gengde wisra monna wong sceawian, o]? ]?8et he fseringa fyrgenbeamas ofer harne stan hleonian funde, 255 wynleasne wudu ; wseter under stod dreorig ond gedrefed. Denum eallum waes, winum Scyldinga, weorce on mode to gej?olianne, Segne monegum, oncyS eorla gehwsem, syS]?an ^Escheres 260 on ]?am holmclife hafelan metton. Flod blode weol — folc to ssegon — hatan heolfre. Horn stundum song XIV. BEOWULF 57 fuslic f [yrd]leo<5. Fe]?a eal gesaet. Gesawon Sa asfter wsetere wyrmcynnes fela, 265 sellice saMracan, sund cunnian, swylce on nseshleoSum nicras licgean, Sa on undernmael oft bewitigaS sorhfulne siS on seglrade, wyrmas ond wildeor ; hie on weg hruron 270 bitere ond gebolgne, bearhtm ongeaton, guShorn galan. Sumne Geata leod of flanbogan f cores getwaifde, ySgewinnes, j?aet him on aldre stod herestreel hearda ; he on holme waes 275 sundes ]?e ssenra, 3e hyne swylt fornam; hrae]?e wearS on ySum mid eoferspreotum heorohocyhtum hearde genearwod, niSa genseged, ond on nses togen, wundorlic wsegbora ; weras sceawedon 280 gryrelicne gist. E. BEOWULF'S FIGHT WITH THE DRAGON 11. 2538-2709 A fire -breathing dragon is devastating the land of the Geats by night in revenge for a theft from the treasure-hoard of which it is the guardian. Beowulf, now king of the Geats and an old man, resolves to attack the dragon in its den under the hillside. With the help of his faithful henchman Wiglaf he succeeds in killing it, but dies himself shortly afterwards. Fights with dragons are familiar subjects in the mythology of the Aryan and other peoples. Aras Sa bi ronde rof oretta, heard under helme ; hiorosercean baer under stancleofu, strengo getruwode anes mannes ; ne biS swylc earges sI8. 285 Geseah Sa be wealle se Se worna fela, gumcystum god, guSa gedigde, hildehlemma, Jxmne hnitan feSan, sto(n)dan stanbogan, stream ut ]?onan brecan of beorge ; waes ]?sere burnan wselm 290 heaSofyrum hat; ne meahte horde neah unbyrnende senige hwile 58 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE deor gedygan for dracan lege. Let Sa of breostum, <5a he gebolgen waes, Weder-Geata leod, word ut faran ; 295 stearcheort styrmde, stefn in becom heaSotorht hlynnan under harne stan. Hete waes onhrered ; hordweard oncmow mannes reorde ; naes Sser mara fyrst freo<5<? to friclan. From aerest cwom 300 orut> aglsecean ut of stane, hat hildeswat ; hruse dynede, born under beorge ; bordrand onswaf wiS Sam gryregieste Geata dryhten. Da waes hringbogan heorte gefysed 305 saecce to secean. Sweord ssr gebrsed god guScyning, gomele lafe ecgum un^law : seghwasSrum waes bealohycgendra broga fram oSrum. StI5m5d gestod wi5 steapne rond 310 winia bealdor, 5a se wyrm gebeah snude tosomne ; he on searwum bad. Gewat Sa byrnende gebogen scriSan, to gesci/e scyndan ; scyld wel gebearg life ond lice laessan hwile 315 mserum ]?eodne J>onne his myne sohte, Saer he ]>y fyrste forman dogore wealdan moste ; swa him wyrd ne gescraf hreS aet hilde. Hond up abraed Geata dryhten, gryrefahne sloh 320 Incge(s) lafe, J?aet sio ecg gewac brun on bane, bat unswISor J>onne his Siodcyning J>earfe haefde bysigum gebaeded. Pa waes beorges weard aefter heaSuswenge on hreoum mode, 225 wearp waelfyre; wide sprungon hildeleoman ; hreSsigora ne gealp goldwine Geata ; guSbill geswac nacod aet m<5e, swa hyt no sceolde, 292. deop. 299. freode. 302. biorn. 305. seceanne. 307. unglaw. 313. g scipe. XIV. BEOWULF 59 Iren aergod. Ne wses ]?aet eSe sIS, 330 ]?aet se maera maga EcgSeowes grundwong ]xme ofgyfan wolde ; sceolde (ofer) willan wic eardian elles hwergen ; swa sceal seghwylc mon alsetan Isendagas. Naes Sa long to Son 335 ]?aet Sa aglaecean hy eft gemetton ; hyrte hyne hordweard, hreSer seSme weoll niwan stefne ; nearo Srowode fyre befongen se Se ser folce weold. Nealles him on heape handgesteallan, 340 aeSelinga beam, ymbe gestodon hildecystum, ac hy on holt bugon ealdre burgan. Hiora in anum weoll sefa wiS sorgum ; sibb sefre ne mseg wiht onwendan J?am Se wel ]?enceS. 345 Wiglaf wses haten Weoxstanes sunu, leoflic lindwiga, leod Scylfinga, maeg ^Elf heres ; geseah his mondryhten under heregriman hat frowian. Gemunde Sa Sa are ]?e he him ser forgeaf, 350 wicstede weligne Wsegmundinga, folcrihta gehwylc, swa his faeder ahte ; ne mihte Sa forhabban, hond rond gefeng, geolwe linde, gomel swyrd geteah ; ]?3et wses mid eldum Eanmundes laf, 355 suna Ohtere(s). . . . • • • • Wod ]?a ]?urh ]?one wselrec, wigheafolan baer frean on fultum, fea worda cwaeS : * Leofa Biowulf, l^est call tela, ' swa Su on geoguSfeore geara gecwsede 360 ' }?3et Su ne alaete be Se lifigendum { dom gedreosan ; scealt nu dsedum rof, ' asSeling anhydig, ealle msegene ' feorh ealgian ; ic Se fullsestu.' ^Efter Sam wordum wyrm yrre cwom, 365 atol inwitgsest, 6Sre siSe, fyrwylmum fah, fionda niospan], 60 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE laSra manna; HgySum forborn bord wi3 rond(e) ; byrne ne meahte geongum garwigan geoce gefremman, 370 ac se maga geonga under his mseges scyld elne geeode, ]?a his agen w[ses] gledum forgrunden. Pa gen guScyning mfserSa] gemunde, maegenstrengo sloh hildebille, }?set hyt on heafolan stod 375 m]?e genyded ; Naegling forbaerst, geswac aet saecce sweord Biowulfes, gomol ond grsegmsel. Him J?aet gifeSe ne waes )?aet him irenna ecge mihton helpan aet hilde ; waes sio hond to strong, 380 se Se meca gehwane mine gefrsege swenge ofersohte, J>onne he to saecce baer wsepen wund(r)um heard ; naes him wihte Se sel. Pa waes ]?eodsceaSa J>riddan siSe, frecne fyrdraca, fsehSa gemyndig, 385 raesde on Sone rofan, ]?a him rum ageald. hat ond heatfogrim, heals ealne ymbefeng biteran banum ; he geblodegod wearS sawuldriore ; swat ySum weoll. Da ic set ]?earfe (gefraegn) J?eodcyninges 390 andlongne eorl ellen cySan, craeft ond cenSu, swa him gecynde waes ; ne hedde he ]?aes heafolan, ac sio hand gebarn modiges mannes, ]?aer he his mseges healp J»aet he ]?one niSgsest nioSor hwene sloh, 395 secg on searwum, ]?aet 5aet sweord gedeaf fah ond faeted ; ]>d Saet fyr ongon sweSrian sySSan. Pa gen sylf cyning geweold his gewitte, wselseax gebrsed biter ond beaduscearp, j?aet he on byrnan waeg ; 400 forwrat Wedra helm wyrm on middan, •< feond gefyld^ ; ferh ellen wraec, ond hi hyne }?a begen abroten haefdon, sibaeSelingas ; swylc sceolde secg wesan, }>egn aet tfearfe. 393. maegenes. 396. ]>aet. 398. wasllseaxe. 401. gefyldan. XIV. BEOWULF 6 I F. BEOWULF'S OBSEQUIES I 11. 3i37~3i77 The body of the dragon has been pushed over the cliff into the sea ; the treasure has been brought out of the cave ; the funeral pile is built and Beowulf s body placed on it, surrounded with weapons, armour and ornaments. The fire is lighted and the hero's widow breaks into lamentations and forebodings. Then the Geat warriors build a grave-mound and having placed in it ornaments and weapons, they ride round the barrow chanting the praises of their dead king. 405 Him Sa gegiredan Geata leode ad on eorSan unwaclicne, helm(um) beh<?ng0n, hildebordum, beorhtum byrnum, swa he bena wses. Alegdon <5a tomiddes mserne ]?eoden, 410 hseleS hiofende hlaford leofne. Ongunnon }?a on beorge bselfyra meest wigend weccan ; wud[u]rec astah sweart ofer swi<?5ole, swogende le^ wope bewunden — windblond gelaeg — 415 oS J>aet he Sa banhus gebrocen hsefde, hat on hreSre. Higum unrote modceare msendon mondryhtnes cw[e]alm ; swylce giomorgyd [sio geo]meowle [aefter Biowulfe bjundenheorde 420 [song] sorgcearig, sae^v/e geneahhe ]?3et hio hyre [hearmdajgas hearde on[dr]ede, wselfylla wom, [wigenjdes egesan, hy(n)5o [ond] h[aeft]nyd ; heofon rece swe[a]lg. Geworhton Sa Wedra leode 42S hl[aew] on (holmh)li5e, se wses heah ond brad, [waeJgHSendum wide g[e]syne, ond betimbredon on tyn dagum beadurofes been ; bronda lafe wealle beworhton, swa hyt weorSHcost 430 foresnotre men findan mihton. Hi on beorg dydon beg ond siglu, call swylce hyrsta swylce on horde ser 4 407. behongen. 413. swicftole ; let. 420. saelSe. 422. wonn. 425. on holmhliSe S.t on li^e MS. 62 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE niShedige men genumen haefdon ; forleton eorla gestreon : eorftan healdan, 435 gold on greote, >ser hit nu gen lifaS eldum swa unnyt swa hi[t sero]r waes. Pa ymbe hlsew riodan hildedeore, ae>elinga [b]ea[r]n ealra twelfe ; woldon [hie] cwISan, kyning msenan, 44° wordgyd wrecan ond ymb w[er] sprecan ; eahtodan eorlscipe ond his ellenweorc duguftum demdon. Swa hit gedeffe] biS J>aet mon his winedryhten wordum herge, ferhSum freoge, J?onne he for5 scile, 445 of Hchaman [lysed] weorSan. Swa begnornodon Geata leode hlafordes [hryjre, heorSgeneatas, cwsedon }>aet he waere wyruldcyning(a), manna mildust ond mon[Sw]£erust, 450 leodum HSost ond lofgeornost. G. HERO-LAYS IN THE MAKING * 11.853-874 This passage, which immediately precedes the account of Sigemund and Fitela (see No. 4 B), is interesting as showing that the custom of singing lays of heroes was not confined to the banqueting-hall. A body of mounted Danes, gathered from far and wide on learning the news of the mighty struggle between Beowulf and Grendel in Heorot, are returning from a visit to the mysterious mere into which the wounded Grendel has plunged. The Beowulf poet may well have taken part himself in such an outing. Panon eft gewiton ealdgesISas, swylce geong manig, of gomenwaj»e, fram mere modge, mearum ridan, beornas on blancum. Dser waes Beowulfes 455 mserSo gemsened; monig oft gecwseS ]?aette suS ne norS be ssem tweonum ofer eormengrund 6]?er nsenig under swegles begong selra nsere rondhaebbendra, rices wyrSra. * 438. twelfa. XIV. BEOWULF 63 460 Ne hie hum winedrihten wiht ne logon, glsedne HroSgar, ac )?aet wses god cyning. Hwilum heaborofe hleapan leton, on geflit faran, fealwe mearas, Sser him foldwegas fsegere buhton, 465 cystum cuSe. Hwilum cyninges ]?egn, guma gilphlaeden, gidda gemyndig, se <5e ealfela ealdgesegena worn gemunde, word 6}?er fand soSe gebunden. Secg eft ongan 470 sIS Beowulfes snyttrum styrian ond on sped wrecan spel gerade, wordum wrixlan. H. SCENES IN HEOROT The scenes in the banqueting-hall described in Beowulf may be regarded as taken by the poet from his own society, rather than as traditional descriptions handed down by gleemen. In any case, it is unlikely that social conditions and customs changed much in a Germanic society uninfluenced by Roman culture. 1. Beowulf and his men in Heorot (11. 6 1 1-630) Dser waes haelejra hleahtor, hlyn swynsode, word wseron wynsume. Eode Wealhbeow for5, 475 cwen HroSgares, cynna gemyndig ; grette goldhroden guman on healle, ond ]?a freolic wif ful gesealde serest East-Dena ej>elwearde, bsed hine bliSne set ]?3ere beor]?ege, 480 leodum leofne ; he on lust ge]?eah symbel ond seleful, sigerof kyning. Ymbeode J>a ides Helminga dugu^e ond geogo}?e dsel seghwylcne, sincfato sealde, oj? J>33t ssel alamp 485 ]?aet hio Beowulfe, beaghroden cwen mode ge]?ungen, medoful aetbser ; grette Geata leod, Code bancode wisfsest wordum baes 5e hire se willa gelamp 64 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE J?aet heo on senigne eorl gelyfde 490 fyrena frofre. He >set ful ge>eah, wselreow wiga, set Wealh]?eon, ond J?a gyddode gu]?e gefysed. 2. 11. 1008-1042 After the fight between Beowulf and Grendel, the hall Heorot is set in order and a banquet held, at which the grateful Hrothgar gives Beowulf splendid presents. pa wses ssel ond msel }?set t5 healle gang Healfdenes sunu ; 495 wolde self cyning symbel >icgan. Ne gefraegn ic ]?a maeg]?e maran weorode ymb hyra sincgyfan sel gebseran. Bugon ]?a to bence blaed[agen]de, fylle gefsegon, faegere ge]?3egon 500 medoful manig ; magas ze;ar0(n) swiShicgende on sele J»am hean, HroSgar ond Hro]?ulf. Heorot innan wses freondum afylled ; nalles facenstafas Deod-Scyldingas ]?enden fremedon. 505 Forgeaf >a Beowulfe beam Healfdenes segen gyldenne sigores to leane, hroden hiltecumbor, helm ond byrnan, msere ma5]?umsweord ; manige gesawon beforan beorn beran. Beowulf ge^ah 510 ful on flette ; no he baere feohgyfte for sc(e)oten(d)um scamigan Sorfte. Ne gefrsegn ic freondlicor feower madmas golde gegyrede gummanna fela in ealobence oSrum gesellan. 515 Ymb j?aes helmes hrof heafodbeorge wirum bewunden wal^ utan heold, ]?aet him fe(o)la laf frecne ne meahtd scurheard sce]?San, ]?onne scyldfreca ongean gramum gangan scolde. 520 Heht t>a eorla hleo eahta mearas 500. )>ara. 505. brand. 516. walan. 517. meahton. XIV. BEOWULF 65 fsetedhleore on flet teon in under eoderas ; ]?ara anum stod sadol searwum fan, since gewur]?ad ; ]?aet waes hildesetl heahcyninges 525 Sonne sweorda gelac sunu Healfdenes efnan wolde; nsefre on ore laeg widcu]?es wig, Sonne walu feollon. 3. Preparations for the night (11. 1232—1250) After the banquet Hrothgar and his court retire, leaving Beowulf and his men in Heorot. wses symbla cyst, druncon win weras, wyrd ne cujxm, 530 geosceaft grimme, swa hit agangen wearS eorla manegum. Sy]?5an sefen cwom, ond him Hro]?gar gewat to hofe smum, rice to rseste. Reced weardode unrim eorla, swa hie oft ser dydon ; 535 benc]?elu beredon \ hit geondbrabded wearS beddum ond bolstrum. Beorscealca sum fus ond fsege fletrseste gebeag. Setton him to heafdon hilderandas, bordwudu beorhtan ; J?ser on bence waes 540 ofer as]?elinge y]?gesene hea]?osteapa helm, hringed byrne, ]?recwudu ]?rymlic. Waes ]?eaw hyra J?aet hie oft wseron anwiggearwe ge aet ham ge on herge, ge gehwae]?er ]?ara, 545 efne swylce msela swylce hira mandryhtne f>earf gesaelde ; waes seo ]?eod tilu. I. BEOWULF is MADE A HEREDITARY CHIEF 11. 2190—99 On Beowulf's return home he presents his uncle, Hygelac king of the Geats with the gifts he has received from Hrothgar, the Danish king. Thereupon Hygelac confers on him a share in the royal domain, with appropriate endow- ment and privileges. Het Sa eorla hleo in gefetian, heaSorof cyning, HreSles lafe F 66 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE golde gegyrede ; rises mid Geatum Sa 550 sincmaSbum selra on sweordes had ; ]?aet he on Biowulfes bearm alegde, ond him gesealde seofan busendo, bold ond bregostol. Him wses bam samod on 5am leodscipe lond gecynde, 555 card, eSelriht, 65rum swISor side rice, bam (be) <5air selra wses. J. WEAPONS AND ARMOUR In Beowulf 'the chief weapon for close fighting is the sword, sweord, bill, mece, etc. ; for more distant attack the spear or javelin, spere, gar, cesc, cescholt, etc. ; also the bow, boga, and arrow, flan. The protective armour consists of a tunic of steel links, byrne, lusyrce, hringnet, etc., a helmet of iron or steel, helm, grimhelm ; in some cases surmounted by the image of a wild boar, eofor, eoforlic, ferh. The band or hoop round the helm is called walu. The circular shield of linden- wood, scyld, rand, bord, lind, etc., is covered with metal. Swords are valued for their age and history ; they are handed down from father to son and are a favourite form of valuable gift. They bear names, such as Hrunting, Nsegling, Mimming (in Waldere}. 1. Beowulf and his men march to Heorot (11. 321—331) GuSbyrne scan heard hondlocen, hringiren scir song in searwum, ]?a hie to sele furftum 560 in hyra gryregeatwum gangan cwomon. Setton ssemebe side scyldas, rondas regnhearde, wi<5 bass recedes weal ; bugon ]?a to bence. Byrnan hringdon, guSsearo gumena ; garas stodon, 565 saimanna searo, samod aetgaedere, aescholt ufan graeg ; waes se IrenJ?reat wsepnum gewur]?ad. 2. Beowulf girds on his armour (11. 1441—64) Gyrede hine Beowulf eorlgewsedum, nalles for ealdre mearn ; 570 scolde hildebyrne hondum gebroden, XIV. BEOWULF 67 sid ond searofah, sund cunnian, seo Se bancofan beorgan cu]?e, }?aet him hildegrap hre]?re ne mihte, eorres inwitfeng, aldre gesce]?(5an ; 575 ac se hwlta helm hafelan werede, se }>Q meregrundas mengan scolde, secan sundgebland, since geweor<5ad, befongen freawrasnum, swa hine fyrndagum worhte waepna smiS, wundrum teode, 580 besette swinlicum, ]?aet hine sy5]?an no bro^dne beadomecas bitan ne meahton. Nses ]?aet J?onne msetost msegenfultuma J?set him on Searfe lah Syle HroSgares ; waes ]?sem haeftmece Hrunting nama ; 585 I'set wses an foran ealdgestreona, ecg waes Iren, atertanum fah, ahyrded hea]?oswate ; nsefre hit aet hilde ne swac manna aengum ]?ara ]?e hit mid mundum bewand, se Se gryresISas gegan dorste, 500 folcstede fara ; naes ]?aet forma sI5 ]?aet hit ellenweorc asfnan scolde. 3. The Giant Sword dissolves in the monsters blood (11. i Sy]?San he eft astod, geseah Sa on searwum sigeeadig bil, ealdsweord eotenisc ecgum ]?yhtig, 595 wigena weorSmynd ; ]?aet (waes) waepna cyst, buton hit waes mare Sonne senig mon 63er to beadulace aetberan meahte, god ond geatolic, giganta geweorc. • ••• •••• Pa ]?aet sweord ongan 600 aefter hea]?oswate hildegicelum, wigbil wanian \ ]?aet waes wundra sum ]?aet hit eal gemealt ise gelicost, 581. brond ne. 68 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE Sonne forstes bend Feeder onlseteS, • ••• , • ••• Da wses gylden hilt gamelum rince, 605 harum hildfruman, on hand gyfen, enta sergeweorc ; hit on sent gehwearf setter deofla hryre Denigea frean, wundorsmi]?a geweorc, • ••• •••* HroSgar ma<5elode, hylt sceawode, 610 ealde lafe, on 5sem wses or writen fyrngewinnes, sySban flod ofsloh, gifen geotende, giganta cyn ; frecne geferdon ; J?set wses fremde ]?eod ecean Dryhtne ; him ]?ses endelean 615 burh waeteres wylm Waldend sealde. Swa wses on Ssem scennum sciran goldes ]?urh runstafas rihte gemearcod, geseted ond gesaed, hwam ]?9et sweord geworht, iren(n)a cyst, serest wsere, 620 wreoj»enhilt ond wyrmfah. 15. THE BATTLE OF BRUNANBURH This poem is of historical as well as of literary interest. It forms the entry for the year A. D. 937 in the A.-S. Chronicle and celebrates the overwhelming victory gained by yEthelstan, king of Wessex, and his brother Eadmund over the Northumbrian Danes, who were joined by Irish Scandinavians, Scots lender King Constantine, and the Welsh of Strathclyde, a victory which finally established the supremacy of Wessex in England. A number of places have been suggested as the site of the battle, e.g. Bromborough on the Mersey, Burnswark, a hill in Dumfriesshire, and Bramber near Preston, S. of the Ribble. In favour of the last named is the fact that in 1840 a large -hoard of silver ingots and coins, none of later date than 930, was unearthed at Cuerdale, a parish some two miles E. of Preston on the Ribble. It is presumed that the treasure was the war-chest of the confederate army. The tone of the poem is one of triumph ; the versification is correct and the style vigorous, though somewhat hackneyed, with phrases and vocabulary of the older poetry. It is to be noted that the Battle of Brunanburh is the first of several annals written in the traditional alliterating metre, the others belonging respectively to the years 942, 073, 975, and 1065. Her ^j^elstan cyning, beorna bephgif?- ano bis ^rc^o" e'.c, Eadmund se>eling, ealdorlangnc tlr XV. THE BATTLE OF BRUNANBURH 69 aet-sggcce sweorda ecgum 5 ymbe Brunnan'burh. Bordweal(l) clufan, heowan hea]?olinde hamora lafom eaforan Eadweardes, s\va him gesej^ele wses from cneomsegum jpaet hi set campe oft wi}> laj'ra gehwsene land ealgodon, 10 hoid and hamas. Hettend crungon, Scotta-leode, and scipflotan fsege feollan, feld dennade s^cga swale, si$]>an sunne up on morgentid, T»a&ie-t*mgoi, 15 gl R d • oftX-grundas, Godes condelr beorht, eces Drihtnes, o"5' sio se^elc gesceaft 20 werig, wiges ssed. Westseaxe forS ondlongne dseg oered^ysttwii on last legdon la.]>ui»--]jeoxium, heowan herefleman hindan pearte Caecum mylenscearpum. MycoL-Qa wyradoti 25 heardes hondplegan iiade]?a nanum ^ara Se mid Anlafe ofer eargebland on lides bosme land gesohton, 4«&ge l^^feokte. Fife Isegon on }?am campstede cyningas geonge 30 sweordum aswefedc, swike seofene eac eorlas Anlafes, unrim hcnges ' o flotan and Scotta. ])£er geflemed wearo n^do gobrod to lides stefne" ly-t-le 35'cread cnear on flot, cyning ut gewat Swilce pser eac se froda mid^fleaigg cogi on his cy]^e norS, Constontinus, har hilderinc, hreman ne J^orfte. 40 aaeca gemanan ; he wses his mi feeonda gefylled, on folcstede 19. Scittisc. 70 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE beslagen set ssecce, and his sunu forlet on waelstowe wundum forgrunden, geongne- u3t: gufie ; gel pan ne borfte 45 beorn blandcufeax kilgeslehtes, v£ald inwidda, ne Anlaf ]ry ma mid heura herelafuni hlehhan ne ]?orfton J?aet hi beaduweorca on campsrede, . .cwnbolgehnastes, S^garm-ittinge, guinena gemotes, waipengewrixles, J^ses hi on waelfelda \vi)> Eadweardc-s eaforan plegodon. Gewitoji him pa, Xurj?men naegl%dcnearr«*n dreprig daroSa laf, on Dynges mere 55-ofer d^op-wset&r Dyflen secan, eft Traland, -aewiscmode. •Swilcc ]>a gcbr (")]?< jr bjs^*?«-a£t§a^afi, cynirrg and aj^eiin-g, ey]?J>e sohton, We&tsejuijd IAIJI!, ' wige^-hrrrTTige. 60 Letan him b<.hindaa hraw bryttian saluvvigpadaii, fcoflfr*^ MUI- u i» hi a. Fi'i, and earn aeftan hwit, ^eses"hrae*n, grsedigne guShafoc, aud ]?a£t graege deor, 65 wutf on weatde. Nc wearS wael mare on ]?is iglande elfre gieta Iblces-gefyUod l^eforan jnssum sweordes ecgitm, i'ass ]?e us secgaS bee, ealde uSwitan, »i]?})an eastan hidet 70 Engle and Seaxe «p becon^an ofer brade brima, B^yiuitt-^dfrtJln, wlance wigsmiSas, Wealas ofercoman, eprlas arhwate, eard begeatan. J^ 16. THE BATTLE OF JALDON The events described in this poem with such vigour and strong feeling are briefly mentioned in the A.-S. Chronicle anno 991. They were an incident in the Scandinavian attacks on Britain at the end of the tenth century, which culminated in the conquest by Cnut in 1012. Byrhtnoth, King ./Ethelred's ealdorman or deputy in Essex, is hurrying with his troop to give battle to a XVI. THE BATTLE OF MALDON 71 Danish force which has sailed up the estuary of the river Panta, the modern Blackwater, near the site of the modern town of Maldon. On reaching the shore opposite the landing-place of the Danes, Byrhtnoth proceeds to marshal his little force and to instruct his men how best to fight. The rest of the poem is a spirited narrative of the incidents in the fight, which was in reality a losing one for the Englishmen. The old bond of loyalty between chieftain and retainer is still strong and is nowhere expressed with deeper feeling. The heroes of the fight are named in this earliest English * roll of honour ' and their deeds noted, while the cowardly flight of others is branded for ever. The language of the poem is simple, being/ almost free from the device of repeating the same idea in different words which is used so freely in the older verse. There are also com- paratively few compound nouns and adjectives. Considering the date of composi- tion the versification keeps fairly close to the traditional rules, but exhibits some relaxation of the strict standard of Beowulf and other older poems. The first lines of the poem have been lost. brocen wurde ; het ]?a hyssa hwsene hors forlastan, feor afysan and for5 gangan, hicgan to handum and t(6) hige godum. 5 P(a) bast Offan mseg merest onfunde, ]?aet se eorl nolde yrhSo ge]?olian, he let him ]?a of handon leofoe fleogan hafoc wi5 J>aes holtes, and to J?sere hilde stop ; be ]?am man mihte oncnawan ]?aet se cniht nolde 10 wacian set bam w(I)ge, ba he to wajpnum feng. Eac him wolde Eadric his ealdre gelsestan, frean to gefeohte ; ongan J>a for5 beran gar to gube ; he hsefde god ge]?anc }?a hwile be he mid handum healdan mihte 15 bord and brad swurd; beot he gelseste, ha he setforan his frean feohtan sceolde. Pa )?ser ByrhtnoS ongan beornas trymian, rad and rsedde, rincum tsehte hu hi sceoldon standan and ]?one stede healdan, 20 and bsed ]?set hyra randan rihte heoldon fasste mid folman, and ne forhtedon na. pa he haefde J?aet folc fsegere getrymmed, he lihte ]?a mid leodon bser him leofost wses, ]?ser he his heorSwerod holdost wiste. 25 Pa stod on staefte, stiSHce clypode wicinga ar, wordum mselde, 7. leofre. 20. randan. NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE se on beot ahead brimli]?endra seraende to ]?am eorle, J>3er he on ofre stod : ' Me sendon to ]?e ssemen snelle ; 30 ' heton <5e secgan ]?aet ]?u most sendan raSe * beagas wi<5 gebeorge, and eow betere is ' ]?aet ge J>isne garraes mid gafole forgyldon 4]?on(ne) we swa hearde (h)ilde dselon. ' Ne jmrfe we us spillan ; gif ge speda]? to ]mm, 35 'we willaS wiS J>am golde gri5 fasstnian. 4 Gyf ]?u ]?at gersedest, J>e her ricost eart, ' J>set J?u ]?me leoda lysan wille, ' syllan ssemannum on hyra sylfra dom ' feoh wiS freode and niman fri<5 aet us, 40 * we willa]? mid ]?am sceattum us to scype gangan, ' on flot feran, and eow frizes healdan.' ByrhtnoS ma]?elode, bord hafenode, wand wacne aesc, wordum maelde, yrre and anrsed, ageaf him an ds ware : 45 ' Gehyrst ]?u, sselida, hwset )?is folc segeS ? 'hi willaS eow to gafole garas syllan, ' settrynne ord and ealde swurd, ' J?a heregeatu ]?e eow ast hilde ne deah. ' Brimmanna boda, abeod eft ongean, 50 ' sege ]?inum leodum miccle la]?re spell, ' J>aet her stynt unforcuS eorl mid his werode, * J?e wile gealgean e]?el ]?ysne, '^E]?elredes card, ealdres mines, ' folc and foldan ; feallan sceolon 55 'h8e]?ene aet hilde. To heanlic me ]?ince3 'j?3et ge mid urum sceattum to scype gangon ' unbefohtne, nu ge J>us feor hider ' on urne card in becomon. ' Ne sceole ge swa softe sine gegangan ; 60 ' us sceal ord and ecg ser geseman, ' grim guSplega, ser we gafol syllon.' Het J>a bord beran, beornas gangan, J>aet hi on J>am easteSe ealle stodon. Ne mihte ]?2er for waetere werod to ]?am 65rum • 61. J>e gofol. XVI. THE BATTLE OF MALDON 73 65 j?ser com flowende flod sefter ebban, lucon lagustreamas ; to lang hit him jriihte hwaenne hi togsedere garas beron. HI J?aer Pantan stream mid prasse bestodon, Eastseaxena ord, and se seschere ; 70 ne mihte hyra aenig 6}?riim derian, buton hwa ]?urh flanes flyht fyl gename. Se flod ut gewat ; ]?a flotan stodon gearowe wicinga fela, wiges georne. Het J?a haeleSa hleo healdan J>a bricge 75 wigan wigheardne, se wass haten Wulfstan, cafne mid his cynne ; )?33t waes Ceolan sunu, )?e 5one forman man mid his francan ofsceat, ]?e ]?ser baldlicost on }?a bricge stop. P^r stodon mid Wulfstane wigan unforhte, 80 ^Elfere and Maccus, modige twegen \ }>& noldon set ]?am forda fleam gewyrcan, ac hi faestlice wiS 5a fynd weredon, J>a hwile ]?e hi wsepna wealdan moston. Pa hi ]?aet ongeaton and georne gesawon, 85 J?32t hi ]?ser bricgweardas bitere fundon, ongunnon lytegian ]?a l^Se gystas ; bsedon J?aet hi upgang agan moston, ofer )?one ford faran, fe]?an laedan. Da se eorl ongan for his ofermode 90 alyfan landes to fela laj^ere Seode. Ongan ceallian )?a ofer cald wseter Byrhtelmes beam ; beornas gehlyston : * Nu eow is gerymed, gaS ricene t5 us, 4 guman to gu)?e ; God ana wat 95 ' hwa ]?£ere waelstowe wealdan mote.' Wodon ]?a waelwulfas, for wsetere ne murnon, wicinga werod, west ofer Pantan, ofer sclr waeter scyldas wegon, lidmen to lande linde babron. 100 P^er ongean gramum gearowe stodon ByrhtnoS mid beornum ; he mid bordum het wyrcan ]?one wlhagan, and ]?set werod healdan 86. luSe. 97. pest. 74 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE faeste wiS feondum. Pa waes f(e)ohte neh, tir aet getohte ; waes seo tid cumen 105 ]?aet ]?£er faige men feallan sceoldon. Paer wearS hream ahafen, ^remmas wundon, earn ssses georn ; wses on eor]?an cyrm. Hi leton )?a of folman feolhearde speru, gegrundene garas fleogan ; no bogan wseron bysige, bord ord onfeng, biter wses se beadurabs ; beornas feollon on gehwaeSere hand, hyssas lagon. Wund wearfr Wulfmser, waslrasste geceas, ByrhtnoSes mseg, he mid billum wearS, 115 his swustersunu, swISe forheawen. Paer waerfir wciingum wi]?erlean agyfen ; gehyrde ic >aet Eadweard anne sloge swiSe mid his swurde, swenges ne wyrnde, J>set him aet fotum feoll fsege cempa ; 120 ^^es him his Seoden J>anc gessede, }?am bur)?ene, ]?a he byre hsefde. Swa stemnetton stISh/(c)gende hys(s)as set hilde, hogodon georne hwa }?8er mid orde aerost mihte 12$ on fsegean men feorh gewinnan, wigan mid wsepnum ; wael feol on eorSan. Stodon staedefseste, stihte hi ByrhtnoS, baed }?aet hyssa gehwylc hogode to wige, ]?e on Denon wolde dom gefeohtan. 130 Wod ]?a wiges heard, wsepen up ahof, bord to gebeorge, and wiS ]?aes beornes stop ; code swa anraed eorl to ]?am ceorle ; aeg]?er hyra 65rum yfeles hogode. Sende Sa se saerinc su]?erne gar, 135 ]?aet gewtmdod wearS wigena hlaford; he sceaf ]?a mid Sam scylde, J?set se sceaft tobaerst, and J?set spere sprengde, ]?aet hit sprang ongean. Gegremod wearS se guSrinc ; he mid gare stang wlancne wicing ]?e him ]?a wunde forgeaf. 140 Frod waes se fyrdrinc, he let his francan wadan 1 06. bremmas. 113. weard. 116. waerd. 122. stifthugende. XVI. THE BATTLE OF MALDON 75 ]?urh tfees hysses hals ; hand wisode J?aet he on ]?am fsersceaSan feorh geraehte. Da he 6]?erne ofstlice sceat, J?aet seo byrne tobaerst ; he wses on breostum wund 145 )>urh 5a hringlocan, him set heortan stod setterne ord. Se eorl waes ]?e bli]?ra, hloh J?a modi man, ssede Metode ]?anc Sses dsegweorces ]?e him Drihten forgeaf. Forlet ]?a drenga sum daroS of handa, 150 fleogan of folman, J?set se to forS gewat }?urh Sone se)?elan ^E)?elredes )?egen. Him be healfe stod hyse unweaxen, cniht on gecampe, se full caflice brsed of )?am beorne blodigne gar, 155 Wulfstanes beam, Wulfmser se geonga, forlet forheardne faran eft ongean ; ord in gewod, ]?8et se on eor]?an Iseg, )?e his ]?eoden ser Dearie gersehte. Eode J>a gesyrwed secg to ]?am eorle ; 1 60 he wolde ]?ass beornes beagas gefe/gan, reaf and hringas, and gerenod swurd. Da ByrhtnoS brsed bill of sce<5e, brad and brunecg, and on ]?a byrnan sloh ; to ra]?e hine gelette lidmanna sum, 165 J>a he ]?3es eorles earm amyrde ; feoll ]?a to foldan fealohilte swurd, ne mihte he gehealdan heardne mece, wsepnes wealdan. Pa gyt )?set word gecwseS har hilderinc, hyssas bylde, 170 bsed gangan forS gode geferan ; ne mihte ]?a on fotum leng fseste gest^ndan, ( ) he to heofenum wlat : * (Ic) ge]?anc(i)e )?e, Seoda Waldend, * ealra ]?3era wynna ]?e ic on worulde gebad ; 175 {nu ic ah, milde Metod, mseste ]?earfe 1 J?ast J»u minum gaste godes geunne, .* )?aet mm sawul to 5e siSian mote, {on Ipln geweald, Peoden engla, 1 60. gefecgan. 171. gestundan. 76 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE ' mid fri]?e ferian ; ic com frymdi to ]>e 1 80 ()?3et hi helsceaSan hynan ne moton.' Da hine heowon hseftene scealcas, and begen ]?a beornas }?e him big stodon, JElfaoft and Wulmaer, begen lagon ; 5a onemn hyra frean feorh gesealdon. 185 Hi bugon ]?a fram beaduwe )?e ]?8er beon noldon. Pser wurdon Oddan beam Merest on fleame, Godric fram gu]?e, and ]?one godan forlet ]?e him maenigne oft mear gesealde ; he gehleop ]?one eoh ]?e ahte his hlaford, 190 on ]?am ger^edum ]?e hit riht ne wses, and his bro<5ru mid him begen aer(n)don, Godz^ine and Godwig, guj?e ne gymdon, ac wendon fram ]?am wige and J?one wudu sdhton flugon on ]?8et fsesten, and hyra feore burgon, 195 and manna ma ]?onne hit senig maeS wsere gyf hi Ipa. geearnunga ealle gemundon ]?e he him to dugu]?e gedon hsefde. Swa him OfFa on daeg ser assede on ]?am me]?elstede, Ipa. he gemot hsefde, 200 J?aet ]?ser modelice manege sprabcon )?e eft set J»sere (]?earfe) j^olian noldon. Da wearS afeallen ]?ses folces ealdor, -^E]?elredes eorl ; ealle gesawon heorSgeneatas J?set hyra heorra Iseg. 205 Pa 5aer wendon forS wlance J>egenas, unearge men, efston georne ; hi woldon J>a ealle 6<5er twega, lif forlset^n oSSe leofne gewrecan. Swa hi bylde forS beam ^Elfrices, 210 wiga wintrum geong, wordum mselde; ^Elfwine ]?a cwseS, he on ellen sprsec : * Gemun«(S) j?a msela }?e we oft set meodo sprabcon, ' ]?onne we on bence beot ahofon, * hseleS on healle, ymbe heard gewinn ; 215 'nu mseg cunnian hwa cene sy. * Ic wylle mine se}>elo eallum gecy]?an, 192. godrine. 200. manega. 208. forlsetun. 212. gemunu ])a. XVI. THE BATTLE OF MALDON 77 ' j?aet ic waes on Myrcon miccles cynnes ; ' waes mm ealda feeder Ealhelm haten, 'wis ealdorman, woruldgesselig. 220 'Ne sceolon me on J?sere ]?eode }>egenas aetwitan, 1 )?aet ic of Sisse fyrde feran wille, ' eard gesecan, nu mm ealdor ligeS 'forheawen set hilde; me is J?set hearma msest ; ' he waes segcfer mm mseg and mm hlaford.' 225 pa he forS code, fJehSe gemunde, J?set he mid orde anne gersehte flotan on ]?am folce j?aet se on foldan laeg forwegen mid his wsepne. Ongan ]?a winas manian, frynd and geferan, ]?set hi forS eodon, 230 Offa gemselde, sescholt asceoc : ' Hwaet ]?u, ^Elfwine, hafast ealle gemanode ' f>egenas to ]?earfe : nu ure ]?eoden 115, ' eorl on eorSan, us is eallum ]?earf 'J?set ure ssghwylc oj^erne bylde 235 ' wigan t5 wige ]?a hwile ]?e he wsspen masge 'habban and healdan, heardne mece, ' gar and god swurd. Us Godric haefS, ' earh Oddan beam, ealle beswicene ; ' wende J?aes formoni man J>a he on meare rad, 240 'on wlancan ]?am wicge, ]?aet waere hit ure hlaford; 'for]?an wearS her on felda folc totwsemed, * scyldburh tobrocen. AbreoSe his angin, 'J?aet he her swa manigne man aflymde.' Leofsunu gemaelde, and his linde ahof, 245 bord to gebeorge ; he J>am beorne oncwaeS : { Ic ]?aet gehate, J?aet ic heonon nelle ' fleon fotes trym, ac wille furSor gan, 4 wrecan on gewinne minne winedrihten. 1 Ne ]?urfon me embe Sturmere stedefaeste haelaeS 250 'wordum aetwitan, nu mm wine gecranc, ']?8et ic hlafordleas ham siSie, ' wende fram wige ; ac me sceal wsepen niman, 'ord and iren.' He ful yrre wod, feaht faestlice, fleam he forhogode. 224. aegder. NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE 255 Dunnere j?a cwaeS, daroS acwehte, unorne ceorl, ofer call clypode, bsed ]?aet beorna gehwylc ByrhtnoS wrsece : * Ne maeg na wandian se J?e wrecan j?ence3 ( frean on folce, ne for feore murnan.' 260 pa hi forS eodon, feores hi ne rob ton ; ongunnon J?a hiredmen heardlice feohtan, grame garberend, and God bsedon J?set hi moston gewrecan hyra winedrihten, and on hyra feondum fyl gewyrcan. 265 Him se gysel ongan geornlice fylstan ; he wses on NorShymbron heardes cynnes, Ecglafes beam, him waes <ZEscferS nama ; he ne wandode na set J?am wigplegan, ac he fysde forS flan genehe ; 270 hwilon he on bord sceat, hwilon beorn taesde ; aefre embe stunde he sealde sume wunde J>a hwile Se he wsepna wealdan moste. Pa gyt on orde stod Eadweard se langa, gear*? and geornful ; gylpwordum sprasc 275 )?3et he nolde fleogan fotmsll landes, ofer baec bugan, ]?a his betera leg ; he braec ]?one bordweall and wi5 5a beornas feaht, oS past he his sincgyfan on J>am sabmannum wurSHce wrec £er he on waele laege. 280 Swa dyde fltyenc, 8e]?ele gefera, feaht eornoste, and swISe maenig 5J>er cene hi weredon ; fus and forSgeorn, Sibyrhtes broSor clufon celled bord, baerst bordes laerig, and seo byrne sang 285 gryreleoSa sum. Pa 33t guSe sloh Offa ]?one sselidan, ]?aet he on eorSan feoll and Sser Gaddes mseg grund gesohte. RaSe wearS get hilde OrTa forheawen ; he haefde 5eah gefor]?od ]?82t he his frean gehet, 290 swa he beotode aer wiS his beahgifan, J>set hi sceoldon begen on burh ridan, hale to hame, o33e on here crin<rgan, 274. gearc. 292. crintgan. XVI. THE BATTLE OF MALDON 79 on waelstowe wundum sweltan ; he laeg Segenlice Seodne gehende. 295 Da wearS borda gebrsec ; brimmen wodon, guSe gegremode ; gar oft ]?urhw6d fseges feorhhus. For5 (S)a code Wistan, Purslanes sunz/, wiS ]?as secgas feaht ; he wses on ge]?rang(e) hyra Jreora bana, 300 air him Wigelwes beam on ]?am wsele Isege. Paer wses stiS gemot ; stodon fseste wigan on gewinne, wigend cruncon, wundum werge ; wael feol on eor]?an. Oswold and Eadwold ealle hwile, 305 begen ]?a gebro]?ru, beornas trymedon, hyra winemagas, wordon baedon ]?aet hi }?aer set Searfe ]?olian sceoldon, unwaclice wsepna neotan. Byrhtwold maj»elode, bord hafenode ; 310 se waes eald geneat, sssc acwehte, he ful baldlice beornas Iserde : ' Hige sceal ]?e heardra, heorte J?e cenre, ' mod sceal ]?e mare, ]?e ure msegen lytlaS. ' Her 113 ure ealdor call forheawen, 315 'god on greote; a mseg gnornian 1 se 5e nu fram ]?is wigplegan wendan ]?ence3. * Ic com frod feores ; fram ic ne wille, *ac ic me be healfe mmum hlaforde, 'be swa leofan men, licgan ]?ence.' 320 Swa hi ^J?elgares beam ealle bylde Godric to gu]?e ; oft he gar forlet waelspere windan on ]?a wicingas, swa he on ]?am folce fyrmest code ; heow and hynde, o# J>set he on hilde gecranc ; 325 nses ]?ast na se Godric J?e Sa gii#e forbeah. 298. suna. 300. wigelines. 324. od. 325. gude. IV. BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN In the preceding three sections, which illustrate the traditional lore and the mentality of the Anglo-Saxon poet, the influence of Christian ecclesiasticism is not prominent. In the present section we give specimens exhibiting Biblical subjects and Christian ethos and doctrine as viewed by earnest, naive Anglo- Saxon churchmen, and by them set down in the native verse. The happy idea, attributed by Bede to Caedmon as the result of a heavenly monition, of telling the Hebrew Scriptural story and inculcating Christian principles in the traditional poetic language and metre, must have seemed a veritable gift of God to the Anglo-Saxon churchmen. 17 A. CEDMON'S HYMN This little poem is quoted by Bede in his Ecclesiastical 'History of the English People, written in A. D. 731, as the first poem composed by Csedmon after the visit of the heavenly messenger who told him to sing of the Creation. The original Northumbrian text of the poem has fortunately been preserved in one of the Latin MSS. of the History. It is one of the earliest specimens of Old English that we possess, as well as the earliest written version of an Anglo- Saxon poem. 1. Northumbrian Version Nu scylun hergan hefaenricaes Uard, Metudses maecti end his modgidanc, uerc uuldurfadur, sue he uundra gihuaes, eci Dryctin, or astelidae. 5 He serist scop selda barnum heben til hr5fe haleg scepen ; tha middungeard moncynnses uard, eci Dryctin, sefter tiadae firum folda, Frea allmectig. 80 xvii. C/EDMON'S HYMN 81 2. Later West Saxon Version \ Nu sculon herigean heofonrices Weard, Meotodes meahte ond his modge]?anc, weorc wuldorfseder, swa he wundra gehwses, ece Drihten or onstealde. He serest sceop eorSan bearnum, heofon t5 hrofe, halig Scyppend j ]?a middangeard moncynnes Weard, ece Drihten, sefter teode firum foldan, Frea selmihtig. B. BEDE'S DEATH-SONG Bede died in the year A.D. 735 at the monastery of Jarrow, near the mouth of the Tyne. There is extant a letter from Cuthbert, Abbot of Wearmouth and Jarrow, to Cuthwine, a friend, describing Bede's last moments. Cuthbert says, ' In our own tongue also (for he was skilled in our native songs), speaking of the dread departure of the soul from the body, he sang : 10 Fore there neldfaerae nsenig ni uuirthit thoncsnotturra than him tharf sle to ymbhycggannae Jer his hiniongae huaet his gastae godaes aeththa yflaes aefter deothdaege dcemid uueorthae.' Cuthbert also mentions that Bede translated into his own language part of St. John's Gospel and some extracts from the works of Bishop Isidore (A.D. 560-636). 18. BIBLICAL AND RELIGIOUS PASSAGES IN BEO WULF We have reproduced the chief passages in Beowulf of a biblical and religious character, as it is important to know their nature and extent in this poem, treating as it does of a period long anterior to the conversion to Christianity of any independent people of the Germanic race, yet probably composed in Bede's lifetime. At one time critics were of opinion that all these passages were later interpolations in a pre-Christian poem, but this view has been generally given up. The tone and phraseology of 11. 4-9 of the first passage remind us strongly of those of Caedmon's Hymn. Noteworthy is the nativte of the poet, who makes the scop sing the story of Creation in the hall Heorot Hrothgar the Danish king himself, like Beowulf the Geat, acknowledges the wisdom and power of God, and attributes to him success and victory. Yet, as we see in passage C, the poet calls the Danes 'heathen,' and pities their G 82 BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN benighted state, doubtless with an eye to the warning and edification of his readers or hearers. The religious passages, especially the numerous shorter ones, refer almost exclusively to the power of the Almighty (Metod, Dryhten, Alwealda, Wuldorcyning, etc.). A. THE MINSTREL SINGS THE STORY OF CREATION 11. 89-98 Peer waes hearpan sweg, swutol sang scopes ; ssegde se J?e cu]?e frumsceaft fira feorran reccan, cwseS )>set se ^Elmihtiga eorSan worhfte], 5 wlitebeorhtne wang, swa waeter bebugeS, gesette sigehre]?ig sunnan ond monan leoman to leohte landbuendum, ond gefraetwade foldan sceatas leomum ond leafum ; lif eac gesceop 10 cynna gehwylcum ]?ara 5e cwice hwyrfa]?. B. THE CURSE OF CAIN 11. 99-1 14 Swa Sa drihtguman dreamum lifdon eadiglice oS Saet an ongan fyrene fre[m]man, feond on helle ; wses se grimma gsest Grendel haten, 15 msere mearcstapa, se ]?e moras heold, fen ond fsesten ; fifelcynnes card wonsaeli wer weardode hwile si]?San him Scyppend forscrifen hsefde. In Caines cynne J>one cwealm gewrsec 20 ece Drihten ]?aes }>e he Abel slog ; ne gefeah he ]?sere fajhSe, ac he hine feor forwrsec, Metod for )?y mane, mancynne fram. Panon untydras ealle onwocon, eotenas ond ylfe ond orcneas, swylce gigantas, J?a wiS Gode wunnon lange Jrage ; he him ftses lean forgeald. XVIII. BIBLICAL AND RELIGIOUS PASSAGES IN BEOWULF 83 C. HEATHEN SACRIFICES 11. 175-188 Hrothgar, the Danish king, and his wise men, alarmed by Grendel's nightly attacks, take counsel as to what had best be done. They appeal to their gods in vain, and the poet pities their heathen ignorance. Hwilum hie geheton set hsergtrafum wigweorbunga, wordum bsedon ]?9et him gastbona geoce gefremede 30 wi<5 beodbreaum. Swylc waes beaw hyra, hsebenra hyht, helle gemundon in modsefan, Metod hie ne cubon, dseda demend, ne wiston hie Drihten God ne hie huru heofena helm herian ne cubon, 25 wuldres waldend. Wa biS bsem Se sceal burh sliSne niS sawle bescufan in fyres fae]?m, frofre ne wenan, wihte gewendan ; wel bi5 bsem ]?e mot aefter deaSdsege Drihten secean 40 ond to Feeder fsebmum freoSo wilnian. D. HIDDEN TREASURE 11. 3051-3073 . When men of old buried the hoard of treasure they laid a spell on it, pro- nouncing the curse of God on any who should disturb it. Ponne waes ]?set yrfe eacencraeftig, iumonna gold, galdre bewunden, baet 5am hringsele hrinan ne moste gumena abnig, nefne God sylfa, sigora soScyning, sealde ]?am 5e he wolde — he is gehyld manna — hord openian, efne swa hwylcum manna swa him gemet Suhte • ••• •••• Swa hit oS domes daeg diope benemdon, beodnas msere, ]?a Saet bser dydon, 84 BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN 50 ]?set se secg wsere synnum scildig, hergum geheaSerod, hellbendum fasst, wommum gewitnad, se <5one wong strude. E. SELECTED SHORTER PASSAGES 1. 11. 381-384" hine halig God for arstafum us onsende 55 to West-Denum, J?ses ic wen haebbe, wiS Grendles gryre. 2. 11. 478, 479 God ea]?e mseg ]?one dolsceaSan daeda getwaefan. 3. 11. 685-687 ond sij>5an witig God 60 on swahwse]?ere bond, halig Dryhten, maerSo deme, swa him gemet J>ince. 4. 11. 930, 931 a maeg God wyrcan wunder sefter wundre, wuldres Hyrde. 5. 11. 977-979 Saer abidan sceal maga mane fah miclan domes, hu him scir Metod scrifan wille. 0 6. 11. 1609-161 1 Sonne forstes bend Faeder onlseteS, onwindeS wgelrapas, se geweald hafaS ssela ond msela ; ]?83t is soS Metod. 7. 11. 2819, 2820 70 him of hreSre gewat sawol secan soSfasstra dom. XIX. EXODUS 85 19. EXODUS The Bodleian MS. Junius xi., written in the first half of the eleventh century, contains a number of A.-S. poems dealing with the following biblical subjects: (i) The first twenty-two chapters of Genesis, (2) the march of the Hebrews out of Egypt across the Red Sea (the Exodus}, (3) the first five chapters of the book of Daniel, (4) the temptation of Christ by Satan. At one time the whole of these poems were attributed to Caedmon, in view of Bede's statement that he sang ' of the whole story of Genesis, of the departure of Israel from Egypt, and of many other stories of Holy Scripture,' as well as ' of the Lord's incarnation, passion, resurrection, and ascension into heaven.' But closer investigation has shown that there is considerable variety of style and language as well as inequality of merit in these poems. At the same time it is quite possible that some of Coedmon's work may have survived in them. We thus conclude that the MS. is an anthology of A.-S. ecclesiastical poetry, more limited in its scope than the famous Exeter Book, written about the same time, which contains secular as well as religious verse. Exodus and Judith are the finest examples of A.-S. biblical verse-narrative. In Exodus the Bible story is not slavishly followed as it is in Genesis. The poet uses his fancy freely and writes almost as if he thought he had himself marched with the Israelites, sharing their fears and hopes. He has been in some measure influenced by Beowulf, judging by his use of certain words and phrases, yet he has a vigour and boldness of style which are his own. While the march of the Hebrews under Moses and their passage of the Red Sea are vividly described, the personality of Moses, unlike that of the leading figures in Beoividf, remains indistinct. On linguistic grounds Exodus is usually considered to be the earliest of the A.-S. poems of an exclusively biblical character, earlier than Genesis, Daniel, and Cynewulf's poems. But in vocabulary, phraseology, and metre it does not differ much from Judith, which is usually ascribed to the tenth century. Two passages, of some no lines in all, have been omitted, being much inferior to the rest of the poem and probably later interpolations. The text of the MS. has been somewhat carelessly written by the copyist, so that a number of conjectural emendations have had to be made. Hwaet, we feor ond neah gefrigen habbaS ofer middangeard Moyses domas, wrse/lico wordriht, wera cneorissum in uprodor, eadigra gehwam 5 sefter bealusiSe, bote Hfes lifigendra gehwam, langsumne rjied hseleSum secgan \ gehyre se 5e wille. Pone on westenne weroda Drihten, soSfsest cyning, mid his sylfes miht 10 gewyrSode, ond him wundra fela ece Alwalda in sent forgeaf. He waes leof Code, leoda aldor, 3. wraeclico. 8. werode. 86 BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN horse ond hreSergleaw ; herges wisa, freom folctoga, Faraones cyn, 15 Codes andsaca(n), gyrdwlte band, ]?aer him gesealde sigora Waldend, modgum magoneswum, his maga feorh, onwist eGles Abrahames sunum. Heah wses ]?set handlean, ond him hold Frea 20 gesealde waepna ge weald wi5 wraSra gryre ; ofercom mid ]?y campe cneomaga fela, feonda folcriht. Da wses forma sI5 ]?set hine weroda God wordum naegde, ]?2er he him gesaegde soSwundra fela, 25 hu J>as woruld worhte witig Drihten, eorSan ymbhwyrft, ond uprodor gesette sigerice, ond his sylfes naman, Sone yldo bearn ser ne cuSon, frod faedera cyn, J>eah hie fela wiston. 30 Hsefde he J>a geswISed soSum crseftum ond gewurSodne werodes aldor, Faraones feond, on forSwegas. Pa waes ^ngera ealdum witum, deaSe gedre^rced drihtfolca maest, 35 hordwearda hryre ; heaf wses geniwad, swsefon seledreamas since berofene ; hsefde mansceaSan set middere niht frecne gefylled, frumbearna fela, abro/ene burhweardas ; bana wide scraS, 40 laS leodhata. Land dry^m^de deadra hrsewum ; dugoS forS gewat, wop waes wide, worulddreama lyt ; waeron hleahtorsmiSum handa belocene, alyfed laSsIS leode gret(t)an, 45 folc ferende ; feond waes bereafod, hergas on helle ; heofon ]?ider becom, druron deofolgyld. Daeg wses mabre ofer middangeard, J?a seo mengeo for ; swa ]?ses faesten dreah fela missera 33. ingere. 34. gedrenced. 39. abrotene S., abrocene MS. 40. dryrmyde. 44. grettan S. 45. freond. XIX. EXODUS 87 50 ealdwerige, Egypta folc, J>aes ]?e hie wideferS wyrnan ]?ohton Moyses magum, gif hie Metod lete, onlangne lust leofes si<5es. Fyrd wses gefysed, from se Se Isedde, 55 modig magorae(s)wa, maegburh heora. Oferfor he mid J»y folce faesten(n)a worn; land ond leod^eard laSra manna, enge anpaSas, unciaS gelad, o5 ]?aet hie on guSmyrce gea/we bseron ; ^•MMMHAm^W 60 waeron land heora lyfthelme be]?eaht, mearchofu morheald ; Mouses ofer fra fela meor(r)inga fyrde gelsedde. Heht ]?a ymb twaniht tirfaeste haeleS, siSSan hie feondum oSfaren hsefdon, 65 ymbwicigean _werodes bearhtme, mid selfare, ^Ethanes byrig, masgnes mseste, mearclandum on. Nearwe genyddon on norSwegas, wiston him be suSan Sigelwara land, 70 forbaerned burhhleoSu, brune leode, hatum heofoncolum. Paer halig God wiS faerbryne folc gescylde, baelce oferbrsedde byrnendne heofon, halgan nette, hatwendne lyft. 75 Haefde wederwolcen widum fseSmum eorSan ond uprodor efne gedseled, Isedde leodwerod, ligfyr adranc hate heofontorht. HaeleS w^edon, drihta gedrympst. Daegsceldes hleo 80 wand ofer wolcnum ; haefde witig God sunnan siSfset segle ofertolden, swa Sa msestrapas men ne cuSon, ne Sa seglrode geseon meahton eorSbuende ealle crasfte, 85 hu afsestnod waes feldhusa maest. SiSSan he mid wuldre geweorSode 57. leodweard. 59. geatwe S. , gearwe MS. 62. meorringa S. 63. tirfaestne. 66. aelfere. 79. daegscealdes. 81. swegle. 88 BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN Peoden holde, ]?a waes ]?ridda wic folce to frofre ; fyrd call geseah hu ]?aer hlifedon halige seglas, 90 lyftwundor leoht ; leode ongeton, dugo<5 Israhela, J?ast J>ser Drihten cwom, weroda Drihten \ycsteal metan. Him beforan foran fyr ond wolcen in beorhtrodor, beamas twegen, 95 ]?ara seghwaeSer efngedselde heah]?egnunga haliges gastes, deormodra siS, dagum ond nihtum. Pa ic on morgen gefrsegn modes rofan hebban herebyman hludan stefnum, 100 wuldres woman. Werod eall aras. ^ : „. •» 9 modigra msegen, swa him Moyses bebead, msere magoraeswa, Metodes folce, fus fyrdgetrum ; forS gesawon lifes lat/eow lif(t)weg metan. 105 Segl siSe weold, saimen sefter foron flodwege ; folc waes on salum, hlud herges cyrm. Heofonbeacen astah sefena gehwam, 63er wundor syllic aefter sunnan — setlrade beheold — , no ofer leodwerum lige scinan, byrnende beam. Blace stodon ofer sceotendum scire leoman, scinon scyldhreotJan, sceado sw^Sredon, neowle nihtscuwan neah ne mihton, 115 heolstor ahydan. Heofoncandel barn ; mwe nihtweard nyde sceolde wician ofer weredum, ]>j l^es him westengryre har(es) hseS(es) holmegum wederum o(n) f^rclamme ferhS getwsef(de). 1 20 Haefde foregenga fyrene loccas, blace beamas, hilegesan hweop in )?am here]?reate, hatan lige, he on westenne werod forbsernde, 104. latpeow. 105. swegl. 113. swiftredon. 119. ferclamme. 121. bellegesan. XIX. EXODUS 89 nymSe hie modhwate Moyses hyrde. 125 Scean scir werod, scyldas lixton ; gesawon randwigan rihte straste ; segn ofer sweoton oS J?aet sjefaesten, landes set ende, leo(d)maegne forstod, fus on forSweg ; fyrdwlc aras, 130 wyrpton hie werige, wiste gensegdon, modige mete]?egnas hyra maegen bet(t)on. Brseddon aefter beorgum, siSSan byme sang, flotan feldhusum ; }>a wses feorSe wiCj randwigena raest, be J?an readan 533. 135 Daer on fyrd hyra fasrspell becwom, oht inlende ; egsan stodan, waelgryre weroda. Wraecmon gebad laSne lastweard, se Se him lange ser eSelleasum q/^(t)nied gescraf, 140 v/ean witum fsest ; wsere ne gymdon, J?eah ]?e se yldra cyning 83r ge(sealde). Da wearS yrfeweard ingefolca manna sefter maSmurn, J?aet he swa miceles geSah ; ealles J^aes forgeton, siSSan grame wurdon, 145 Egypta cyn, ymb an^(s) wig, Sa heo his maegwinum morSor fremedon, wroht berenedon, wsere fraeton. Wseron hea?5owylmas heortan getenge, mihtmod wera; manum treowum 150 woldon hie ]?aet feorhlean facne gyldan, J>aette he ]?aet daegweorc dreore gebohte, Moyses leode, j?ser him mihtig God on Sam spilds;Se spede forgefe. •M- • ^^C»* Pa him eorla mod ortrywe wearS, 155 siSSan hie gesawon of suSwegum fyrd Faraonis forS ongangan, oferholt wegan, cored Hxan, ]?ufas J^unian, ]?eod mearc tredan ; garas trymedon, gu5 hwearfode ; 1 60 blicon bordhreoSan, byman sungon, 139. onnied. 145. anes wig S. , antwig MS. 146. MS. has heo heo for heo. 90 BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN on hwsel (. .) hreopon herefugolas hilde grsedige, deawigfeSere, ofer drihtneum, wonn waelceasega. Wulfas sungon 165 atol sefenleoS sates on wenan, carleasan deor, cwyldrof beodan on la<5ra last leodmsegnes fyl, . hreopon mearcweardas middum nihtum, fleah fasge gast, folc waes geh(n)£eged. 17° Hwilum of ]?am werode wlance ]?egnas mseton milpaSas meara bogum. Him J?2er segncyning wiS ]?one segn foran, manna ]?engel, mearc]?reate rad : HBffVBiBi guSweard gumena grimhelm gespeon, 175 cyning cinberge — cumbol lixtoh- wiges on wenum, waelhlencan sceoc, het his hereciste healdan georne fsestyyrdgetrum ; freond on ssegon laSum eagan landmanna cyme. 1 80 Ymb hine wgeron wlgend unforhte, hare heor<?wulfas, hilde gretton, Jmrstige j^raecwiges, ]?eodenholde. Hsefde him alesen leoda dugeSe tireadigra twa Jnisendo, *-%5 ]?aet wseron cyningas and cneowmagas on ]?3et ea(l)de riht aeSelum deore; forSon anra gehwilc ut alaedde wsepnedcynnes wigan seghwilcne }?ara J>e he on Sam fyrste findan mihte. 190 Wseron inge men ealle aetgaedere, cyningas on corSre ; cuS oft geb(e)ad horn on heape to hwses hsegstealdmen, guS]?reat gumena, geaAve b^eron. Swa j?ser eorp werod, ecan Iseddon, 195 laS aefter laSum, leodmaegnes worn, J»usendm2elum, ]?ider wseron fuse ; 162. hwreopon. 167. ful. 176. hwaelhlencan. 178. syrdgetrum ; onsigon. 180. waeron S. , wsegon MS. 181. heorawulfas. 193. geatwe S. , gearwe MS. XIX. EXODUS 91 haefdon hie gemynted to ]?am maegenheapum to ]?am aerdaege, Israhela cynn billum abreotan on hyra broSorgyld. 200 For]?on waes in wicum wop up ahafen, atol aefenleoS. Egesan stodon, weredon waelnet, J?a se woma cwom ; flugon frecne spel ; feond waes anmod, werud waes wigblac, oS ]?aet wlance forsceaf 205 mihtig engel, se 5a menigeo beheold, |>aet ]?ser gelaSe mid him leng ne mihton geseon tosomne ; sIS wass gedseled. Haefde nydfara nihtlangne fyrst, ]?eah Se him on healfa gehwam hettend seomedon, 210 maegen oSSe merestream ; nahton maran hwyrft, waeron orwenan eSelrihtes, saeton aefter beorgum in blacum reafum wean on wenum. Wasccende bad call seo sibgedriht somod aetgaedere 215 maran maegenes, oS (Saet) Moyses bebead eorlas on uhttid aernum bemum, folc somnigean, frecan arisan, habban heora hlencan, hycgan on ellen, beran beorht searo, beacnum cigean 220 sweot sande near ; snelle gemundon weardas wigleoS. Werod waes gefysed, bmdon ofer burgum — byman gehyrdon — flotan feldhusum, fyrd waes on ofste. SiSSan hie getealdon wi5 j?am teonhete 225 on )?am forSherge feSan twelfe m5de rof(r)a ; maegen waes onhrered. Waes on anra gehwam aeSelan cynnes «4iMM*MHMMn^B^MMM>HMMHMMHMMI|<*' • alesen under lindum leoda duguSe on folcgetael fiftig cista ; 230 haefde cista gehwilc cuSes werodes garberendra, guSfremmendra, tyn hund geteled, tireadigra ; ]?aet waes wiglic werod ; wac(e) ne gretton in )?aet rincgetael raeswan herges, 235 ]?a ]?e for geoguSe gyt ne mihton 92 BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN under bordhreoftan breostnet wera wi(5 flane feond folmum werigean, ne him bealubenne gebiden haefdon ofer linde laerig, Hcwunde swo/, 240 gylpplegan gares. Gamele ne moston, hare heaSorincas, hilde on]?eon, gif him modheapum maegen sw^Srade, ac hie be waestmum wig(heap) curon, hu in leodscipe laestan wolde 245 mod mid aran ; eac ]?an maegnes craeft (. . . .) garbeames feng. Pa waes handrofra here setgaedere, fus forSwegas. Fana up (ge)rad, beama beorhtost ; b/<^on ealle J?a gen 2 CQ hwonne siSboda saestreamum neah leoht ofer lindum lyftedoras braec. Ahleop ]?a for haeleSum hildecalla, bald beohata, bord up ah5f, heht ]?a folctogan fyrde gestillan, ]?enden m5diges meSel monige gehyrdon. Wolde reordigean rices hyrde ofer hereciste halgan stefne ; werodes wisa wurSmyndum spraec : ' Ne beoS ge ]?y forhtran, ]?eah }>e Faraon brohte 260 ' sweordwigendra side hergas, ' eorla unrim. Him eallum wile ' mihtig Drihten ]mrh mine hand * to daege }?issum daedlean gyfan, ' ]?aet hie lifigende leng ne moton 265 * ^gnian mid yrmSum Israhela cyn. ' Ne willaS eow andraedan deade feSan, ' feege ferhSlocan ; fyrst is aet ende c laenes lifes. Eow is lar Codes ' abroden of breostum ; ic on beteran raed, ']?3et ge gewurSien wuldres Aldor, ' ond eow Liffrean lissa bidde, ' sigora gesynto, J>£er ge slSien. 239. swol S. , swor MS. 242. swiSrade. 249. buton. 265. ognian S. , asgnian MS. xix. EXODUS 93 'Pis is se ecea Abrahames God, 'frumsceafta Frea, se <5as fyrd wereS, 275 ' modig ond maegenrof mid ]?sere miclan hand.' Hof Sa for hergum hlude stefne lifgendra /eod, ]?a he to leodum spraec : ' Hwaet, ge nu eagum to on lociatJ, ' folca leofost, faerwundra sum, 280 'hu ic sylfa sloh, ond £>eos swiSre hand, ' grene tane garsecges deop ; 'yS up fereS, ofstum wyrce5 ' waeter wealfsesten. Wegas syndon dryge, c haswe herestraeta, holm gerymed, 285 'ealde staSolas, ]?a ic ser ne gefrsegn ' ofer middangeard men geferan, ' fage feldas, ]?a for5 heonon ' in ec(ness)e ySe J?eahton, ' sselde ssegrundas. Su(n)</ wind fornam, 290 ' bseSweges bluest ; bum is areafod, ' sandsse Jsp(r)an(c). Ic wat soS gere ' J?aet eow mihtig God miltse gecySde, ' eorlas serglade ! Ofest is selost, ' j^aet ge of feonda fseSme weorSen, 295 'nu se Agend(frea) up arserde ' reade streamas in randgebeorh ; ' syndon }?a foreweallas faegre gestepte, 'wraetlicu wsegfaru, o3 wolcna hrof.' ^Efter J>am wordum werod call aras, 300 modigra msegen ; mere stille bad. Hofon herecyste hwlte linde, segnas on sande ; sabweall astah, uplang gestod wiS Israhelum andaagne fyrst ; waes seo eorla gedriht 505 anes modes, .... fsestum faeSmum freocfowsere heold ; nalles hi gehyrdon haliges lare leofes leoj> laaste near, 277. J>eod. 281. tacne. 283. wealfsesten. 288. ecnesse S. 289. suSwind. 290. bring. 291. sandsse aspranc S. , sand saecir span MS. 307. hige gehyrdon. 94 BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN sweg swISrode, ond sanies bland. 310 pa ]?aet feorSe cyn fyrmest code, wod on wsegstream, wigan on heape, ofer grenne grund ; ludisc feSa an o^ette uncuS gelad for his iriEegwiniim, swa him mihtig God 315 }>3es daegweorces deop lean forgeald, siSSan him gesselde sigorworca hreS, ]?35t he ealdordom agan sceolde ofer cynericu, cneowmaga blsed. Hsefdon him to segne, ]?a hie on sund stigon, 320 ofer bordhreoSan beacen arsered in j?am garheape, gyldenne leo^, drihtfolca msest, deora cenost ; be ]?am herewisan hynSo ne woldon be him lifigendum lange ]?olian, 325 ]?onne hie to gu5e garwudu rserdon, Seoda senigre. Pracz/ wees on ore, heard handplega, hsegsteald modige wsepna wselslihtes, wigend unforhte, bilswaSu blodige, beadumsegnes raes, 330 grimhelma gegrind, ]?ser ludas for. ^Efter ]?aere fyrde flota modgade, Rubenes sunu ; randas ba^ron ssewlcingas ofer sealtne mersc, man(na) memo, micel angetrum 335 code unforht. He his ealdordom synnum aswefede, j?aet he srSor for on leofes last ; him on leodsceare frumbearnes riht freobroSor o5]rah, ead ond seSelo ; he wses gearu swa]?eah. 340 peer aefter him (foron) folca J>rySum suna Simeones, sweotum comon, ]?ridde j^eodmaegen, — ]?ufas wundon ofer garfare — guScyste on]?rang dea(S)wigsceaftum. Daegwoma becwom 345 ofer garsecge, Godes beacna sum, 309. sances. 313. an onette S. , an onorette MS. 321. leor. 326. ]>raca. 341. sunu. 344. deaSwigsceaftum S. , deawig sceaftum MS. 345. garsecges. XIX. EXODUS 95 morgen m<?retorht. Msegen forS gewat, J>a ]?£er folcmaegen for setter oSrum isernhergum ; an wisode msegen]?rymmum msest — Jy he msere wearS — 350 on forSwegas, folc setter /oleum, cynn setter cynne ; cu<5e seghwilc msegburga riht, swa him Moises bead, eorla aeSelo ; him wses an fseder. Leof leodfruma landriht ge]?ah, 355 frod on ferhfte, freomagum leof, cende cneowsibbe cenra manna, heahfsedera sum, halige J^eode, Israela cyn, ^nriht Codes. Swa ]?set or]?ancum ealde reccaS, 360 ]?a ]?e msegburge mxst gefrunon, frumcyn feora, faederaeSelo gehwses. • •*• •••• Folc waes afsered ; flodegsa becwom gastas geomre, geofon deaSe hweop. Wseron beorhhliSu blode bestemed, 365 holm heolfre spaw, hream wses on yftum, v449) wseter wsepna ful, wselmist astah. Wgeron Egypte eft oncyrde, flugon forhtigende, fser ongeton, woldon herebleaSe hamas findan, 37° gylp wear<5 gnornra. Him ongen genap (454) atol ySa gewealc ; ne S^er senig becwom herges to hame, ac behindan beleac wyrd mid wsege, pser sir wegas lagon, mere modgode, maegen waes adrenced 375 Streamas stodon, storm up gewat (459) heah to heofonum, herewopa msest ; Ia5e cyrmdon — lyft up geswearc — fsegum st^fnum ; flod blod gewod. Randbyrig wjeron rofene, rodor swipode 380 meredeaSa msest ; modige swulton (464) 346. mseretorht. 35°- wolcnum. 358. anriht S. , onriht MS. 378. staefnum. BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN cyningas on cortfre, cyrm swiSrode sses set ende — wigbord scinon. Heah ofer haeleSum holmweall astah, merestream modig ; msegen wses on cwealme 385 fseste gefeterod, forSgang esnes (469) Searwum ^sailed. Sand hi renodon witodre zfyrde hwonne waSema stream, sincalda sae sealtum ySum, aeflastum gewuna, ece staSulas, 390 nacud nydboda, neosan come, (474) fah feSegast, se 3e feondum ge/^(w)eop. Wses seo hsewene lyft heolfre geblanden ; brim berstende blodegesan hweop saemanna sIS, oS J>aet soS Metod 395 ]mrh Moyses hand modge rymde, (479) wide wseSde, waelfeeSmum sweop ; flod famgode, faege crungon, lagu land gefeol, lyft wses onhrered ; wicon weallfsesten, wssgas burston, 400 multon meretorras, ]?a se Mihtiga sloh (4^4) mid halige hand, heofonrices Weard, (on) werbeamas. Wlance Seode ne mihton forhabban, helpendrayfe<5(m), merestreames mod, ac he manegum gesceod, 405 gyllende gryre ; garsecg wedde, (489) up ateah, on sleap ; egesan stodon, weollon wselbenna. Wi^rod gefeol heah of heofonum, handweorc Godes, famigbosma flodwearde sloh, 410 unhleowan wasg, aide mece, (494) ]?aet Sy deaSdrepe drihte swsefon, synfullra sweot, sawlum lunnon faeste befarene, flodblac here, siSSan hie on ^ogum faan yrrmga 415 modwaega maest. Maegen eall gedreas, (499) 381. eyre. 385. forftgang esnes S., forSganges nep MS. 386. sesseled. hi renodon S. barenodon MS. 387. fyrde. 391. gehweop S., geneop MS. 403. faeSm/S. , paS MS. 407. wigrod S. , witrod MS. 414. on hogum hran yrringa St, on bogum brun yppinge MS. 415. modewasga. XIX. EXODUS 97 ]?e gedre(n)cte, dugoS Egypta, Faraon mid his folcum ; he onfond hraSe, siSSan (he grund) gestah, Godes andsaca, ]?aet wses mihtigra mereflodes weard ; 420 wolde IwrufseSmum hilde gesceadan, 104) yrre ond egesfull. Egyptum wearS J?3es dsegweorces deop lean gesceod ; forSam J»ses heriges ham eft ne com, ealles ungrundes, £enig to lafe, 425 ]>sette sI5 heora secgan moste, [09) bodigean sefter burgum bealospella msest, hordwearda hryre hseleSa cwenum, ac ]?a msegen]?reatas meredeaS geswealh, (swa eac) spelbodan, se 5e sped ahte ; 430 ageat gylp wera ; hie wicS God wunnon. 514) panon Israhelum ece rsedas on merehwearfe Moyse(s) saegde, heah]?ungen wer, halige sprsece, deop serende .... • ••• •••* 435 Swa reordode rseda gemyndig 548) manna mildost, mihtum swiSed, hludan stefne ; here stille bad witodes willan, wundor ongeton, modiges muShsel ; he to msenegum sprgec : 440 * Micel is ]?eos menigeo, maegenwisa trum, 553) 'fullesta mabst, se 5as fare laldeS, ' hafaS us on Cananea cyn gelyfed ' burh ond beagas, brade rice, { wile nu gelsestan ]?aet he lange gehet 445 (niid aSsware, engla Drihten, 558) 'in fyrndagum fsederyncynne, ' gif ge gehealdaS halige lare, ' ]?set ge feonda gehwone forS ofergangaS, 'gesittaS sigerice be ssem tweonum, 4^0 ' beorselas beorna ; biS eower bljed micel.' 563) ^Efter j?am wordum werod wses on salum, 416. deajje S. , Sa )>e MS. 417. onfeond. 420. huru fseSmum. 442. MS. has ufonfor us on. H 98 BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN sungon sigebyman, segnas stodon on faegerne sweg. Folc waes on lande ; haefde wuldres beam werud gelaeded, 455 halige heapas, on hyld Codes. (568) Life gefe(g)on, J?a hie oSlseded haefdon feorh of feonda dome, ]?eah Se hie hit frecne geneSdon, weras under waetera hrofas. Gesawon hie J>aer weallas standan ; ealle him brimu blodige buhton, ]?urh ba heora beadosearo wsegon. 460 HreSdon hildespelle, siSSan hie Mm wiSforon, (573) h5fon here)?reatas hlude stefne for bam daedweorce — Drihten heredon — weras wuldres sang, wif on oSrum, folcsweota maest, fyrdleoS g^lan 465 aclum stefnum, eallwundra fela. (578) Pa waes eSfynde Afrisc meowle on geofones staSe, golde geweorSod, hand ahofon, halswurSunge, bliSe waeron, b5te gesawon, 470 heddon herereafes — haeft waes onsasled, (573) ongunnon saelafe segnum dselan on ySlafe, ealde madmas, reaf ond randas ; heo(m) on riht sceo(de) gold ond godweb, losepes gestreon, 475 wera wuldorgesteald. Werigend lagon (588) on deaSstede, drihtfolca mae(st). 20. CYNEWULF Four of the best A.-S. Christian poems, Juliana^ Elene, Fates of the Apost.es , Crist, closely akin in treatment and style, have one peculiarity in common. Each of them contains a passage with an acrostic written in runic letters. Besides standing for one of the significant words in the text each rune at the same time represents a letter of the alphabet. In each poem these letters taken together in the order in which they occur spell the name Cynewulf or Cynwulf. The natural inference is that this is the name of the poet, who wished in this way to perpetuate his memory. His identity has not been established with certainty ; some scholars think he was the Northumbrian bishop Cynwulf who lived in the eighth century. In the poems attributed to Cynewulf there is comparatively little left of the 455. hild. 460. ham S., |>am MS. 464. galan. XX. CYNEWULF 99 influence of the old heroic poetry which is so strong in Exodus and Judith, They have a pensive and mystically tender tone which on occasion, especially in Crist, swells into lyrical exaltation. Their author was a bookman, not a man of action ; he is well versed in lives of saints and homilies, as well as in the Bible. As a narrator he is clear and straightforward. A. CRIST The poem Crist, numbering 1693 lines, consists of three parts, dealing respectively with the Advent, the Ascension, and the Last Judgement. The second part, 11. 440-866, contains an acrostic giving the name of the poet ; the latest editor, Professor A. Cook, believes they are all by Cynewulf, but that they were not necessarily all written at the same period. 1. 11. 214-274 Eala ]?u so5a ond ]?u sibsuma ealra cyninga cyning, Crist selmihtig, hu )>u abr wsere eallum geworden worulde brymmum mid bmne wuldorfaeder 5 cild acenned Jmrh his craeft ond meaht. Nis abnig nu eorl under lyfte, secg searo]?oncol, to J>aes swISe gleaw be bset asecgan msege sundbuendum, areccan mid ryhte, hu J?e rodera Weard 10 set frym<5e genom him to freobearne. Pset waes ]mra J>inga be her ]?eoda cynn gefrugn<?n mid folcum, a3t fruman serest geworden under wolcnum, ]?aet witig God, lifes ordfruma, leoht ond bystro 15 gedselde dryhtlice, ond him waes domes geweald ; on ]?a wisan abead weoroda ealdor : — 1 Nu sie geworden for)? a to widan feore ' leoht lixende lifgendra gehwam • ']?e in cneorissum cende weorSen.' 20 Ond ]?a sona gelomp, J>a hit swa sceolde ; leoma leohtade leoda msegjmm, torht mid tunglum, asfter J?on tida bigong ; sylfa sette baet ]?u sunu wsere efeneardigende mid bmne «ngan frean 12. gefrugnen. 16. MS. has ond/or on. 1 8. lixende gefea lifgendra. 24. engan. IOO BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN 2c &* fcon oht }?isses aifre gewurde. ]>u eart seo snyttro ]?e ]?as sidan gesceaft mid Jy> Waldende worhtes ealle. For]?on nis genig J?aes horse, ne J>aes hygecrseftig, ]?e J?In fromcyn maege fira bearnum 30 sweotule gese]?an. Cum nu, sigores Weard, Meotod moncynnes, ond ]?ine miltse her arfaest ywe ; us is eallum neod J>aet we J>in medrencynn motan cunnan, ryhtgeryno, nu we areccan ne maegon ^^ J>83t fasdrencynn fier owihte. PU J?isne middangeard milde geblissa J>urh Sinne hercyme, h^elende Crist, ond J>a gyldnan geatu ]?e in geardagum ful longe ser bilocen stodan, 40 heofona heahfrea, hat ontynan ; ond usic J»onne gesece, J?urh J>m sylfes gong, eaSmod t5 eor]?an. Us is Jnnra arna J?earf. HafaS se awyrgda wulf tostenced, deorc d^arscua, Dryhten, ]?in eowde, wide towrecene ; J>3et Su, Wealdend, ser blode gebohtes, ]?3et se bealofulla hyneS heardllce, ond him on haeft nimeS ofer uss^; nioda lust. For]?on we, Nergend, J?e biddaS geornlice breostgehygdum 50 l^t ^ hraedlice helpe gefremme wergum wreccan ; j^set se wi(t)tes bona in helle grund hean gedreose ; ond J>m hondgeweorc, haele]?a scyppend, mote arisan ond on ryht cuman 55 to J>am upcundan ae]?elan rice, J?onan us ser J?urh synlust se swearta ga^st forteah ond fortylde, >aet we, tires wone, a butan ende sculon erm]?u dreogan, butan ]?u usic )?on ofostlicor, ece Dryhten, 60 set J>am leodscea]?an, lifgende God, helm alwihta, hreddan wille. 27. }>i. 44. daedscua. 48. usse. 51. wittes S. CAMPBELL COLLECTION XX. CYNEWULF IOI 2. 11. 779-814 Ne ]?earf him ondrsedan deofla strselas senig on eorSan, aelda cynnes, gromra garfare, gif hine God scilde]? 65 duguSa Dryhten. Is ]?am dome neah, ]?aet we gelice sceolon leanum hleotan, swa we widefeorh weorcum hlodun geond sldne grund. Us secgaS bee hu set serestan eadmod astag 70 in middangeard maegna Goldhord, in faamnan fseSm, freobearn Godes, halig of heah]?u. Huru ic wene me, ond eac ondrsede, dom Sy refran, Sonne eft cymeS engla ]?eoden, 75 ]?e ic ne heold teala J?set me Haelend mm on b5cum bibead. Ic j^aes br5gan sceal geseon synwrsece, ]?aes J?e ic s63 talge, J?3sr monig(e) beo<5 on gemot laed^ fore onsyne eces deman. 80 Ponne C(en) cwacaS, gehyreS Cyning mseSlan, rodera ryhtend sprecan rej?e word J?am J>e him ser in worulde wace hyrdon, J>enden Y(r) ond N(yd) y]?ast meahtan frofre findan. Pser sceal forht monig 85 on ]?am wongstede werig bidan hwset him aefter dsedum deman wille wraj?ra wita. Bi]? se W(yn) scaecen eor]?an fraetwa. tJ(re) waes longe, L(agu)flodum bilocen lifwynna dsel, 90 F(eoh) on foldan. Ponne fraetwe sculon byrnan on bsele ; blac rasetteS recen reada leg, re]?e scrtyeS geond woruld wide. Wongas hreosaS, burgstede berstaS. Brond biS on tyhte, 95 teleS ealdgestrgon unmurnlice, gsesta gifrast, ]?set geo guman heoldan, ]?enden him on eorj?an onmedla waes. 78. 102 BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN B. ELENE 11. 1236-1276 Elene is one of the longer A.-S. poems, comprising as it does 1320 lines. It describes in flowing narrative of a simpler style than Exodiis how by order of the Empress Helena a search was made for the cross on which Christ was crucified, and how it was found buried deep in the ground together with the crosses of the two malefactors. The Cross is taken to Helena, who has it splendidly' adorned with gold, silver, and precious stones, and commands all believers to commemorate the happy event by a yearly festival. The poem proper ends with 1. 1235, and ends with the word Finit. Then follows a passage of 85 lines of which we print here the first half. These lines are usually considered to be an autobiographical note by Cynewulf. The internal rhymes are noteworthy in that they were written at so early a date ; they should be compared with those of the Rhyme Poem ; see No. 23 infra. PUS ic frod ond fus Jmrh ]?aet fsecne hus wordcrseft(ig) wses ond wundrum laes, 100 bragum Jreodude ond ge]?onc ^eodode nihtes nearwe. Nysse ic gearwe be J?sere riht(an eaht), ser me rumran ge]?eaht J»urh 5a mseran meaht on modes J>eaht wisdom onwrah. Ic wses weorcum fah, 105 synnum asseled, sorgum gewseled, bitrum gebunden, bisgum bej?rungen, ser me lare onlag J>urh leohtne had, gamelum t5 geoce, gife unscynde Maegencyning amset ond on gemynd begeat, no torht ontynde, tidum gerymde, bancofan onband, breostlocan onwand, leoSucrssft onleac ; )?8es ic lustum breac, willum in worlde. Ic ]?3es wuldres treowes oft nales ssne hsefde ingemynd, 1 1 5 ser ic J>set wundor onwrigen hsefde ymb ]?one beorhtan beam, swa ic on bocum fand, wyrda gangum, on gewritum cySan be Sam sigebeacne. A wses s^qg- oS Sset cnyssed cearwelmum, C(en) drusende, 120 beah he in medohealle maSmas J?ege, se(p)plede gold ; Y(r) gnornode, 99. waes S. , waef MS. 100. neodode S. , reodode MS. 102. rihtan eaht S. 103. meaht S. , miht MS. 104. onwreah. 118. saecc. XX. CYNEWULF I 03 N(yd)gefera, nearusorge dreah, enge rune, ]?ser him E(oh) fore milpaSas maet, modig Jraegde 125 wirum gewlenced. W(yn) is gesw^Srad, gomen aefter gearum, geogocS is gecyrred, aid onmedla ; U(r) wses geara geogoShades glsem. Nu synt gewitene, Hfwynne geliden, swa L(agu) toglideS, 130 flodas gefysde. F(eoh) geghwam bi'S labne under lyfte. Landes fraetwe gewita]? under wolcnum winde gelicost, ]?onne he for hseleSum hlud astigeS ; wseSeS be wolcnum, wedende faereS 135 and oft semninga swige gewyrSeS, in nedcleofan nearwe geheaSrod, J>ream forj-»rycced. 125. geswiftrad. V. MISCELLANEOUS 21. GNOMIC AND DIDACTIC There are several A.-S. poems containing wise saws, sage counsels, and short aphoristic remarks about men and things. They are so disconnected that one is tempted to regard them as merely exercises in versification. It is, however, more probable that the monks who wrote them were meeting the popular taste for such saws, grouping them together by alliterating verse. On the scanty evidence of their language, these poems are often considered to be of early date, but such evidence is not conclusive. Indeed, the metre if anything points to a late date, possibly well on in the tenth century. A. THE WAYS OF CREATION Cyning sceal rice healdan. Ceastra beotJ feorran gesyne, orSanc enta geweorc, ]?a ]?e on bysse eorSan syndon, wrsetlic weallstana geweorc. Wind byS on lyfte swiftust, bunar byS bragum hludast. Pry m mas syndan Cristes myccle, 5 wyrd byS swISost Winter by<5 cealdost, lencten hrimigost, he byS lengest ceald, sumor sunwlitegost, swegel byt> hatost, haerfest hreSeadegost, haeleSum bringeS geares wsestmas, J»a ]?e him God sendeS. 10 SoS biS sww/olost, sine by5 deorost, gold gumena gehwam, ond gomol snoterost, fyrngearum frod, se be ser feala gebideS. Wea biS wundrum clibbor. Wolcnu scriSaS. Geongne se^eling sceolan gode gesISas 15 byldan to beaduwe ond to beahgife. Ellen sceal on eorle, ecg sceal wi<5 helme hilde gebidan. Hafuc sceal on glofe 10. swicolost. 16. hellme. 104 XXL GNOMIC AND DIDACTIC 1 05 wilde gewunian, wulf sceal on bearowe, ea.rm anhaga, eofor sceal on holte, 20 toSmaegenes trum. Til sceal on eSle domes wyrcean. DaroS sceal on handa, gar golde fah. Gim sceal on hringe standan steap ond geap. Stream sceal on yGum me(n)cgan mereflode. Msest sceal on ceole, 25 segelgyrd seomian. Sweord sceal on bearme, drihtlic isern. Draca sceal on hlaewe, frod, frsetwum wlanc. Fisc sceal on wsetere cynren cennan. Cyning sceal on healle beagas daelan. Bera_ sceal on haeSe 30 eald ond egesfull. Ea of dune sceal flodgrseg feran. Fyrd sceal aetsomne, tirfaestra getrum. Treow sceal on eorle, wisdom on were. Wudu sceal on foldan blabdum blowan. Beorh sceal on eor]?an 35 grene standan. God sceal on heofenum dseda demend. Duru sceal on healle, rum recedes muS. Rand sceal on scylde, fsest fingra gebeorh. Fugel uppe sceal lacan on lyfte. Leax sceal on wsele 40 mid sceote scriftan. Scur sceal on heofenum winde geblanden in ]?as woruld cuman. Peof sceal gangan J>y strum wederum. Pyrs sceal on fenne gewunian ana innan lande. Ides sceal dyrne craefte, faemne hire freond gesecean, gif heo nelle on folce ge]?eon, 45 l^set hi man beagum gebicge. Brim sceal sealte weallan, lyfthelm ond laguflod ymb ealra landa gehwylc, flowan firgenstreamas. Feoh sceal on eorSan tydran ond tyman. Tungol sceal on heofenum beorhte scman, swa him bebead Meotud. 50 God sceal wi5 yfele, geogoS sceal wiS yldo, lif sceal wi5 dea]?e, leoht sceal wiS J?ystrum, fyrd wiS fyrde, feond wiS oSrum, Ia5 wi5 la]?e ymb land sacan, synne staelan. A sceal snotor hycgean 19. earn. 106 MISCELLANEOUS ymb J?ysse worulde gewinn ; wearh hangian, faegere ongildan J»aet he aer facen dyde manna cynne. Meotod ana wat hwyder seo sawul sceal sySSan hweorfan, ond ealle ]?a gastas ]?e for Gode hweorfaS 60 aefter deaSdaege, domes bidaS on faeder faeSme. Is seo forSgesceaft digol ond dyrne ; Drihten ana wat, nergende Faeder ; nseni(g) eft cymeS hider under hrofas, J?e ]?aet her for so5 65 mannum secge hwylc sy Meotodes gesceaft, sigefolca gesetu, ]?£er he sylfa wunat). B. THE GIFTS OF MEN Fela biS on foldan forSgesynra geongra geofona, J>a ]?a ga^stberend wegaS in gewitte, swa her weoruda God, 70 Meotud meahtum swIS, monnum dseleS, syleS sundorgiefe, sendeS wide agne spede, ]?ara seghwylc mot dryhtwuniendra dsel onfon. Ne biS senig J?aes earfoSsselig 75 mon on moldan, ne ]?aes medspedig, lytelhydig, ne J?ses laethydig, J?3et hine se Argifa ealles biscyrge modes craefta o»e maegendaeda, wis on gewitte, o)?]?e on wordcwidum, 80 }>y lalbs (he) ormod sy ealra )?inga J>ara ]>Q he geworhte in woruldlife, geofona gehwylcre ; nsefre God demeS ]?aet senig eft J?aes earm geweorSe. Naenig eft J>aes swi]?e ]?urh snyttrucraeft 85 in >eode ]?rym >isses lifes forG gestigeS, >aet him folca Weard }nirh his halige giefe hider onsende wise ge]?ohtas ond woruldcraeftas, under anes meaht ealle forlaete, XXI. GNOMIC AND DIDACTIC 90 ]>y Ises he for wlence, wuldorgeofona ful, mon mode swi<5, of gemete hweorfe ond ]?onne forhycge heanspedigran. Ac he gedseleS, se ]?e ah domes ge weald, missenlice geond J>isne middangeard 95 leoda leoj?ocraeftas londbuendum. Sumum her ofer eorj?an aehta onllhS, woruldgestreona. Sum biS wonspedig, heardsselig haele, bij? hwse]?re gleaw modes craefta. Sum maegenstrengo 100 fur]?or onfehS. Sum freolic biS, wlitig on waestmum. Sum biG woSbora, giedda giffaest. Sum biS gearuwyrdig. Sum bi5 on hunto]?e hreSeadigra, deora drsefend. Sum dyre bi5 105 woruldricum men. Sum bi5 wiges heard, beadocraeftig beorn, J>aer bord stunaS. Sum in maeSle maeg modsnottera folcrsedenne fortJ gehycgan, ]?ser witena biS worn aetsomne. no Sum maeg wraetlice weorc ahycgan heahtimbra gehwaes ; hond biS gelsered, wis ond gewealden, swa bi5 wyrhtan ryht, sele asettan ; con he sidne raeced faeste gefegan wij? fserdryrum. 115 Sum mid hondum maeg hearpan gretan, ah he gleobeames gearobrygda list. Sum bi3 rynig, sum ryhtscytte, sum leoSa gleaw, sum on londe snel, fe}>espedig. Sum (on) fealone waeg 120 stefnan steoreS, streamrade con weorudes wisa ofer widne holm, ]?onne saerofe snelle maegne arum bregdaS ySborde neah. Sum biS syndig, sum searocraeftig 125 goldes ond gimma, ]?onne him gumena weard hate<5 him to masrjmm maJ?J»um renian. Sum maeg waepenjpraece, wlge to nytte modcraeftig smiS, monige gefremman, 108 MISCELLANEOUS Jxmne he gewyrceS to wera hilde 130 helm oj?]?e hupseax oSSe hea]?ubyrnan, scirne mece, oSSe scyldes rond faeste gefegan wiS flyge gares. Sum biS arfsest ond aelmesgeorn, }?eawum ge]?yde. Sum biS J>egn gehweorf 135 on meoduhealle. Sum biS meares gleaw, wic(g)crsefta wis. Sum gewealdenmod J>afaS in gefylde ]?aet he ]?onne sceal. Sum domas con, f»3er dryhtguman rsed eahtiaS. Sum biS hrsedtsefle. 140 Sum biS gewittig set wm]?ege, beorhyrde god. Sum biS bylda til ham to h^bb^nne. Sum biS heretoga, fyrdwisa from. Sum bi]? folcwita. Sum bfy aet ]?earf(e) J>risthydigra T45 J'egn mid his )?eodne. Sum ge]?yld hafaS, faestgongel ferS. Sum biS fugelbona, haefeces craeftig. Sum biS to horse hwaet. Sum bi5 swISsnel, hafaS searolic gomen, gleodseda gife for gum]?egnum, 150 leoht ond leo]?uwac. Sum biS leofwende, hafaS mod ond word monnum ge]?w£ere. Sum her geornlice gsestes J>earfe mode bewinde]? ond him Metudes ej-t ofer eorSwelan ealne geceoseS. 155 Sum biS deormod deofles gewinnes biS a wiS firenum in gefeoht gearo. Sum craeft hafaS circnytta fela, maeg on lofsongum lifes Waldend hlude hergan, hafaS healice 1 60 beorhte stefne. Sum biS boca gleaw, larum leo]?ufaest. Sum bi)? listhendig to awritanne wordgeryno. Nis nu ofer eor]?an senig monna mode J?aes craeftig ne ]?aes maegeneacen 165 J?aet hi(m) gefre anum ealle weorj?en gegearwade, )>y laes him gilp sceSSe, 142. habbenne. 153. eft. XXI. GNOMIC AND DIDACTIC 109 obbe fore bggre maerbe mod astige, gif he hafab ana ofer ealle men wlite ond wisdom ond weorca blaM. 170 Ac he missenlice monna cynne gielpes styreS ond his giefe bryttaS sumum on cystum, sumum on crseftum, sumum on wlite, sumum on wige ; sumum he syleS monna milde heortan, 175 beawfaestne geboht, sum bib beodne hold. Swa weorSHce wide tosaweS Dryhten his dugube ; a bses dom age, leohtbasre lof, se us bis lif giefeS ond his milde mod monnum C. A FATHER'S ADVICE It is possible, as Brandl suggests (G.E.L. p. 962), that these lines, obviously written by a cleric, were intended for the instruction of a young prince or noble (freobearn). 1 80 Dus frod fseder freobearn Iserde, modsnottor (mon), mag^cystum eald, wordum wisfsestum, )?set he wel ]?unge : — 1 Do a j?aette duge ; deag bin gewyrht ; ' God ]?e biS symle goda gehwylces 'frea ond fultum, feond j?am o]?rum ' wyrsan gewyrhta. Wene bee ]?y betran ; ' efn elne ]?is a benden bu lifge. ' Faeder ond modor freo bu mid heortan, ' maga gehwylcne, gif him sy Meotud on lufan. 190 'Wes bu blnum yldrum arfeest symle, 4 faegerwyrde, ond J>e in ferSe laet * }?ine lareowas leofe in mode, ' ba bee geornast to gode trymmen.' Faeder eft his sunu frod gegrette 195 obre sibe : * Heald elne )>is : ' ne freme firene, ne nsefre freonde binum, 4 msege man ne ge]?afa, ]?y laes bee Meotud oncunne 181. magacystum. 183. gewyrhtu. I 10 MISCELLANEOUS ' ]?aet J?u sy wommes gewita ; he ]?e mid wite gielde<5, ' swylce ]?am 6]?rum mid eadwelan.' 200 Driddan si}>e Jxmcsnottor guma breostgehygdum his beam labrde : * Ne gewuna wyrsan widan feore ' sengum sehta, ac }>u J>e anne genim ' to gesprecan symle spella ond lara 205 ' rsedhycgende ; sy ymb rice swa hit msege.' Feor]?an siSe fseder eft Iserde modleofne magan J»3st he gemunde ]?is : ' Ne aswic sundorwine, ac a symle geheald 1 rihtum gerisnum ; raefn elne ]?is, 210 *J>3et J>u nsefre fsecne weorSe freonde J^inum.' Fiftan si]?e faeder eft ongon breostgejxmcum his beam Iseran : 1 Druncen beorg ]?e ond dollic word, { man on mode ond in muj?e lyge, 215' yrre on(i sefste ond idese lufan ; {forj»on sceal sewiscmod oft sij>ian, * se )?e gewiteS in wifes lufan, * fremdre meowlan ; J^ser bi5 a firena wen, 1 la,51icre scome, long niS wi5 God, 220 'geotende gielp. Wes Ipu a giedda wis, ' wser wiS willan, worda hyrde.' Siextan si]?e swses eft ongon ]?urh bliSne gej^oht his beam Iseran : ' Ongiet georne hwaet sy god oj?]?e yfel, 225 'ond toscead simle scearpe mode ' in sefan J>mum, ond J?e a J?aet selle geceos ; 1 a ]?e biS gedaeled, gif )?e deah hyge ; ' wunaS wisdom in, ond Jms wast geare ' ondgit yfles ; heald J>e elne wiS ; 230 ' feorma J?u symle in J>mum ferSe god.' Seofe)?an sij?e his sunu laerde faeder, frod guma, saegde fela geongum : ' Seldan snottor guma sorgleas blissaS, * swylce dol seldon drymeS sorgful 235 ' ymD n^s forSgesceaft, nefne he fseh]?e wite. 215. aefeste. XXI. GNOMIC AND DIDACTIC I I I c Waerwyrde sceal, wisfsest haele, ' breostum hycgan, nales breahtme hlud.' Eahto]?an sif»e eald faeder ongon his mago monian mildum wor-dum : 240 ' Leorna lara Isergedefe, ' wene ]?ec in wisdom weoruda Scyppend, ' hafa ]?e to hyhte haligra gemynd, ' ond a so5 to sige, J>onne J?u secge hwset.' Nige]?an stye nsegde se gomola, 245 eald uftwita, saegde eaforan worn : 1 Is nu fela folca ]?2ette fyrngewritu 'healdan wille, ac him hyge brosnaS, ' ellen colaS, IdlaS ]?eodscipe ; ' ne habba<5 wiht for }?3et, ]?eah hi wo/z don 250 * ofer Meotudes bibod ; monig sceal ongieldan ' sawol susles. Ac laet f>inne sefan healdan { forS fyrngewritu ond Frean domas, 1 ]?a }>Q her on msegSe gehw^r men forlseta}) {swi]?or asigan ]?onne him sy sylfum riht.' 255 Teo]?an si]?e tornsorgna ful eald eft ongon eaforan laeran : * Snyttra bruce]? ]?e fore sawle lufan ' warnaS him wommas worda ond dseda { on sefan symle, ond so]? fremeS : 260 ' biS him geofona gehwylc gode geyced, ' meahtum spedig, J»onne he man flyhS. * Yrre ne Iset J>e £efre gewealdan * heah in hre]?re, heoroworda grund ' wylme bismitan, ac him warnaS J^aet 265 ' on geheortum hyge. Haele sceal wlsfaest, c (milde) ond gemetlic, modes snottor, ' gleaw in gehygdum, georn wisdomes ; ' swa he wiS seldu maeg eades hleotan. ' Ne beo }>u no to t^lende ne to tweosprsece, 270 ' ne ]>e on mode last men to fraco]?e, ' ac beo leofwende ; leoht on gehygdum 1 ber breostcofan. Swa ]?u, mm beam, gemyne ' frode faederlare ond }?ec a wiS firenum geheald.' 249. worn. 253. gehwoere. 261. mon. 266. gemetlice. 268. aelda. I I 2 MISCELLANEOUS 22. RIDDLES Enigmas and riddles must have been current among the people of all countries ages before they were put into writing. Collections of riddles written in Latin verse have been preserved, the earliest of which is that of Symphosius, a continental writer. Their composition was a favourite recreation of learned men in the early Middle Ages, and it is well known that some of the most eminent Anglo-Saxon churchmen wrote riddles, for example Aldhelm, bishop of Sherborne, in the seventh century, and Tatwine, archbishop of Canterbury, Eusebius, abbot of Wearmouth, Bonifatius, and Alcuin, archbishop of York, in the eighth century. A collection of riddles is also ascribed to Bede. All these writers used Latin verse. A collection of over ninety A.-S. riddles has been preserved in the Exeter Book, which while owing a good deal to the Latin collections, especially to those of Aldhelm and Symphosius, for their inspiration and method, undoubtedly include much that is native and popular. For a long time the authorship of this collection was ascribed to Cynewulf, but scholars are now inclined to abandon the theory of single authorship. Some of the poems usually included in the riddles of the Exeter Book are not riddles at all ; others are descriptions rather than riddles. The authors of the riddles often write with vigour and liveliness, and with a zest which shows that they enjoy the freedom of the literary genre as well as the pleasure of baffling the guesser. Some of the descriptions are remarkably fine, e.g. that of the hurricane, the second of our selections. The traditional vocabulary and phraseology of the earlier poetry are occasionally employed, but there is no trace of pre-Christian folk-lore. The pessimistic moralizing of so many A. -S. poems is refreshingly absent ; Brandl may be right in thinking that these riddles were intended for the amusement of the polite society of courts, conceivably also, we may add, of monasteries. Judging by their language and versification the A.-S. Riddles would seem to belong to various periods. Some of the earliest, dating from the eighth century, must have been written in the Northumbrian dialect.' The original version of one of them (Q- 2) has been preserved. A (RiD. i) Hwylc is hselejm )?32S horse ond )?aes hygecraeftig J>set J>aet maege asecgan, hwa mec on si<5 wrsece, Jxmne ic astige strong, stundum re]?e, Jrymful Jnmie, J»ragum wrsefre, 5 fere geond foldan, folcsalo baerne, reced reafige ? Recas stigaS haswe ofer hrSfum, hlin biS on eorjmn, waelcwselm wera. J»onne ic wudu hrere, bearwas bledhwate, beamas fylle 10 hdme gehrefed, heahum mean turn 4. wraece. 10. helme S, , holme MS. XXII. RIDDLES I I 3 wrec^n on waj?e, wide sended. Haebbe me on hrycge ]?aet ser hadas wreah foldbuendra, flaesc ond gsestas somod on sonde. Saga hwa mec ]?ecce, o]?J?e hu ic hatte, >e >a hlaest here. B (Rm. 3) Hwilum mec mm frea faeste genearwaS, sende<5 ]?onne under sablwonge bearm (on) bradan, ond on bid wriceS, J?rafa3 on J?ystrum J?rymma sumne, 20 ha3st(e) on enge, ]?£er me he^rd siteS hruse on hrycge ; nah ic hwyrftweges of )?am aglace, ac ic e]?elstol haslej^a hreru ; hornsalu wagiaS, wera wicstede ; weallas beofiaS 25 steape ofer stiwitum. Stille ]?ynce5 lyft ofer londe, ond lagu swige, oj?]?aet ic of enge up a]?ringe, efne swa mec wisaS se mec wr£e3re on set frumsceafte fur]?um legde, 30 bende ond clomme, >83t ic onbugan ne mot of ]?8ss gewealde J»e me wegas tsecneS. Hwilum ic sceal ufan y]?a wregan, (streamas) styrgan, ond to sta>e ]?ywan flintgrsegne flod ; famig winneS 35 wseg wiS wealle ; wonn ariseS dun ofer dype, hyre deorc on last eare geblonden 6]?er fereS ]?3et hy gemittaS mearclonde neah, hea hlincas. Peer biS hlud wada, 40 brimgiesta breahtm ; bidaS stille stealc(e) stanhleo]?u streamgewinnes, hopgehnastes, >onne heah ge>ring on cleofu cryde> ; >2er biS ceole wen sli]?re S33cce, gif hyne sse byreS ii. wrecan. I7> salwonge. 20. hastst ; heord. 28. wraede. 39. wada S., wudu MS. I 114 MISCELLANEOUS 45 on J?a grim man tid gsesta fulne, ]?aet he scyle rice birofen weor]?an, feore bifohten, faemig ridan y>a hrycgum ; J^aer bi5 egsa sum aeldum geywed ]?ara ]?e ic hyran sceal, 50 strong on stiSweg ; hwa gestilleS J>aet ? Hwilum ic )?urhn£se ]?set me on baece rldeS, won wsegfatu, wide to]?ringe lagustreama full, hwilum laete eft slupan tosomne. Se biS swega maest, 55 breahtma ofer burgum, ond gebreca hludast, )?onne scearp cymeS sceo wij? 6]?rum, ecg wi5 ecge ; e^rpan gesceafte fus ofer folcum fyre sw^/aS, blacan Hge, ond gebrecu feraS 60 deorc ofer dreo/^um gedyne micle, faratS feohtende, feallan IsetaS, sweart sum send#(5) seaw of bosme, waetan of wombe. Winnende fareS atol eoredjreat ; egsa astigeS, 65 micel modjrea, monna cynne, brogan on burgum, ]?onne blace scotaS scrij>ende scin scearpum wsepnum. Dol him ne ondrabdeS Sa deaSsperu, swylteS hwae]?re, gif him s5<5 Meotud 70 on geryht^ (forS) ]?urh regn ufan of gestune labteS straele fleogan, farende flan ; fea ]?set gedygaS ]?ara ]?e gergeceS rynegiestes waepen. Ic ]?ses orleges or anstelle, 75 jxmne gewite wolcengehnaste ]?urh ge]?raec )?rmgan ]?nmme micle ofer b^rnan bosm ; biersteS hlude heah hloSgecrod ; >onne hnige eft under lyfte helm londe near 80 ond me (on) hrycg hlade J>3et ic habban sceal, 57. earpan. 58. swselaS S. , swaetatJ MS. 60. dreontum. 62. sum sendaS S., sum sendu MS. 66. scotaS S., scotiaS MS. 70. geryhte forS 5. , geryhtu MS. 77- byrnan. XXII. RIDDLES I I 5 meahtum gemanad mines frean. Svva ic ]?rymfiil ]?eow ]?ragum winne, hwilum under eor]?an, hwilum y]?a sceal hean underhmgan, hwilum holm ufan, 85 streamas styrge, hwilum stlge up, wolcnfare wrege, wide fere swift ond swi]?freom. Saga hwset ic hatte, o]?]?e hwa mec rsere, }?onne ic restan ne not, o]?]?e hwa mec stae5)?e, J>onne ic stille beom. C (RID. 12) 90 Fotum ic fere, foldan slite, grene wongas, ]?enden ic gaest here. Gif me feorh losaS, faeste binde swearte Wealas, hwilum sellan men. Hwilum ic deorum drincan selle 95 beorne of bosme ; hwilum mec bryd triedeS felawlonc fotum ; hwilum feorran broht wonfeax Wale wegeS ond J>yS, dol druncmennen, deorcum nihtum wseteS in wastre, wyrmeS hwilum 100 fa3gre to fyre ; me on faeSme stica]? hygegalan hond, hwyrfeS geneahhe, swifeS me geond sweartne. Saga hwset ic hatte, ]?e ic lifgende lond reafige, ond 83fter dea]?e dryhtum }?eowige. D (RID. 15) 105 Hals is mm hwit ond heafod fealo, sidan swa some ; swift ic eom on fe]?e, beadowsepen bere ; me on baece standaS her, swylce sue on hleorum ; hlifiaS tu earan ofer eagum ; ordum ic steppe no in grene grass. Me bi8 gyrn witod gif mec onhsele 2,n onfindeS waelgrim wiga, ]?ser ic wic buge, bold mid bearnum, ond ic bide J?abr 87. swij)feorm. Il6 MISCELLANEOUS rnid geogutScnosle, hwonne gaest cume 115 to durum minum ; him bij> deaS witod. For]?on ic sceal of e51e eaforan mine forhtmod fergan, fleame nergan, gif he me aefterweard ealles weorj?eS ; hi ne ber(i)a5 breost. Ic his bldan ne dear, 120 re]?es on geruman — ne ic ]?aet rsed teale- ac ic sceal fromlice fe]?emundum Jmrh steapne beorg strsete wyrcan. EaJ?e ic mseg freora feorh genergan, gif ic mot m^egburge mine gelsedan 125 on degolne weg ]?urh dune J>yrel, swsese ond gesibbe ; ic me si]?]?an ne f>earf waelhwelpes wig wiht onsittan, gif se nISscea]?a nearwe stige me on swaj»e sece]? ; ne tosjelej? him 130 on J>am gegnpa]?e guj>gemotes, si]?]?an ic f>urh hylles hrof gersece, ond J»urh h^st hrino hildepilum laSgewinnum ]?am )?e ic longe fleah. E (RID. 22) ^Etsomne cwom siextig monna !35 to W8egstse]?e wicgum ridan ; haefdon endlefen eoredmaecgas firdhengestas, feower sceamas. Ne meahton magorincas ofer mere feolan swa hi fundedon, ac wses flod to deop, 14° atol y]?a gejraec, ofras hea, streamas stronge. Ongunnon stigan ]?a on waegn weras j ond hyra wicg somod, hlodan under hrunge ; ]?a ]?a hors oSbaer, e(o)h ond eorlas, aescum dealle, 145 ofer wsetres byht waegn to lande, swa hine oxa ne teah ne esna maegen, 119. hi ne beriaS breost S. , hine beraS breost MS. 120. ne ic S. , nele MS. 124. msegburge mot. 132. hest. 137. fridhengestas. 144. eh. XXII. RIDDLES I I 7 ne fset hengest, ne on flode sworn, ne be grunde wod gestum under, ne lagu drefde, ne on lyfte fleag, 150 ne under baec cyrde ; brohte hwaej^re beornas ofer burnan, ond hyra bloncan mid, from staeSe heaum, J>aet hy stopan up on o)?erne, ellenrofe weras of waege, ond hyra wicg gesund. F (RiD. 32) I55 Is J>es middangeard missenlicum wisum gewlitegad, wrsettum gefrsetwad ; sijmrn sellic ic seah searo hweorfan, grindan wi5 greote, giellende faran ; ngefde sellicu wiht syne ne folme, 1 60 exle ne earmas, sceal on anum fet searoceap swifan, swij^e feran, faran ofer feldas, haefde fela ribba ; muS waes on middan, moncynne nyt ; fere(S) foddurwelan, folcscipe dreogeS, 165 wist in wigeS, ond werum gieldeS gaful geara gehwam, j?aes ]?e guman brucaS rice ond heane. Rece, gif J»u cunne, wis, worda gleaw, hwset sio wiht sie. G (RiD. 35) •; 1 Mec se waeta wong wundrum freorig 170 of his innate ser<?st cende. Ne wat ic mec beworhtne wulle flysum, hserum ]?urh heahcraeft, hyge}>oncum in. Wundene me ne beoS wefle, ne ic wearp hafu, ne Jmrh J>reata ge]?racu ]?rsed me ne hlimmeS, 175 ne aet me hrutende hrisil scrIJ>eS, ne mec ohwonan sceal am cnyssan. Wyrmas mec ne awsefan wyrda craeftum, 164. feretJ S. 170. aerist. 172. hyge]>oncum min. 176. amas. I I 8 MISCELLANEOUS ]?a J>e geolo godwebb geatwum frsetwaS. Wile mec mon hwse]?re sej>eah wide ofer. eor]?an 1 80 hatan for haelejmm hyhtlic gewsede. Saga soScwidum, searo]>oncum gleaw, wordum wlsfaest, hwset ]?is gewaide sy. The following is a much earlier Northumbrian text of this riddle, written at the end of a Latin MS. (Voss. Q. 106, fol. 246), in the Leiden University Library. Some of the words and letters which are damaged or illegible are enclosed in square brackets. The language and spelling should be compared with those of Ccedmon's Hymn (No. 17 Ai) and Bede's Death-Song (No. 17 B). Mec se ueta uong uundrum freorig i joa ob his innaSae serest caend[ae]. NI uuat ic mec biuorthae uullan fiiusum, herum Serh hehcraeft higido[n]cum [in]. Uundnae me ni biaS ueflag, ni ic uarp hefse, ni Serih Srea[t]un giSraec Sret me hlimmith, 1750 ne me hrutendi hrisil scelfaeS, ni mec 6u[ua]n[a] aam sceal cnyssa. Uyrmas mec ni auefun uyrdi craeftum, 8a Si goelu godueb geatum fraetuath. Uil mec hudrae suae Seh iridse ofaer eorSu i8o« hatan mith heliSum hyhtlic giusede. Ni anoegu n(a) ic me aerigfaerae egsan brogum, Seh Si ni[maen flanas fracjadlicae ob cocrum. H (Rm. 39) Gewritu secgaS ]?83t seo wiht sy mid moncynne miclum tidum 185 sweotol ond gesyne; sundorcraeft hafaS maran micle ]?onne hit men witen. Heo wile gesecan sundor geghwylcne feorhberendra, gewiteS eft feran on weg ; ne biS hio nsefre niht J?aer 6]?re, 190 ac hio sceal wideferh wreccan laste anoegun. XXII. RIDDLES I I 9 hamleas hweorfan ; no ]?y heanre bij?. Ne hafaS hio fot ne folm, ne Eefre foldan hran, ne eagen<2 (hafaS) signer twega, ne muS hafa]? ne wi]? monnum spraec, 195 ne gewit hafa<5, ac gewritu secgaS f>aet seo sy earmost ealra wihta J>ara ]>e sefter gecyndum cenned wabre. Ne hafaS hio sawle ne feorh, ac hio styas sceal geond J>as wundorworuld wide dreogan. 200 Ne hafaS hio blod ne ban, hwsefre bearmim wear<5 geond }?isne middangeard mongum to frofre. Nsefre hio heofonum hran ne to helle mot ; ac hio sceal wideferh Wuldorcyninges larum lifgan. Long is to secganne 205 hu hyre ealdorgesceaft setter gongeS, wohwyrda gesceapu ; J>3et (is) wrsetlic J>ing to gesecganne ; so5 is seghwylc ]?ara ]?e ymb ]?as wiht wordum becne?5 ; ne hafaS heo ^nig lim, leofa]? efne se)?eah. 210 Gif J>u maege r^selan recene gesecgan sojnim wordum, saga hwset hio hatte. I (Rio. 55) Ic seah in heall(e), }>3*r haeleS druncon, on flet beran feower cynna : wr^etlic wudutreow ond wunden gold, 215 sine searobunden, ond seolfres dabl, ond rode tacn, ]?aes us to roderum up hlsedre raerde, ser he helwara burg abrxce. Ic ]?ses beames maeg ea]?e for eorlum se]?elu secgan ; 220 J^aer wses hlin ond ac, ond se hearda iw, ond se fealwa holen. Frean sindon ealle nyt setgsedre, naman habbaS anne, wulf heafodtreo ; ]?set oft wsepen ahead his mondryhtne, maSm in healle, 193. eagene. 210. reselan. 223. -heafed-. abead 5. , absed MS. I2O MISCELLANEOUS 225 goldhilted sweord. Nu me gieddes pisses ondsware ywe, se hi(m) ne o^-mede wordum secgan hu se wudu hatte. 23. RHYME POEM In the earlier A.-S. verse rhyme is occasionally met with inside the alliterating line, cf. the passage from Cynewulf's Elene (No. 20 B) ; but its use may be regarded as a whim of the poet. Clearly it formed no part of the traditional technique of A.-S. versification. In the verse of the tenth century rhyme begins to occur more frequently in the alliterating verse, but it never rises above a humble role during the whole period when the alliterating verse was written. The familiar rhyming Latin hymns may have prompted ecclesiastical writers of A.-S. verse to imitation ; it is also not unlikely that rhyming was used in proverbs and popular verse. The Rhyme Poem, consisting of eighty-seven lines, of which we here give the first portion, is interesting as an experiment on a considerable scale in a new and difficult technique already utilized to a slight extent. A number of the words used occur nowhere else ; the general theme is the familiar one of regret for past happiness. The sense is frequently sacrificed to the rhyme. Me Hfes onlah se ]?is leoht onwrah, and ]?aet torhte get^h, tillice onwrah. Glaed waes ic gliwum, glenged hiwum blissa bleoum, blostma hiwum. 5 Secgas mec segon, symbel ne alegon, feorhgiefe gefegon ; fraetwed vregon wic(g) ofer wongum wennan gongum lisse mid longum leoma getongum. Pa waes waestmum aweaht, wor(u)ld ons/re(a)ht, 10 under roderum areaht, rsedmaegne oferbeaht. Giestas gengdon, ge/scype mengdon, lisse lengdon, lustum glengdon. Scrifen scrad, glad ]?urh gescad in brad ; W83S on lagustreame lad, J?aer me leq/ii ne biglad. 15 Hsefde ic heanne had ; ne waes me in'healle gad, J>aet J>ser rof weor(u)d rad ; oft }?aer rinc gebad ; ]?set he in sele ssege sincgewaege ]?egnum ge]?yhte. Penden ic waes (on) hyhte ; horsce mec heredon, hilde generedon, 20 faegre feredon, feond^w biweredon. 225. Jjisses gieddes. 226. him ne ormede S., hine on mede MS. 2. geteoh. 6. wsegum. 9. onstreaht S., onspreht MS. n. gepscype 5. , gerscype MS. 14. leofu S. , leojju MS. 18. waes ic msegen. 20. feondon. XXIII. RHYME POEM I 2 I Swa mec hyhtgiefu heold, hygedryht befeold ; sta]?ol32htum ste<?ld, stepegongum weold ; swylce eor]?e 61, ahte ic ealdorstol, galdorwordum gol ; gomel sibbe ne ofol, 25 ac waes g(i)ef(f)<«st ger, gellende sner, wuniendo wser, wilbec bescaer. Scealcas wseron scearpe, scyl waes hearpe, hlude hlynede, hleo]x)r dynede, sweglrad swinsade, swi]?e ne minsade ; burgsele b/fade, beorht hlifade. Ellen eacnade, ead beacnade, freaum frodade, fromum godade ; mod maegnade, mine faegnade, treow telgade, tir welgade, blsed blissade, (bleo glissade); gold gearwade, gim hwearfade, sine searwade, sib nearwade. From ic waes in fraetwum, freolic in geatwum ; waes mm dream dryhtlic, drohtat) hyhtlic. 40 Foldan ic freo]x)de, folcum ic leo]?ode ; lif waes mm longe leodum in gemonge, tirum getonge, teala gehonge. 24. LATE A.-S. AND TRANSITIONAL VERSE The following poem, which occurs in two MSS. of the A.-S. Chronicle (C and D] anno 1065, is the last surviving example of the traditional alliterating verse. The versification is fairly correct, judged by the earlier standard, more correct than that of the Battle of Maldon and the Fight at Finnsburh. Her Eadward kingc, Engla hlaford, sende so]?fae[ste] sawle to Criste, on Codes wsere gast haligne. He on worulde her wunode Jrage, 5 on kyne]?rymme, craeftig raeda, feower and twentig freolic wealdend wintra gerimes weolan brytnode ; 22. steald. 24. ofoll. 25. gefest, gear. 30. beofode. 38. in in geatwum. 122 MISCELLANEOUS and healfe tid haelefta wealdend weold welge]mngen Walum and Scottum 10 and Bryttum eac, byre .ZESelredes, Englum and Sexum, oretmaegcum. Swa ymbclyppa'S ceald(e) brymmas, ]?a3t call Eadwarde, aeSelum kinge, hyrdon holdlice hagestealde menn. 15 Wses §, blitJemSd bealuleas kyng, J?eah he lang(e) ser lande bereafod wunode wrseclastum wide geond eorSan, sySSan Cnut ofercom kynn and Dene weoldon deore rice 20 Englalandes, eahta and twentig wintra gerimes welan bry(t)nodan. SySSan for5 becSm freolice in geatwum kyningc kystum god, clsene and milde, Eadward se aeSela e5el bewerede, 25 land and leode, o5 ]?2et lungre becom dea5 se bitera, and swa deore genam, se]?elne of eorSan. Englas feredon so]?faeste sawle innan swegles leoht and se froda swa]?Sah befaeste J?aet rice heahjmngenum menn, Harolde sylfum, se)?elum eorle, se in ealle tid hyrde holdlice haerran slnum wordum and d£edum ; wihte ne agselde J>aes J>e J?earf wses )?3es )?eodkyninges. B The so-called ' poetical prose,' mainly ' trochaic ' and ' dactylic ' in rhythm, of which the earliest dated example occurs in the A.-S. Chronicle anno 959 (Laud MS.), and which became more and more used, made great use of assonance or weak rhymes resulting from the constant occurrence of the past tense of weak verbs ending in -de or -den and of nouns ending in -e. As time went on, full or ' rich ' rhyme was occasionally used. We give first a specimen from the entry anno 959 : And Codes lage smeade oft and gelome, and Codes lof rserde wide and side, and wislice rsedde, oftost a simle, for Code and for worulde, ealle his J>eode. XXIV. LATE A.-S. AND TRANSITIONAL VERSE 123 In the entry anno 975 (Laud MS.) occur the lines : Nses se flota swa rang ne se here swa strang. In the year 1036 (MS. C) we find : Sume hi man wiS feo sealde, sume hreowlice acwealde, sume hi man bende, sume hi man blende . . . Se ae]?eling lyfode J>a gyt, selc yfel man him gehet, o<S ]?aet man geraedde ]?set man hine laedde to Eligbyrig swa gebundenne. In the famous annal of 1087 (Laud MS.), where the writer is describing the character and deeds of the Conqueror, he breaks out into a rugged metre with rhyme fairly well established. Se cyning wses swa swiSe stearc and benam of his underbeoddan manig mearc goldes and ma hundred punda seolfres ; Saet he nam be wihte and mid mycelan unrihte of his landleode, for littelre neode. He waes on gitsunge befeallen, and graedinesse he lufode mid ealle. He saette mycel deorfriS, and he laegde lage J?aerwi(5, J>aet swa hwa swa sloge heort oSSe hinde J»8et hine man sceolde blendan.1 He forbead >a heortas, swylce eac J»a baras ; 1 blendian. 124 MISCELLANEOUS swa swiSe he lufode J?a headeor swilce he waere heora fseder. Eac he saette be bam haran beet hi mosten freo faran. His rice men hit maendon, and ba earme men hit becearodan, ac he (wses) swa stift ]?aet he ne rohte heora eallra ni5 ; ac hi moston mid ealle )?es cynges wille folgian, gif hi woldon libban oSSe land habban, land oSSe eahta, oSSe wel his sehta. Walawa, baet senig man sceolde modigan swa, hine self upp ahebban, and ofer ealle men tellan. Se selmihtiga God cybe his saule mildheortnisse, and do him synna forgifenesse. In La3amon's Brut, written perhaps a century later, this doggerel has become somewhat more regular in the number of syllables in the line, and the rhythm, mostly of a ' trochaic ' or ' dactylic ' character, is more marked, but the rhymes are still introduced at the fancy of the writer, casually, as it were. We take the following lines as an example of the Brut metre : ArStir bat iherde, wraSest kinge, Pat Modred waes i Cornwale, mid muchele monweorede, And ber wolde abiden bat ArSur come riden. ArSur sende sonde 3eond al his kinelonde, And to cumen alle hehte ]?at quic wses on londe, Pa to vihte oht weoren, wepnen to beren ; And whaswa hit forsete J?at be king hete, PC king hine wolde a folden quic al forbernen. APPENDIX ON ANGLO-SAXON VERSIFICATION § i. The whole body of A.-S. verse which has survived, amounting to some 30,000 lines, is with a few exceptions written in the alliterating unrhymed metre common to the old Germanic literatures. As the early A.-S. verse is much older than the extant verse of other Germanic literatures, e.g. Old High German, Old Saxon, and Old Icelandic, we may regard it as exemplifying the early technique of this style of versification. § 2. Throughout the A.-S. period there was one standard form which was adhered to on the whole with remarkable uniformity. This metre was based on the stress-accent, i.e. the word-accent and the sentence- accent. Quantity, or length of syllables, played an important part, whereas the number of syllables was relatively unimportant. Thus the A.-S. metre differed from the purely quantitative metre of Greek and Latin verse, from the purely syllabic metre of modern French poetry and from the syllabic, irregularly-stressed metre of most modern English poetry. § 3. A.-S. verse is written in lines, each line being divided in the middle by a caesura into two half-lines. In each half-line there are two strongly-stressed syllables, which are usually long.1 The first syllable of the second half-line alliterates with one (the first) or both of the stressed syllables of the first half-line, i.e. it begins with the same sound ; each consonant alliterates with itself only ; any vowel alliterates with any other vowel. § 4. We take as an example the line : vrundorltc vrcegbora wJras sctawedon Here the strongly-stressed syllables are marked with acute accents, and the alliterating sound, here iv, is in black type. It will be seen that the u> of vueras alliterates with the (u> of wuldorlic and tuczgbora. But in the line se }>e me'regrundas "m^ngan scdlde 1 With the exception of some monosyllabic nouns, e.g. God. A short syllable can only take a strong or a secondary stress when it immediately follows a long syllable with a strong or secondary stress. 125 126 APPENDIX ON ANGLO-SAXON VERSIFICATION the m of mengan alliterates with only one of the two stresses of the first half-line, viz. we're. Again, in the line was iren &tertanum fdh the a of atertanum alliterates with the e of ecg and the i of iren. § 5. In printed texts the caesura of the line is indicated by a space ; as a rule it does not cut across a phrase-group, i.e. it would not come between the adjective and its noun,1 or the preposition and its noun. The lines are grouped into paragraphs of irregular length much as in modern English blank verse, and not into stanzas ; further, enjambement often occurs, i.e. the sense runs over from one line to the other as in blank verse. This running-on is often, but not necessarily, carried out by the device of using ' equivalents ' or ' kennings.' Thus in the lines generic nu se mcera maga Healfdenes^ snottra fengel, nu ic eom si&es fus, goldivine gumena, hivcet wit geo spracon the phrases snottra fengel and goldivine gumena are merely equivalents or repetitions Qimaga Healf denes. § 6. The strong stresses are the essential part of the alliterat- ing metre. We further distinguish ' secondary' or half-stresses, and ' weak ' stresses or unstressed syllables. A secondary stress is indicated X by a grave accent, and a weak stress by a small cross, as in Idndfruma, X fdrft gew&t. Large numbers of compound nouns and adjectives used in X X A.-S. verse have the three grades of stress e.g. goldwldnce, m^rcstapa^ X fyodsdpe, etc. § 7. Structurally all normal half-lines belong to one or other of five types,2 of which the following are the simplest but not necessarily the commonest forms : X / X A. ' x ' x gomban gyldan 4 1 1 . X X B. x ' x ' onflddes <zht 4 42. xxx x C. x ' ' x in gtimstole 4 112, on bearm stipes 435. x x D. v x leaf Idndfrtima 431, ymbsittendra 4 9. E. ' v x ' wigbidra hUo 4 89. § 8. In each type variations are permissible and frequently occur. In the first place, both strong and secondary stress may be ' resolved,' 1 Exceptions occasionally occur, especially in late verse. 2 These types were established by Professor Edward Sievers, whose researches first placed the study of early Germanic versification on a sound basis. APPENDIX ON ANGLO-SAXON VERSIFICATION 127 i.e. the stress may be borne by two short syllables instead of by one long one. Moreover, the number of less strongly stressed syllables varies considerably in the types. A. Each or both of the weaker stresses may be a secondary one, e.g. XX X isig ond utfus 4 33, he"ard ond hringmcel 4 237, gu&rlnc goldwlanc Beo. 1. 1 88 1. Also the first strong stress may be followed by two or xx x xxx even three weak stresses, e.g. we"ox under wdlcnum 4 8, ccnne ofer » x yfte 4 46 ; the second strong stress is never followed by more than one inferior stress, whether secondary or weak. B. The first strong stress is often preceded by more than one weak XX XX XXX X stress, e.g. he fires frofre gebdd 4 7, op fiat him eft onwoc 4 56. The second stress is sometimes preceded by two weak stresses, e.g. X XX in m&gpa gehivdm 425. C. The first strong stress is generally preceded by more than one XX X X X X ^ X weak stress, e.g. hwcet we Gdr-De"na 4 I, ne hyrde ic cymlicor 4 38. The second stress may also be preceded by two weak stresses, e.g. XXX XI X ficet hit on wdalle cststdd 4 8 1 . tjt D. The order x may be replaced by x N , e.g. fceger foldan xx x x bearm 4 197, lig dalle for swealg 4 182, winter y fie bele&c 4 192. The X first stress may be followed by a single weak stress, e.g. frofor eft X gelamp 4 340. E. In place, of x we occasionally meet with v x x ', X X e.g. mtodosltla ofttah 4 5. § 9. In the first half-line, never in the second, there frequently occurs a one-stress type, ending like an A-type in x . In this case the strong stress is preceded by several words with weak sentence- stress. Scholars usually regard this type as a variety of A ; they assign strong stress to one of the words preceding the penultimate stressed syllable, and they regard any syllable or syllables preceding the arbitrarily assigned strong stress as being an anacrousis^ like a ' grace-note ' in music. This, however, is unnecessary ; the type is clearly a distinct one. § i o. Occasionally a series of ' extended ' half-lines is met with for several lines in succession, as in the following passage from Exodus (No. 19, 11. 457-459)- X X X XXXX XXX feorh offe"onda ddme, fieah <5e hie hitfr^cne geneftdon, XX XX XXXXX X X wtras under watera hrofas. Gesawon hie ficsr w Dallas stdndan ; XXX XX X XXX XX^X ealle him brimu blodige fiuhton fiurh fia heora be'adosearo woegon. 128 APPENDIX ON ANGLO-SAXON VERSIFICATION Other examples occurr in Beo., Judith, Dream of the Cross, etc. They may be looked upon as an extension of the A-type, often with three strong stresses and several weak stresses at the beginning of the half-line. Most scholars are of opinion that this form of metre is employed to give especial solemnity to a passage. § n. The gradations of stress, employed in A.-S., as in all early Germanic alliterating versification, are those which occurred in the spoken language, i.e., they conformed to the rules of sentence-stress. This differed greatly from the sentence-stress of modern English and is more nearly represented by that of modern German, which in many ways is more conservative than our language. Among the more important rules of A.-S. verse-stress are the following : § 12. (a) Nouns, adjectives, infinitives, and participles take strong stress. (b) Verbs in the indicative, subjunctive, and imperative usually take either secondary or weak stress, but may on occasion take strong stress. They are, however, practically always subordinate in stress to the XX X XX preceding class. Examples are : heold penden lifde 457, ncenig pat X X XX dorste 4 93, bl&d wide sprang 4 18, fader ellor hivearf 455, ben on x xxxxx x xxx x x bearjn scipes 4 86, gewat him <5a se goda 4 348, gemunde oa fta X dre 14 349. (c) Some adverbs take strong, others weak stress ; others again either strong or weak, according to their position in the sentence, e.g. XX XX XX XX ftor gewitan 4 42, for<5 gerimed 459, wide mcerost 488, <5(zr hio x x x x x x sy<5<5an wdl 4 1 1 1, afre gem&nden 4 161, oft Scyld Scdfing 4 4. (d) A preposition takes weak stress when it precedes its noun and strong stress when it follows it, i.e. when it has an adverbial or semi- XX X adverbial function, e.g. gtong in gtardum 4 13, Scedelandum in 4 19, X X X X X X X pone pe &u mid rihte 4256, pa him mid scoldon 441. (e) Pronouns take weak or strong stress according to their class, and according to the presence or absence of words of stronger stress, XXX XX X X X X X e.g. swa he stlfa b&d 4 29, him on btarme lag 4 40, nalas hi hine x xxxx x £ / x l&ssan 4 43, ponne he sivulces hwcet 4 70, ne bio sivylc cwdnlic ptaiu 4 100. Demonstrative pronouns, which normally take weak stress, occa- j^ sionally take so-called * rhetorical ' stress for emphasis, e.g. on poem X^XX XX ^-X dage pysses lifes Beo. 197, ponne pa dydon 4 44. (/) Verbal prefixes such as ge-, on-, for-, be-, etc., take weak stress. APPENDIX ON ANGLO-SAXON VERSIFICATION 129 § 1 3. A knowledge of the principles of A.-S. versification has enabled scholars to amend many errors due to careless copying of MSS. § 14. Regarded aesthetically, the A.-S. versification can hardly be said to please the ear of even the practised modern student. For one thing, the choice of the various types of half-lines is arbitrary, so that the effect produced is that of a jumble of rhythms ; thus a ' trochaic ' or A-type of half-line may be immediately followed by an ' iambic ' or B-type, a reversal of rhythm which shocks the modern ear. Occa- sionally, however, there is a succession of A-types, which has a familiar and pleasing effect on the ear, but such a succession is not found in the case of the other types. The types C, D, E, are frankly unaccept- able, they have a limping not to say a lumbering effect. § 15. What then could our forefathers have found pleasing in the form of their poetry ? We must bear in mind that the alliterating verse was chanted to the accompaniment of the harp and was not intended to be read. It is obvious that without the harp a good deal of the artistic effect would be lost. It is not unlikely that the strongly stressed syllables would be reinforced by strongly sounded chords, while the secondary stresses may have been rendered with less heavily struck chords, and the weak stresses may have been unaccompanied or accompanied with single notes. This, however, is pure conjecture. There was doubtless a recognized method of accompanying the voice, and the singer himself chanted in the traditional manner. We can form some notion of the ' flatness ' of effect of A.-S. verses read instead of sung by imagining how some modern popular kinds of song would sound if read like ordinary verse. Whereas our literary versification shows regularity in the number of syllables and variety in the number and grouping of the stresses, the A.-S. versification shows regularity in the number of stresses and variety in their grouping. We may be quite sure that our forefathers enjoyed their poetical form as keenly as we enjoy ours. For every people at any given time has a verse-technique which, being based on the normal national speech-habits, satisfies the great majority of hearers or readers. § 1 6. The types A and B represent the natural rhythm of ordinary A.-S. speech, or indeed of any language with a strongly-marked stress- accentuation. Types D and E, and to some extent C, are in a manner more artificial, and their . function is to admit of the use of the large number of picturesque compound nouns and adjectives, so characteristic of A.-S. poetry. By the end of the eleventh century the traditional versification and poetical language no longer appealed to the ordinary people, and exact knowledge of their technique was practically extinct except in the monasteries. The use of compound nouns and adjectives had now nearly disappeared and with it the need for the types D and E and partly also C. Secondary stress consequently ceased to play a part in verse. In the Brut^ a poem of the end of the twelfth century, the K 130 APPENDIX ON ANGLO-SAXON VERSIFICATION vast majority of the lines show A and B types alone, see p. 124 supra. Towards the end of the A.-S. period prose-writers began to use a well- marked trochaic and dactylic rhythm of the general type ( x )' x ' x ' x x , with assonance of weak endings. The best example of this rhythm is the Sermo ad Anglos, which might well be regarded as verse ; cf. also p. 122 B supra. Full rhyme is frequently though unsystematically used in some of these writings ; see p. 123 supra, and the passage from the Brut, p. 124. The trochaic and dactylic rhythm doubtless continued to be used in popular, orally-delivered lays and stories and reappears in the written, alliterating romances of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. It was on account of the popularity of this rhythm that Langland employed it for his great work. The alliterating M.E. verse is therefore to be regarded as the direct descendant, through popular channels, of the A.-S. system of versification adapted to the changed conditions of word- and sentence-stress of the English language. The long line has still the caesura ; the second half line is almost exclusively of the A-type and ends in a weak -e, or -en, -es, while the first admits of an occasional B-type. The alliteration is more irregular than in the A.-S. verse and the sentence-stress is noticeably different. NOTES I. GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY 1. WIDSITH An * indicates ' not identified." MS. in Exeter Book, fol. 84b-S7a. Edition. The latest and by far the best edition is by R. W. Chambers, 1912. 5. Most commentators have taken Ealhhild to be the wife of Eadgils, Widsith's lord (1. 93). According to this view she gives the gleeman a second ring after he has on his return home handed over to Eadgils the splendid ring given him by Ermanric. Another view is that Ealhhild is a princess on her way to the court of Ermanric to whom she is to be married, accompanied by her minstrel Widsith. This interpretation rests on the word mid, ' in company with ' (1. 5). Ealhhild thus gives Widsith a ring following the present made to the bard by her husband the Gothic king. But if the lady's father Eadwine (1. 98) is the same as Eadwine father of the great Longobard king ^Elfwine (Alboin) whom Widsith claims (1. 70) to have visited, it is clear that she cannot have been the wife of Ermanric, who lived two centuries earlier. We must not, however, expect the poet to be strictly historical ; his imaginary traveller knows no bounds of either place or time. 7. Hreftcyninges ". the meaning of the prefix ffred1- is obscure. It may be the O.E. word hreft, 'fame,' 'glory,' which occurs as the first element of proper names; cf. Hreftric, Beo. 1. 1189, and Hreftmanna, ib. 1. 445 ; or else it may be due to ' popular etymology,' hreft supplanting an earlier form krizft, which would correspond to the prefix in the O.N. name Reiftgotaland, and the O.Sw. Hraiftmarar ; see also note on Hrada, 1. 120. 8. Ongle : Angel or Ongel was, as we learn from the geographical introduction to King Alfred's Orosius, the territory occupied by the Angles before they crossed over to Britain. It corresponded to Jutland, Zealand, and various other islands, now Danish. The modern Angeln, a district in Slesvig, perhaps represents the territory occupied by the original tribe, the Angli of Tacitus, before its sway extended over other tribes. The sense of eastan Of Ongle is strictly speaking ' from the east, from Angel, ' which seems to indicate the point of view of a writer living in England. EormanriceS : Ermanaric, the great chief of the Ostrogoths, famous in Germanic hero-legend, who died about A.D. 375. The epithet wra^GS WSBrlogan, ' the fierce breaker of treaties,' is in accordance with his legendary reputation ; cf. 3 21. 13. If S6 )>e is taken as the subject of wile, the construction is unusual, being a I 3 2 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY case of the accus. with the infin. The construction is normal, but the sense not so good, if se J>6 Ms be taken as a rel. pron., * whose throne is to prosper.' 14. Hwala : Ettmuller's emendation for the MS. reading wala occurs in the list of W.S. kings given in A.-S. Ckron., anno 855. 15. Alexandreas : Alexander the Great, whose legendary fame was widely spread among the Germanic peoples. The spelling may be due to confusion with the name Andreas. 18. JEtla : Attila, king of the Huns, who reigned from A.D. 434 to 453, was an important figure in Germanic legend, which embodies two traditions concern- ing him, one favourable, the other unfavourable. This is due to the fact that among the Germanic peoples he had both allies and enemies. The Ostrogoths were alternately friends and foes of the Huns ; their names occur together in 1. 57, also in 4 B 20, 58. Cf. also 2 6. 19. BeCCa I the treacherous Bikki of the prose Edda and the Volsnngasaga . *Baningum. Burgendum : the Burgundians were origin- ally settled in the E. of Germany on the Vistula and Oder, next to the Goths, but later migrated across the Rhine. In the geographical introduction to King Alfred's Orosius Wuifstan speaks of Burgundians as living on the coast of the Baltic, opposite Laaland. Gifica \ the legendary founder of the Bur- gundian dynasty, not known to history. 20. Casore, ' Caesar,' i.e. the emperor of the Eastern empire, always so called in A.-S. literature. The name Caesar appears also in the German Kaiser and the Russian tsar (for Kesar). *Cselic. Filinum : the Finns are mentioned in the account of Ohthere's voyage in King Alfred's Orosius as inhabiting the northern coastal district of Norway and supporting themselves by fowling and fishing. They were a non-Germanic race akin to the Laplanders, not to the modern Finns. 21. Hagena I the Hggni of the prose Edda, a figure in one of the finest Germanic legends. In 2 he is a friend of King Guthhere. HolmrygUIQ : either the Scandinavian Holmrygir^ a tribe of S. Norway, or the Rugii, a tribe mentioned by Tacitus (Germania, xliii. ad fin.} as living on the shores of the Baltic. Riigen, the large island near the mouth of the Oder, probably owes its name to this tribe ; see 1. 69 n. Heoden I the HeSin of Snorri's story in the prose Edda ; cf. 3 36 n. *Glominiim : there is a river named Glommen in Norway. 22. Witta occurs in a genealogy of Hengest given by Bede, Hist. Eccles. i. 15 ; nothing is known of him. SwSBflim : the Suevi of the Roman his- torians, the modern Schwaben, ' Swabians,' one of the chief confederations among the Germanic peoples, comprising many tribes scattered over a wide terri- tory, from the Baltic to the southern limits of Germany. In the text the name may refer to one of the northern tribes of the Suevic race. Wada \ the famous water -giant of Germanic story, the father of Weland (Wayland) the smith. The names of these two are found till a late period in English romance and song ; cf. Chaucer's ' he tolde tale of Wade,' Troilus and Crcsseide, iii. 614. Hselsinglim : probably a tribe dwelling on the S. shore of the Baltic. The name occurs as the first element of several place-names, such as Helsingfors, Helsingor, etc. 23. *Meaca, *Mearchealf. Myrgingum : apparently Widsith's own tribe, also mentioned in 11. 42, 84, 96, 118. It is not clear who they were, but there is some evidence that they inhabited N. Holstein. Hundinglim perhaps lived on the S. shore of the Baltic. 24. Peodric, the son of Chlodwig (Clovis), ruled the Franks from A.D. 511 NOTES I 3 3 to 534. He is the Wolf-Dietrich of M. H.G. epic, which, however, draws on a far later tradition of his deeds than that of Widsith. Theodric's son defeated and slew the Geatish king Hygelac ; see 4 F. Froncum : the Franks, who about 100 B.C. left the Suevic confederacy and descended the Rhine to near the mouth. Tacitus and Pliny refer to the Franks by the name Istaevones. In the fifth century A.D. they subjugated the territory on the left bank of the lower Rhine, the Salian Franks settling near the mouth of the river, and the Ripuarian Franks higher up, with Cologne as their capital. Their rule extended as far as the Zuyder Zee and the Frisian islands ; see also 4 F- Pyle may be a name formed from the O.E. word }>yle, 'orator,' 'court wit,' such as was Unferth in 14 I. The O.N. form is pulr. Miillenhoff thought that the name pyle here stands for some faithful counsellor of Theodric. *Rondingum. 25. Breoca : the Breca who competes with Beowulf in a swimming-match ; see 14 A. *BrondingUni : some scholars think that both Breca and Brandingas are ' made-up ' names referring to the sea. Breki in O.Icel. poetry means ' breaker,' and branding is still a Low German and Danish word mean- ing 'breakers,' 'surf.' Billing occurs as a dynastic name of the early kingdom of Saxony. It also occurs in a number of English place-names, such as Billingsgate, Billingham, etc. Wemum : the Varini mentioned by Tacitus (Ger mania, xl.) as dwelling near the Angles. There are several refer- ences to them in early records and the name may possibly occur in some English place-names, such as Warnham, Warnborough, etc. 26. *0swine. Eowum is considered by some commentators to be written for Eaivum, which they explain as the Aviones mentioned by Tacitus immediately before the Angles (Germ. xl.). Ytum : the Jutes. Yte, Ytas, Ytanwce. the late W. S. forms for corresponding Anglian and Kentish forms with eo as the stem-vowel. These people are the Jutae of Bede (Hist. EccL iv. 16), who says they conquered and occupied the Isle of Wight and the adjacent coastal dis- trict of Hampshire, and that they also conquered and settled in Kent. The name of this people survived Jn the name Ytene, which in Florence of Worcester's chronicle is given to a part of the New Forest. Bede further tells us that the Jutes originally came from the district north of the Angles, i.e. the modern Jut- land. After the Jutes left Jutland for Britain their place was taken by Danes from the adjacent islands. *GefWTllf : see also 4 D. 27. Fin, the Finn of 4 D and 5, must have been a prominent figure in A.-S. hero-legend. There were many Frisians settled in England in early A.-S. times, and they would naturally bring their own stories. Fresna I the Frisians inhabited the coastal district of Holland and the islands which still bear their name. They were divided into two tribes, the West Frisians, who with the Franks defeated and killed Hygelac (see 4 F), and the main body of the Frisians, Finn's people. Folcwalding : Finn is called Folcwaldan sunu in 4 D 149. 28. Sigehere : the O.N. Sigarr, a popular hero of Scandinavian legend. Sse-Demim may mean the Danes of the islands, contrasted with those of the south coast of Sweden, their original habitat. 29. Hnsef in Beo. is the son of Hoc and brother of Hildeburh, wife of Finn. He is slain in a quarrel with Finn's men ; and Finn in turn is killed by Hnasf's 'people, the Half- Danes ; see 4 D. Hocingum : Hoe's people, the Half-Danes. The name Hoc seems to occur in some English place-names, e.g. Hoxton. Helm : not met with elsewhere as the name of a ruler. The Helmings are mentioned in Beo. 1. 620 as the people of Wealhtheow, wife 134 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY of the Danish king Hrothgar. Wulfingum : apparently the same as the Wilfings or Wylfings mentioned in Beo. 11. 461, 471. The Wiilfinge formed the bodyguard of Dietrich von Bern. 30. *Wald, *Woinglim. Pyringlim are by some scholars, e.g. by Moller, thought to be the Thoringi, a Frankish people dwelling near the confluence of the Rhine and Meuse, rather than the main body of the Thuringians, the pyringas mentioned by King Alfred in his Orosius, and the Modern German Thuringen. 31. S3Bfer5 I the same as Sigeferft in 5 25, the prefixes See- and Sige- being confused. Sycgum, the Secgena of 5 25, have not been identified with certainty. Sweom '. the Swedes, here and in Beo. the name of a people inhabiting a part of S. Sweden, N. of Lakes Wetter and Wener. OngendJ?eow : the Ongentheow of Beo. , where the story of his war with the Geats is told at some length ; see 4 G 2. 32. *Sceafthere. Ymbrum : apparently the same as the Ymbria or Imbria of the Latin Danish chronicles, a people inhabiting the island Fehmarn, E. of Kiel Bay and S. of Laaland. Another view is that the Ymbre were the Ammeri, lying between the Weser and the Ems, W. of Oldenburg ; cf. the modern Ammerland. Sceafa : probably identical with Sceaf, the name of the first king in the W. S. genealogy. In Beo. Scyld is called Scefing, which seems to be formed from the name Sceaf; see 4 A 4 n. Longbeardum : the Lombards are here thought of as living in their original home on the lower Elbe, S. of the Angles, before they migrated south. Tacitus, in Germ, xl., praises their spirit of independence. The name Lombardy bears witness to their invasion of Italy in A.D. 568 ; see also 1. 70 n. 33. *Him. Haetwerum : the Hetware of Beo. , who fought with and defeated Hygelac and his Geats ; see 4 F. They were a Frankish tribe dwelling on the lower Rhine near the Zuyder Zee, the Hattuarii or Attoarii of the Latin chronicles ; see 1. 24 n. *Holen, ^Wrosnum. 34. *Hringweald, *Herefarena : these two names, like others in the poem, may be inventions of the poet. 35. Offa I mentioned in Beo. as the husband of a bad queen ; see 4 0. The Danish chroniclers, writing in Latin some six centuries after Widsith was com- posed, relate the story of Offa's duel with two * Saxon ' champions on the river Eider. Offa, who is called Uffo in the chronicles, is represented as a Danish king. This points to an Anglian story being adapted for Danish hearers when the Danes took the place of the Angles after the latter migrated to Britain. Some of the incidents of the story of Offa were in later times transferred to Offa the Mercian king. Alewih. I not known, except as a name, Alweo, in the pedigree of Mercian kings in A.-S. Chron. Denum : see 1. 28 n. 37. ' Nevertheless he did not excel Offa in daring deeds.' 38. ac, as often, must be rendered 'for.' geslog, 'won'; cf. 1. 44. The prefix ge- modifies the sense of the simple verb, to which it gives a perfective meaning. 40. maran eorlscipe is a modal dative, * with greater gallantry.' 41. ane SWeorde : either ' with the sword alone ' or ' with his single sword,' i.e. in single combat. The latter meaning suits the Danish chronicler Saxo's version of the Offa story. 42. merce : for mearce, ' boundary,' perhaps owing to confusion with Merce, 'Mercians.' gemJBlde: either 'proclaimed,' 'declared,' or 'fixed,' ' determined,' according as we connect it with ware, ' famous,' or gemcere, ' boundary. ' NOTES I 3 5 43. Fifeldore : the river between Holstein and Slesvig ; see 2 42 n. heoldoil : either 'observed' (the new boundary), or 'occupied.' 44. geslog : either « fixed ' (the boundary) or * won ' (territory). 45. In Beo. the feud between the Danes of Hrothgar and Hrothwulf on the one hand and the Heathobards of Ingeld on the other is foretold by Beowulf ; see 4 E. 47. Wicinga : the Heathobards. This word is not used with the same sense as wicingas, which was applied in later times to the Scandinavian freebooters, and borrowed from the O.N. vikingar^ 'men of the fjords.' 48. Ingeldes : in Beo. called 'son of Froda' ; see 4 £ 225. 49. Heorote : the great hall of Hrothgar the Danish (Scylding) king, the scene of the events in the first part of Beo. Heaftobeardna are generally considered to be a remnant of the Longobards, after the latter migrated south from the lower Elbe. But this identification is not certain ; see 1. 32 n. 50. SWa has here a resumptive sense. Widsith returns to his theme after the long digression. 53. folgade means here, as Chambers notes, ' served as a retainer ' ; cf. the noun folgaft, ' band of retainers. ' 54. Secgan Spell is probably only a variant of singan or mcenan. 56. 'How royal benefactors treated me generously.' In Beo. the word god frequently means 'generous,' ' freely giving.' cystUHl : the d. plur. of abstract nouns is often used adverbially ; cf. prymmum, pry&um, etc. 57. Hunum: seel. i8n. Hreft-Gotum : see 11. 7, i8n. 58. Geatum : Beowulfs people, who dwelt in S. Sweden, south of Lakes Wener and Wetter. They are almost certainly identical with the O.N. Gautar, who were afterwards absorbed into the Swedish kingdom ; see also 4 G. 59. Wenlum : cf. Wendla, Beo. 1. 348. These people were probably dwellers in the N. of Jutland, though Mullenhoff identifies them with the Vandals, who originally came from N. Germany. Waemum : see 1. 25 n. Wicingum : see 1. 47 n. 60. GefJ>UIH I called Gifpum, Beo. 1. 2494, the Gepidae, originally from near the mouth of the Vistula. Winedlim I the Wends, the Veneti of Tacitus (Germ, xlvi.), a general name for the Slavs, especially for the peoples who gradually took the place of emigrating German tribes in the N. of Germany. At the present time the Wends, or Sorbs, as they call themselves, number under a hundred thousand, and form a racial island half-way between Berlin and Dresden. In King Alfred's Orosius, Weonodland, 'the land of the Wends,' is said to extend along the S. coast of the Baltic from the Vistula as far as the Elbe. *Gefflegum. 61. *.32nenum. 62. Seaxum : the Saxons originally occupied part of the modern Holstein but afterwards crossed the Elbe and settled as far as the Frisian territory on the coast of what is now called Holland. Sycgum : see 1. 3 1 n. Sweordwerum : perhaps a ' made-up ' name ; cf. 1. 34 n. 63. *Hronum. *Deanuin (not the Danes). Hea]>o-Reamum are mentioned in 14 A 2 1 ; they probably gave their name to Romerike, a district E. of Christiania. 64. Pyringum : see l. 30 n. *prowendum. 65. Burgendum: seel. ign. 66. Gufthere : the O.N. Gunnar, the famous Burgundian king Gundahari, who with most of his army was slain by the Huns in A.D. 437. This heroic battle is the theme of one of the most famous of Germanic legends. 136 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY 68. Froncum I seel. 24 n. Frysum: the West Frisians; seel. 27 n. *Frumtingum. 69. Rugum, Glommum : see 1. 21 n. By the middle of the fifth century A.D. the Rugii had migrated to the S. as far as Austria. Rumwalum : the Romans. The O.E. word walk, wealh means 'foreigner,' the plur. walas giving the modern name Wales. 70. Eatule : Italy, the Northumbrian form of Eotole, from Itole by 'back- vowel umlaut.' ^Elfwine : Alboin, the great Longobard (Lombard) king who invaded Italy in A.D. 568. He was assassinated in 573. 72. The meaning of this line is not clear ; lofes to wyrcenne is an unusual construction, to wyrcenne being apparently equivalent to to iveorcum. We may translate 'he had the readiest hand (i.e. an exceptional capacity) for winning fame.' Dr. Chambers translates lofes to wyrcenne, 'for deed of praise,' i.e. for rewarding his followers, wyrcenne was probably wyrcean in the original text, as the shorter form is required by the metre (A-type) ; see Appendix, §§ 7, 8. 75-87. These lines are clearly a late interpolation. 75. Sercingum : supposed by some to be the Saracens in the earlier sense, i.e. the Arab tribes inhabiting the borders of the Syrian desert in N.W. Arabia. But Sercingas may perhaps stand for Serica, S^punJ, a name given in very early times to a country or countries in the far E. of Asia, the modern China, from which the silkworm, 0"/ip, was brought. Seringum may be only another form of S77pi/c?7, of which there was a short form "2/ijpes. Brandl thinks Seringum means ' Syrians. ' 76. Creacum : see 1. 20 n. Finnum : see 11. 20, 79 n. Casere : see 1. 20 n. 78. Wala : either the Rumwalas of 1. 69, or the Gauls, who were early Romanized. 79. Scottum I the people who, as Bede tells us, came over from Ireland to settle in Caledonia, to which they gave their name. Peohtum, the Picts, a race inhabiting parts of Ireland and Scotland. Authorities are not agreed as to their origin or racial affinities. In the course of time they lost their language and became merged in the surrounding population of Britons, Scots, and Angles. Scride-Finnum : one of the primitive races inhabiting the extreme north of Europe, collectively termed ' Finns ' by Greek and Latin writers. The Scride-Finns, who dwelt in Norway, are mentioned by King Alfred in his Orosius as dwelling N.W. of the Swedes, to the north of the 'Northmen' (Norwegians). They probably were the ancestors of the modern Laplanders. Scride-, from scri&an, 'slide,' refers to their use of snow-shoes ; cf. also 1. 20 n. 80. Lid-Wicinglim are identified by Chambers with the Lidwiccas mentioned in A.-S. Chron., anno 885, the British settlers in Armorica, the modern Bretons. LeonUHL inhabited the modern district of Ostergotland in the E. of Sweden, probably giving their name to the chief town, Linkoping. 81. HS8$num, the O.N. Hei&nir, who dwelt in Het&mork, between Norway and Sweden. H3ere]7Um inhabited Hor&aland, on the Hardangerfjord, called Hereftaland in A.-S. Chron. (Laud MS.), anno 787. Hundingum : see 1. 23 n. 82. Exsyringlim : Assyrians, according to Mullenhoff. 84. Moidum : Medes (Mullenhoff). Chambers suggests that these Biblical names may have been corruptions of names of Celtic and Baltic tribes imperfectly remembered or transcribed. The MS. reading Myrgingum in 11. 84, 85 cannot NOTES 137 be right in both cases. The text is clearly corrupt ; ongend makes no sense and mid\Ms> been omitted before the names in 1. 85. 85, 86. Mofdingum, Amothinglim, according to Mttllenhoff, may stand for the Moabites and Ammonites. Holthausen reads Amoringum, ' Amorites.' 87. *Eolum. Istum dwelt on the shores of the E. Baltic ; they are apparently the Aestii of Tacitus, who says they spoke a language like that of Britain, and gathered amber (Germ. xlv. ). They are doubtless the Este men- tioned in Wulfstan's voyage in King Alfred's Orosius, and are the modern Ests or Esthonians. Idumingum may be the Ydumaei mentioned by a Latin chronicler, a small tribe dwelling in what is now called Livonia, on the Gulf of Riga. But the word may be a corruption of an earlier reading. 88. ealle prage, ' all the time,' may merely mean ' a long time.' 89. me gode dohte, 'availed me with good,' i.e. treated me generously. 92. SCeatta SCillingrime : the exact meaning is not clear, since sceatt has both a general and a special meaning, either 'money' 'treasure,' or 'piece of money' 'coin.' The Russian skot, borrowed from Germanic, means 'cattle.' The scilling was a denomination of value, not a coin ; cf. our ' pound,' 'guinea.' Further, the exact relation of the sceatt to the scilling varied accord- ing to locality in A.-S. times. We had perhaps better transl. 'six hundred shillings,' a large sum, equal to half a thane's ivergild ; see Chad wick, Studies on Anglo-Saxon institutions, chap. i. 95. J?3BS >6, 'because.' 96. A full stop is put after Myrginga on the assumption that Ealhhild is Ermanric's queen, in whose train Widsith went to the Gothic king's court ; see 1. 5 n. 103. wit Scilling, ' Scilling and I,' the usual idiom. Scilling was an ordinary A.-S. personal name. 104. sigedryhtne : Eadwine. 107. Sprecan : North, for spracon. 108. The first half-line is metrically unusual, as in a B-type it is the first full stress syllable that should alliterate; see Appendix, §§ 3, 8. For song we suggest songas. 112. *Heftcan. Beadecan : not known, except as the first element of some A.-S. place-names. Herelingas : the Harlungs of M.H.G. story. In German Latin chronicles they are called Embrica (Emerca) and Fritla (Fridla). They were the nephews of Ermanric, who, according to tradition, had them put to death. 113. Eastgotan : Ostrogotha, the famous king of Germanic legend. The mention of him here is out of place, as he was an ancestor of Ermanric. 114. *Unwenes. 115. *Secca. Beccan : see 1. 19 n. *Seafolan. PeodriC : not Theodric the FrankLh king mentioned in 1. 24, but rather, as Chambers convincingly shows, the earlier Theodric the Ostrogoth, who is men- tioned in 3 1 8 and in 2 36. This Theodric also was famous in Germanic story. 116. *HeaJ>oric. Sifecan : Sibich, the traitor of M. H. G. legend. HliJ>6 I by some supposed to be a Longobard king, but more probably identical with Hloftr of the Hervararsaga. IncgenJ>60W .' not known, unless he is the Angantyr of the Hervararsaga, the English form of which name, however, is Ongentheow. 117. Eadwine and JEgelmimd are perhaps Longobard kings. Elsan : perhaps, as Chambers suggests, a hero of the story of the earlier Theodric GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY (Dietrich von Bern). Hungar : probably the Gothic chief Hunigaisus, who acted as interpreter and diplomat for Attila. 118. Wi]?-Myrginga : see 1. 23 n. 119. ^Wulfhere : the name, a common one, occurs in place-names, e.g. in Wolverhampton. Wyrmhere : probably the Orrnarr of the Her- vararsaga. 120. Hraeda : a name for the Goths ; see 1. 7 n. 121. The historic fight between the Goths and the Huns is here alluded to. Wistlawudu I the Goths came originally from the lower Vistula. 122. ^Etlan: seel. 18 n. 123. Raedhere, Rondhere : possibly retainers of Ermanric. Rumstan : one of the Gothic king's retainers, the Itimstein of M. H.G. legend. Gislhere : called Gislaharius in the Burgundian laws. The Burgundians were originally neighbours of the Goths. 124. WiJ>ergield may be the Wiftergyld of 4 E 251. Freo^eric : probably the Friderich of M.H.G. story, the son of Ermanric. Wudgan : a Gothic hero, earlier than Ermanric and Theodric, though he came to be asso- ciated with them in M.H.G. and Icelandic story. In 2 36 he is called Widia. Haman, the Heime of M. H. G. legend and Heimr of the pidrekssaga, is mentioned in Beo. as carrying off the Brosinga mene, the famous necklet, from Ermanric ; see 4 H 422. 126. For anihst Holthausen reads the older dissyllabic form aneist, in order to restore the metre (the one-stress type) ; see Appendix, § 9. 131. The metre of the first half-line is faulty ; it would be improved by reading onftmde instead of onfond ; see Appendix, § 9. 133. S6 J>6 him, ' to whom,' an early stage in the development of the relative pronoun. 135 to end. These lines look like a later ending tacked on to the original poem. 139. gydda : see 4 125 n. 2. WALDERE MS. Two vellum leaves at the Royal Library in Copenhagen, printed, together with an emended text, in Grein-Wiilcker i. pp. 7-13. Edition. The fragment has been edited by F. Holthausen in Die altenglischen Waldere-Bruch- stiicke, 1899 ; also in Runic and Heroic Poems, by B. Dickins, 1915 ; for other literature see Brandl, p. 988. 1. The subject of hyrde is doubtless Hiidegy<5 (Hildegund), who begins speak- ing in 1. 2. 2. Welandes 1 the famous smith and craftsman of Germanic legend, the O.N. Volundr whose story is told in the Edda and in pidrekssaga ; cf. 3 I. In Beo. 1. 455, a chain-corslet is called Welandes gewcorc. King Alfred also speaks of ftces wisan goldsmiftes . . . Welondes (Boethius, p. 46 1. 20). 3. Mimming : in Beo. two famous swords have names, Nsegling and Hrunting. 6. jiEtlail : see 1 1 8 n. Walther had been, though a hostage, one of Attila's captains. 8. A half-line is clearly missing, though there is no gap indicated in the printed copies of the MS. We may supply dom alicgan, 'your glory fail,' on the analogy of Beo. \. 1528, his dom alczg. 9. ofter twega, 'either' ; lit. 'one of two things.' 10. lange : adv. 13. fty . . . gesawe, '(reproach thee) with having seen thee.' NOTES 139 15. OH weal, ' behind the protecting rampart.' 18. ac, 'nay,' 'no, for.' 19. msel ofer mearce: m&l has various meanings. In Genesis 1. 1719 occurs the sentence (5 a 'tiies males ivces mearc agongen, ' the limit of the time had come.' We may translate, ' thou didst ever push on to fresh fights, seeking occasion without limit.' metod here has its primitive meaning of ' destiny.' 21, 22. O^res monnes Wigrasdenne is usually taken to mean * combat with another.' But it may possibly mean 'military service with another,' with special reference to Walther's service with Attila ; cf. 1. 6, and see 4D 202 n. 21. The MS. reading atstealle occurs nowhere else, unless it is the same word as atstalle in Guthlac 1. 150, the meaning of which is uncertain. The sense here required is clearly 'battle.' For aeSCStealle cf. ascstede, 'spear- place,' 'scene of combat'; see 12 17. It may be noted that there are hardly any examples in O.E. of a noun with at- as a prefix. 23. ffin : g.s., 'for thee.' 24. ne . . . mece, 'do not trouble about the sword,' i.e. your sword (Mim- ming) will not fail you. 25. eoce : the dropping of initial g before eo occurs in Kentish texts or texts copied by Kentish scribes. fty etc., 'therefore (or 'with it') thou shalt humble Guthhere's boast, for he was the first to,' etc. 28. We are told in Ekkehard's poem that Walther offered Gunther treasure to cease fighting, but the latter refused. SWUlde : not necessarily Mimming, the loss of which would have been fatal to Walther. 29. The subject of sceal is Guthhere. 30. hlafurd refers to Guthhere. 33. The first half-line may have been ne gefrcegn ic on monnwn. Guthhere admits the excellence of Mimming, but he says he has in reserve a still more famous sword. 39. genam: the subject is either Theodric, 'he took it (out of his hoard),' or Widia, ' he received it as a reward, for he (Widia), kinsman of Nithhad and son of Weland, had freed him (Theodric) from bondage ; he (Theodric) then hastened forth through the region of monsters.' The writer of the poem is evidently familiar with the Gothic legend of Theodric as a slayer of monsters which is preserved in the pidrekssaga. 40. Nifthades : cf. 3 5. 41. Welandes : see 1. 2 n. 42. fifela: marine monsters of some kind. The word fifel occurs in fifelstream, Boeth. Metro,, xxvi. 1. 26, and fijelcynnes eard> Beo. 1. 104 ; cf. also Fifeldore, 143- 44, 45. hildefrofre . . . gripe, 'the grasp of a sword, comforting in battle.' The use of the pi. guftbilla for the sing, can be paralleled. . It is, however, possible that gripe may have the concrete sense of ' the part grasped,' 'handle.' 47. Apparently Walther has slain Hagen. 49. heaftuwerigan : sc. me. 52. ealles : adv., 'entirely.' 54 ff. ne . . . dydon, ' it does not play the foe to me when false kinsmen renew their tricks (eft ongynnaft) and attack me with the sword, as you people have done.' Onginnan in the sense of 'take in hand,' 'attempt,' usually takes an object ; hence it is possible that eft may be an error for oht, ' persecu- tion,' 'hostility.' 140 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY 59 ff. The meaning of this passage depends on the word moten in 1. 62. If we accept the MS. reading mtoten (obviously an error for Jiwten} — and there is no valid reason for rejecting it — we must take J>onne to mean 'than.' Transl. ' the man who trusts in the Holy One for help, in God for comfort, shall find ready, if he is thinking of reward, (more) than the wealth which proud ones may dispense or the possessions they may control.' Before J>onne we must supply ma, a not unusual omission. 59. Mm is reflex, dat. and need not be transl. ; helpe and gioce are gen. sing. 3. DEOR MS. in Exeter Book, fol. looa; printed in Grein-Wlilcker, i. pp. 278-9. Edition by B. Dickins in Runic and Heroic Poems , 1915 ; also edited with notes in Holthausen's Becnuulf. For literature see Brandl, p. 975, § 19- 1. Weland \ see 2 2 n. The MS. reading wurman makes no sense. Adopting Wiilcker's emendation weamum we transl. ' experienced misery (lit. exile) to the full.' Wearn is used as equivalent to worn, 'abundance,' 'multitude,' hence 'many'; the dat. plur., with and without to, occurs, with the same sense ; see B.T. sub voce. It is possible, however, that wurman may be a proper name ; though in that case we should expect on rather than be. 4. The MS. reading wracc will not scan (E-type) if the <z is long, and if it is short it is an impossible form ; see Appendix, § 7. Wiace is ace. fern, of ivracu. 5 fF. King Nithhad lamed Weland to prevent him from escaping, but the smith made himself wings and flew away, having first killed the king's sons and violated his daughter Beaduhild. Transl. ' after Nithhad had by force laid upon him, the better man, supple sinew-bonds.' For Niftliad cf. 2 40. 6. There is no need to emend the MS. reading seonobende to seonobenne ' sinew-gash,' though there is strong temptation to do so in order to conform the A.-S. account to the continental versions of the story. Editors who adopt the emendation, recognizing that SWOncre does not fit seonobenne, change it into swongre, but this word is equally unsuitable, as it means ' sluggish,' 'slow,' not 'grievous.' 7. 'That passed away, and so may this.' For this unusual use of the genitive as subject of a verb cf. 1. 26. 9. byre sylfre ]?ing, ' her own condition,' brought about by Weland ; see note on 1. 5 ff. 10. gearolice, ' for certain,' with which meaning gearwe or geare is more usual. 12. hu . . . SCeolde, 'how it should be about that,' i.e. how she was to face the consequences. 14 ff. Some editors, noting the MS. reading mafS hilde, assume that hilde is a short form of Beadohild, and that these lines are a continuation of the preceding passage. To support this assumption the common feminine noun mtzft, 'measure,' 'proportion,' is given the meaning 'violence,' 'outrage.' But the use of the second element of a compound personal name for the whole name is not proved for early O.E. poetry. Taking Maefthilde (Mathilda) as another woman's name and with Rieger inserting be, we may transl. ' many of us have heard this concerning Msethhild, (namely) that the Geat's love (for her) was boundless, so that his love-pangs robbed him entirely of sleep.' 15. Tupper takes Geates to refer to Nithhad, in which case frige would mean his love for his sons, slain by Weland ; cf. 1. 8. But it may be noted that NOTES I 4 I in the only other passages where frige occurs, Crist 11. 37 and 419, the word is used expressly of a man's love for a woman. 18. Deodric : the elder Theodric, the Ostrogoth; see 1 115 n., and cf. 2 36. The allusion here is obscure, but if M<zringa burg was not Theodric's own city, but held by him as a conqueror, it would be a famous case of misfortune, comparable to the others in the poem. Possibly instead of ahte we should read ehte, 'persecuted.' 21. Eormanrices : see 1 8 n. 24. secg monig : i.e. the victims of the Gothic king's tyranny. 28. The subject of siteft has to be supplied, 'a man sits.' 31. J>OHHe, 'however,' a frequent sense. 32. wende]? geneahhe, * makes frequent change. ' 36. Heodeninga : the Hjatiningar of Snorri's Edda. Who these people were is not known. 39. Heorrenda corresponds in form to Horant, the sweet singer of the M. H.G. poem Kudrim. It is possible that the A.-S. poet is not really speaking of himself, but is dealing with an imaginary situation and using well-known historic names, as a modern poet would do. 4. BEOWULF MS. The only MS. of the poem in existence is in the Cotton collection of the British Museum, bound up with other MSS. in one codex designated Vitellius A. XV. The whole text was photographed and the phototypes published with a transcription and notes on the state of the MS. by J. Zupitza in 1882. Editions. The most recent annotated editions are those by F. Holthausen, 1912; Heyne-Schiicking, 1913; W.J. Sedgefield (2nd edition), 1913; Wyatt-Chambers, 1914; F. Klaeber, 1922. In his Gesch. d. altengl. Lit., A. Brandl gives an excellent survey and discussion of .Beowulf questions, with a full bibliography. Another valuable handbook is Dr. R. W. Chambers's Beowulf, 1921, in which among other matters the relation of the events described in the poem to the main body of Germanic and especially Scandinavian story is ably discussed. Klaeber's edn. (576 pp.) is a veritable encyclopedia of recent Beowulf research. 1. Gar-Dena, ' Spear-Danes. ' The word Dene often occurs in the poem with a prefix such as Beorht-, East-, Hring-, etc., partly for metrical reasons. 4 ff. ' Often did Scyld Scefing with his bands of warriors take away from many tribes their dwelling-places ; he struck terror into men, ever since he was in early years found abandoned. For this he lived to find (gebad) consolation ; he grew up, prospered in honours, until each one of the surrounding peoples across the sea (lit. whale-path) was forced to obey him, to pay him tribute.' Scefing : there has been much controversy over the meaning of this word. Some take it to mean 'son of Sceaf,' others explain it as 'of the sheaf.' The former is the more obvious meaning, especially as the name Sceaf occurs in the patronymic Sceafing at the beginning of the W.S. genealogy given in two MSS. of A.-S. Chron., anno 855, and the name Sceafa is mentioned in 1 32, as a ruler of the Longobards, however. But the question is complicated by the fact that the story told of Scyld in Beo. 11. 6-II is related by two English chroniclers1 of much later times of a personage named Sceaf or Scef, who is called the father of Sceldius (Scyld). William of Malmesbury further says that 1 Ethel werd (toth cent.) and William of Malmesbury (izth cent.). 142 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY the child Sceaf was discovered by the inhabitants of the island Scandza asleep with his head resting on a sheaf of corn, whence his name. We cannot decide whether this story of the sheaf is due to ' popular etymology ' of a hero's name or whether Sceaf, ' sheaf,' was a name anciently given to a mythological introducer of agriculture to one or all of the Germanic peoples and adopted by these peoples as the first name in their royal genealogies. Perhaps Scyld was a name invented to account for the dynastic name Scylding, and was coupled by the poet with Scef for the sake of alliteration. SCeaJ»ena: lit. 'harmers,' 'destroyers.' ]?reatum, like other words meaning 'band,' 'army,' etc., can be used without the preposition mid. 5. msegjjlim : here the dat. is used as an ablative. 6. eorlas is Sievers's emendation, as egsode requires an object. wearft is often used instead of was to form a compound past tense ; cf. the similar use of Germ, ward, wurde. 7. gebad, 'gained by waiting,' i.e. lived to experience; for the function of ge- see 1 38 n., to which we may add that ge- often converts an intrans. verb into a trans, one. 8. under WOlcimm is one of several ' otiose ' words and phrases used to fill up a line ; cf. in geardum 1. 13, and under heofenum 1. 52. 12. ftaem, 'to him.' 13. J>OIie, 'him.' The distinction between the relative and demonstrative use of sey seo, Jyat is not very marked in early A.-S. poetry. 15. Scyld apparently dies while Beowulf his son is still a child. 16. }><&S, ' for this ' ; cf. 1. 7. liffrea I one of the numerous names for God in A.-S. poetry. In 17 A, one of the veiy oldest specimens of A.-S. verse, God is called wuldorf&der, ' Father of glory. ' In Beo. mention is frequently made incidentally of the power and wisdom of God, but never at any length ; see 18. 18. Beowulf the Dane, not to be confused with the hero of the poem, Beowulf the Geat. 19. Scedelandum, now Skane, the most southerly part of Sweden, originally inhabited by the Danes. In Beo. 1. 1686 the form Scedenigge occurs. The name is here probably used for the whole of the Danish territory, including the islands, Hrothgar's dominions. 20-25. Such remarks by the poet on the character and duties of rulers occur fairly often, but are usually restricted to a line or half-line ; cf.\. 1 1 . 20. gode : here a noun, 'by liberality.' For this common meaning of god cf. 1 112. 21 . fasder : the older form of the gen. s. 22. }?36t introduces the object of gewyrcean, viz. the noun-clause. 24. gelSBSten with dat. means ' help. ' 26. After the digression about Beowulf the poet returns to Scyld. him '. a kind of reflexive use with verbs of motion, especially with gewitan. 27. feran is complementary infin. to gewat, and need not be transl. WSere usually means 'covenant,' 'agreement,' see 4 D 160; here it means 'safe-keeping.' 28. hi is explained by SWJfiSe gestyas : gesift properly means 'fellow-traveller' or ' comrade in an expedition,' from std1. The prefix ge- gives a collective meaning to nouns, as in geneat, gefera, etc. 30. Wine, ' friend,' often used of a ruler. The affectionate and loyal relations between the hereditary chief and his people are frequently referred to in A.-S. poetry, NOTES 143 31. lange ahte is a repetition of the idea contained in weold. 32. hringedstefna : one of the numerous names of a ship in A.-S. poetry. 33. UtftlS, ' eager to depart ' ; the ship, like the sword, is personified ; fus is connected vj'\i}\ fitndian, 'to be ready or eager to go.' 35. beaga : beag is any kind of ring-like ornament, such as a crown, armlet, collar, etc. 38. gegyrwan may be transl. by a passive verb, 'was ever adorned more handsomely.' 40. him : a common use for his, cf. 1. 49. 41. mid is here an adverbial preposition and follows its case ; it therefore takes a full stress and alliterates ; see Appendix, § 1 1 d. 43. laessan: d. pi. teodan: the weak verb teon 'adorn,' 'equip' must not be confused with the strong verb meaning 'draw,' 'pull.' 46. aenne, 'alone.' umborwesende : ace. s. m. The ace. s. m. of pres. participles in verse is often the same as the nom. s. 50-52. men . . . selersedende . . . haeleft : a case of repetition or the use of 'equivalents,' a characteristic feature of A.-S. verse ; see Appendix, § 5. 55. feeder: Scyld. ellor hwearf, 'went elsewhither,' i.e. died. 56. him eft onwOC, 'for him afterwards arose,' i.e. he begat. 58. glsede, ' prosperous ' ; for this meaning cf. 1. 225. 59. forft gerimed, 'counted forward,' i.e. in succession. 60. raBSWa refers to Heorogar alone. Kemble emended to the n. pi. raswan. 62, 63. The name of Healfdene's fourth child, a daughter, must have been included in the passage inadvertently omitted by the copyist. Grundtvig's sug- gestion Onelan seems fairly certain. Onela was a son of the Swedish king Ongentheow and brother of Ohthere ; see 4 Gr. The names of the royal Danish house occur also in the Scandinavian sagas and in the history written in Latin in the twelfth century by a Danish monk, Saxo Grammaticus, who made use of current sagas. 63. ScilfingaS is the old Northumbrian gen. s. ; cf. Merewioingas in 4 F 302. Scilfing or Scylfing, properly the name of the royal Swedish house, was applied to the Swedish people. The prefix Heafto- is found in several tribal names, such as Heaftobeardan and Heaftorcemas. B 65. Grein's emendation of the MS. reading Sigetminde makes better sense, but the separation of fram from its noun ellendsedum is unusual. Sigemund and Fitela correspond to Sigmund and Sinfjptli of the Volsungasaga, where we are told that Vplsung, the father of Sigmund and of Signy his sister, is murdered by Signy's husband. Sigmund escapes by flight, accompanied by his nephew Sinfjotli, and meets with many adventures. 67. Wselsinges : Sigemund, son of Wsels (Volsung). 68 ff. ' Such as none of the sons of men knew well . . . save Fitela and himself, whenever he cared to relate, the uncle to his nephew, some example of the kind. For they ever were comrades in every desperate deed.' 69. faehfte ond fyrena are an awkward interruption. 70. SWUlces hwset, lit. 'something of such,' i.e. some of Sigemund's adventures. 71. earn is here a dissyllable, as the metre (E-type) shows ; it corresponds to the Germ. Oheim. 144 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY 73. eotena : eoton, O. N. jotunn, is frequently used in Beo. with the meaning of 'giant.' The word survived in provincial English till a late period as ' ettin ' ; cf. 18 23, 24 n. 75. unlytel, 'not little,' i.e. great, an example of the figure of speech called ' litotes ' or understatement, common in A. -S. poetry. 76. In the Volsungasaga and the Nibelungenlied it is the Sigemund's son Sigurftr (or Siegfried) that kills the dragon. wiges heard : Sigemund. 77. hordes hyrde : in ancient folk-lore the dragon's function was to guard treasure in a cave ; cf. 21 26, 27, draca sceal on hlcewe, frod, frcetwum wlanc. 83. aglssca means properly ' inspirer of terror.' elne, d.s. of ellen, 'valour,' is often used as an adv. meaning 'quite,' 'absolutely'; cf. 1. 137; here, however, it may have the original sense of ' by his bravery. ' 85. Selfes dome, ' at his own discretion,' a common phrase in both prose and verse. 87. wyrm hat gemealt, 'the dragon melted away in (its own) fire.' 88. wreccena, 'outcasts,' 'exiles.' Among the Germanic peoples every court must have been familiar with such refugees, banished from their native land and serving foreign lords. The modern English ' wretch ' shows an extension of the original meaning. 90. ellendaedum defines mserost. he J>3es aer onftah, ' he on that account prospered long ago.' Cosijn emended the MS. reading to he Jxzs aron , 'he on that account prospered with honours,' aron standing for arum. 91, 92. modfayfte . . . Ondrysne : this passage has given rise to much discussion. Some editors regard mod firyfto, the MS. reading, as standing for two words, the second being taken as Thryth, the name of the violent princess ; they transl. ' Thryth displayed anger ' (mod). Others, reading pryfSe and inserting ne before W3Bg, transl. 'the good queen (i.e. Hygd) did not show the anger of Thryth.' The MS. reading firyfto is regarded as a personal name because in a late Latin chronicle, the Lives of the two Offas, the wife of the second Offa, king of Mercia, is stated to have been a murderous queen named Drida, which corresponds to the O. E. }>ry(5. But there is nothing to show that the first Offa, king of the Angles, had a wife of that name. A third way, which we adopt, is to regard modj?ryfte as an abstract noun ; emending fremu to freomu we transl. ' an active queen of the people showed a violent temper, a dreadful sin.' For mod]?ryfte WSBg cf. Genesis 1. 2238, higefiryfte iv<zg, with much the same meaning. 93 ff. nsenig . . . cyftan, ' not one of the beloved retainers apart from the great lord (i.e. Offa) was bold enough to meet her gaze (lit. gaze on her with eyes) eye to eye ; nay, he would have (in that case) regarded as inevitable (lit. destined for him) bonds twisted by hand. Speedily after the strangling (mundgripe) was the sword appealed to, so that the figured blade might settle the matter (hit), make certain (lit. make known) the execution.' The cumbrous phrasing noticeable in this passage is not infrequent in Beo. and other A.-S. poems. 94. The prefix sin- means 'great,' 'long,' as in sinniht^ sinhere, sinsnced, etc. Some editors read sin frea, 'her lord,' but sin, a possess, adj., could hardly take the stress and alliteration in this position. 101. efnan must be read for efnanne of the MS., as the half-line is of the A-type NOTES 145 102, 103. J>3stte . . . mannan explains )>eaw. feores . . . lliannan, ' should after causeless (lit. ' lying ') anger demand the life of a dear man ' ; feores is a gen. of definition with an adverbial function, ' in respect of life.' 104. onhohsnode for onhoscnode, from kusc, 'scorn.' Offa clearly dis- approved of his wife's behaviour. For the metathesis of c (h] and s cf. httxlic for husclic, dcsian, ahsian, and dscian, etc. 105. ofter Sasdan, 'said further,' or perhaps it means 'gave another version.' 108. cempan: Offa. 109. seftelum diore, ' brave by descent ' ; the neut. pi. aftelu is occasionally used with the meaning of 'noble origin,' 'lineage.' diore is the instr., frequently used for the masc. and neut. dat. sing of adjs. 110. faeder: gen. s. ; cf. l. 21. 112. gode m3Bre, ' famed for her generosity ' ; for this meaning of god see 1 89 and 1. 20. 114. brego: Offa. 116. selestan agrees with bregO : the ' two seas ' are the North Sea and the Baltic, so that the expression means the countries between these seas, the homes of the Angles, Danes, etc. 120. J?onon, 'from him.' Thorpe suggested Eomer, as the MS. reading geomor does not alliterate. Eomser is a name in the genealogy of the Mercian kings, where he is the grandson of Offa, the Mercian. 121. Hemminges mseg is in apposition to Offa ; cf. 1. 104. 122. ni^a, 'in warlike deeds,' a defining gen. ; cf. feores, \. 102 n. 123. SWeg : either the noise of the banqueting or else the music of the harp ; cf. hearpan sweg^ Beo. 11. 89, 2458, 3023. 124. Healfdenes hildewisan, ' Halfdane's captain,' i.e. his son Hrothgar, the Danish king and Beowulf s host. 125. gomenwudu, 'wood of delight,' an example of the poetic equivalents which play so useful a part in A.-S. verse. The harp is called gleobeam in Beo. 1. 2263, with the same meaning as gomenwudu. gid : Chaucer's 'yeddinges' (C.T. Prol. 1. 236) is a surviving derivative of giedd, which means a story sung or chanted, or a formal speech; cf. gydda gleawne, 1 139. wrecen, lit. ' driven out,' 'expelled,' here ' uttered.' 128 ff. Some editors think that the minstrel's story begins with the words Finnes eaferum, and transl. ' Hnsef, warrior of the Half-Danes, was doomed to fall by the hand of Finn's sons.' Others assume the loss of a line or lines after msenan SCOlde and regard eaferum as dependent on some missing word. Others again insert be before FinH6S and transl. * when Hrothgar's minstrel began the entertainment (healgamen HUEnan SCOlde) by singing about Finn's sons,' etc. But the addition of be renders the half-line (A-type) metrically faulty ; see Appendix, § 7. 129. Healf-Dena is merely a variant of Dena\ cf. 11. 150 and 218 ; they are called Scyldinga in 11. 168 and 214. 130. FreSWSele, 'slaughter of (i.e. fight with) the Frisians.' 131. ne . . . treowe : an example of the common figure of speech called 'litotes' or understatement; cf.\. 75 n. and 1. 279 n. Hildeburfl : Finn's queen, daughter of Hoc, king of the Half- Danes, and sister of Hnsef. L 146 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY 132. Eotena : the word eoton, O.I. iotunn, 'giant,' occurs several times in Beo. and other A.-S. poems ; it is used of the ogre Grendel as well as of the 'giants of those days.' In the Finn episode it is used of followers of Finn and at first sight appears to be a synonym for Frisians. Some scholars accept this, regarding catenas as a nickname (possibly Danish) for Frisians, the ' giants ' or uncouth monsters. Others see in the word a proper name and assign it to various tribes, Frisians, Jutes, or Danes. Chambers and others point out that it would be the Northumbrian form of the W.S. Yte, the Jutes, who inhabited the modern Jutland and who, according to Bede, emigrated to Kent, the Isle of Wight, and the opposite coast of Hampshire. 134. on gebyrd : either ' according to their destiny ' or ' one after the other. ' 136. Hoces : cf. 1 29. 140. fornam, ' had destroyed ' ; the events preceding the funeral obsequies are here referred to. 142, 143. ' So that he could not on the battle-field (i.e. Hnsefs hall) by any means win the fight against Hengest nor overwhelm the remaining band of the prince's (i.e. Hnsefs) thane ; nay, they (Finn's party) offered them (the Danes) terms,' etc. The wskforpringan is not found elsewhere ; the dat. ?fegne in 1. 145 seems to be used as a gen. 147. hie : Hengest and his Danes. 148. witJ, 'as compared with.' 149. Folcwaldan SUnu : Finn is called Folcwalding in 1 27. 152. efne SWa SWifte, 'in exactly the same measure.' 153. Fresena cyn : Finn's own people. 155. fta hie . . . frioftuwsere, ' at the time both parties were confident of a firm peace.' 157. elne unflitme, ' absolutely without dispute,' i.e. quite loyally. For the adverbial use of elne see 1. 83 n. Unflitme is prob. from flitan, ' to dispute' (mod. Scottish 'flyte'); cf. 1. 189 n. 158. wealafe : cf. 1. 144. 159. arum, 'with honours,' 'honourably.' 161. gemsenden perhaps means ' defile,' from mane, ' wicked,' a derivative of man, ' sin ' ; or else ' censure,' cf. 13 57 ; or ' conspire,' from gemizna. 162, 163. fteah hie . . . ge]?earfod W8es, 'though they had, after losing their prince (Hnsef), taken service with the slayer (Finn) of their ring-giver, since such need had fallen upon them.' 164- ]?onne, 'however,' 'notwithstanding.' 167. The MS. reading ^Jicge gold may be read as either ond icge or ondicge, neither of which seems to have any meaning. Golden treasure is brought out of Finn's hoard and given to Hengest as an earnest of good faith. Some editors read ad, ' funeral pile,' for a&, and make the gold refer to the ornaments placed by the warriors' bodies to be consumed with them by the fire. 169. betst beadorinca : Hnsef. 171. SWyn and eofer are the image of a boar crowning the helmets of some. Germanic tribes. 172. Seeling manig : both Frisians and Danes. 175. The MS. reading sunu is emended by editors to the plur. suna in view of eaferum, 1. 128, and bearnum, 1. 134. 177. eame On eaxle, 'by the side of their uncle (Hngef).' The MS. reading earme, if retained, is either ace. pi. agreeing with suna or instrumental (for dat.) sing., referring to Hnsef, 'by the side of the poor fellow.' 178. giddum, 'dirges.' The MS. reading guftrinc would mean 'warrior,' NOTES 147 which does not suit the sense of the passage ; gufthring, ' battle-ring,' is a picturesque name for a smoke spiral ; a final g is frequently written c, cf. aspranc 1. 181. 179. wand, 'curled,' 'circled.' 180. for hlawe, 'before the mound,' i.e. the tumulus or barrow, hollow inside, in which the ashes of the warriors with their weapons and ornaments were buried. Great numbers of such mounds have been opened in modern times, both in Britain and in Scandinavia ; cf. 14 425. 182. laftbite, 'from the wounds,' lit. 'the hostile bite.' 183. gaesta giflOSt, 'greediest of creatures' (lit. 'strangers,' 'visitors'), a personification of flame. In O.E. MSS. the words gast, 'spirit,' and gcest or gest (W.S. giest}, 'stranger,' are often confused ; cf. 18 I4n. )>ara refers to ealle. 184. blaed, 'heyday.' 186. Frysland : see 1 27 n. 188. W3elfagne, 'blood-stained'; wcel means 'corpse,' or generally 'the slain.' The epithet seems to imply that Hengest helped Finn in his wars during the winter, though inwardly meditating revenge. 189. elne unflitme is an emendation of the MS. reading finnel unhlitme, on the analogy of 1. 157 ; transl. ' with strict loyalty.' 192. WOn may stand for either zvann, 'fought,' or wan, 'dark.' 194. geardas, 'dwellings,' i.e. the earth, the world. 194-196. The MS. reading requires emendation. Keeping deft and reading J?am we transl. ' as it (the year) still does (come) to those who are continually watching the seasons, (watching for) the brilliant weather (of spring).' Retaining pa and reading doa<5y Cosijn's suggestion, we transl. ' as do those (years) which observe the seasons,' etc. ; dodft is an earlier form of doft. 195. Sele : North, for W.S. sale. 200. gif, 'if only.' torngemot, 'meeting of anger,' an expressive term for 'attack,' 'fight.' 201. As the Eotens are on Finn's side we must insert wift. 202-205. These lines have caused much discussion. The MS. reading woroldrcedenne occurs nowhere else ; it could only mean ' way of the world,' but 'did not refuse the way of the world' is hardly intelligible. Moller's emendation worodr<^denne = werodrcedenne^ 'troop service,' 'military service,' though not met with elsewhere, gives excellent sense ; cf. uvigradenne, 2 22. Hunlafing, i.e. 'son of Hunlaf,' seems to have been a young Danish prince plotting vengeance against the slayers of Hnaef ; the Guthlaf and Oslaf mentioned in 1. 208 may have been the brothers of Hunlaf and survivors of the fight in the hall; cf. 5 I5n. By accepting the sword from the son of Hunlaf, Hengest puts an end to his hesitation and comes into the plot. 205. The sword had shed the blood of Eotens before, and was therefore peculiarly fitted for the task of vengeance. 206. ferhftfrecan, 'bold champion,' agrees in case with Fin, which is the obj. of begeat, 'fell upon.' 208. grimne gripe: lit. 'the fierce sword-grip,' i.e. the fatal fight when Hnsef was killed ; transl. ' when G. and O. after the sea-journey sorrowfully bewailed that grim fight and taunted them (the Danes) on their woes.' Guthlaf and Oslaf are egging on the younger Danes to take vengeance on Finn. 210. The subject of meahte must be either mod or Finn understood ; in the former case we transl. ' their restless purpose could no longer be restrained ' ; in the latter, ' he could not retain his dazed mind,' i.e. he died. We prefer the I 48 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY first rendering ; forhabban is used intransitively, as in Beo. 1. 2609, ne mihte (5a forhabban. weana dsel : see 1. 228 n. 212. feorum, 'lives,' here used for 'life-blood.' 216. SWylce, 'such as,' 'whatever.' 219. leodum, ' her people,' the Danes. E 220. for dugllfte seems to mean here 'before the company,' but it may mean 'from her noble breeding.' 221. eorlum on ende, ' to the far end of the rows of warriors.' 225. gladum, 'radiant,' 'prosperous'; cf. 1. 58. suna Frodan : Ingeld, mentioned in 1 48. 226. £ses geworden, ' agreed to, arranged this.' wine Scyldinga : i.e. Hrothgar, their king. 227. J?set rsed talaft, 'holds it good policy,' cf. 22 120. 228. This use of dsel with another noun in the gen. pi. is fairly common in Beo. and other O.E. verse. It is merely a periphrasis for the pi., and serves to fill out a half-line. Cf. weana d<zl, 4 210. 229. The MS. reading gives no clear sense ; some editors insert no before seldan and, putting no stop after leodhryre, transl. ' Often, not seldom (is it the case) where the murderous spear after the fall of a chief rests a little while.' But this puts a strain on the meaning of the O.E. words, as lytle does not mean 'a little' but 'only a little,' 'not for long.' The emendation in the text means ' often has fortune changed after the fall of a chief ; only a little while does the spear rest' ; selft is the Northumbrian form of the W.S. scelS. 231. duge, ' be a good one.' 232. As the construction oioffryncan, 'mislike,' is dat. of person and gen. of thing (]?ses) the MS. reading fteoden needs to be emended to fteodne. fteodne Heaftobeardna (Ingeld) : for the Heathobards see 1 49 n. 234 ff. 'When he (Ingeld) goes into his hall with the lady (Freawaru), attended by a company (of Danish retainers). On them glisten the heirlooms of the old ones' (Heathobards), etc. Some editors retain the MS. reading dugufta but change biwenede to bi werede and transl. ' when he, some Danish noble in the troop of retainers, comes into the hall with the lady, on him glisten,' etc. According to this view the fsemnan J>egn mentioned in 1. 259 is here introduced. 238. hie : the dead Heathobard chiefs. 239. ' Until they lost in the fight their dear retainers and their own lives.' fbrlaeddan means ' led away to their doom. ' 241. Cwift, 'shall say.' beom is either a Danish warrior of Freawaru's suite, or the young Heathobard mentioned in 1. 244. 245. ' To test his resolution by working on his feelings ' is the sense of this line. 248. frod is a certain emendation, as the metre is otherwise defective. 251. Wiftergyld : this name occurs in 1 124. 252. Scyldungas merely repeats Dene of l. 250. 253. ]?ara . . . nathwylces, 'the son of one or other of the murderers.' 255. morftres gylpeft, ' parades the crime ' (of his father). 259. >egn : the Dane. fore=y^r, 'on account of.' fseder, the earlier form of the gen. s. usual in Beo. 261. ealdres scyldig, 'obliged to forfeit his life.' se ofter: the NOTES 149 young Heathobard warrior. him is reflex, dat. with the verb of motion losaft ; cf. the same use with gewitan. 263. bio$, ' shall be.' 264. aflsweord : it would seem that swords were either exchanged as pledges or used to swear oaths upon in the concluding of a solemn treaty, and were broken as a sign that the treaty was ended ; see 9, Introd. Note, and 1. 65, n. ib. 267. }>y, 'therefore,' 'for these reasons'; transl. 'therefore I do not con- sider the loyalty of the Heathobards and their alliance devoid of treachery to the Danes, nor their friendship enduring.' Beowulf is speaking to Hygelac. 271. Hygelac : son of Hrethel, king of the Geats and uncle of Beowulf. The Geats were neighbours of the Swedes in the south of what is now Sweden, the Geats living south of the great lakes and the Swedes to the north. 273. Freslondum : the reference is apparently to the West Frisian allies of the Hetware ; cf. 1. 285. 274. hiorodryncum SWealt, 'perished by sword-gulps,' a very bold metaphor. 275. ]?onan : from Friesland. 276. SUndnytte dreah, ' swam,' lit. ' discharged the function of swimming. ' Such expressions, strange to us, were merely part of the A.-S. and O.Icel. poet's verbal stock-in-trade, his wordhord. 277. him, as often, means 'his.' ana, the weak form of an, means ' alone. ' 279. Hetware: probably the H<ztwcre of 1 330. nealles . . . feftewigCS, ' the H. had no cause to rejoice in their prowess,' an example of the significant under-statement so much employed by A.-S. poets, cf. 1. i3On. The infin. beon is omitted with porfton, as it frequently is with mag, sceal, etc. 281. lyt, ' few of them ' ; see 1. 229 n. 282. hildfrecan : Beowulf; cf. 1. 206. niosan is complementary to becwom. 283 ff. Beowulf himself here recalls his share in Hygelac's disastrous expedition, alluded to in the previous lines. for dllgeftum : cf. 4 £ 220 : ' before the armies I was the slayer of Daeghrem ' (who killed Hygelac). Huga : a name given to the Franks. 285. frSBtwe : belonging to Hygelac. FreSCyninge is either a Frisian king under the overlordship of Theodoric, or else Theodoric himself, or his son Theodobert. We are here reminded of the doubt as to the identity of the Eotenas in the Finn episode. It must be remembered that the Franks living near the mouth of the Rhine as far as the Zuyder Zee had Frisians as their nearest neighbours. 287. Climbles hyrde, ' the guardian of the standard,' Dseghrefn. 289. BeowulPs terrible hand-grip rendered the use of a sword unnecessary, as is shown in his fight with Grendel. 289, 290. heortan . . . gebrSSC, 'crushed his heart's founts, his bone-house,' a fine example of A.-S. poetic imagery. 291. Beowulf, after succeeding Heardred, Hygelac's son, as king of the Geats, and reigning many years, now lies dead after slaying the dragon. The messenger who reports his death to his people recalls past feuds and prophesies fresh ones. 150 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY 292. undeme, 'not secret,' 'publicly known,' is the predicate of in 1. 294. 293. cyninges : Beowulf. 295. Hugas : see 1. 284 n. 296. fl.oth.erge : for this use of the dat. without mid cf. 4 4 n. 297. The MS. reading gehncegdon, ' brought low,' is metrically faulty, as it brings two alliterations into the second half-line. 298. geeodon . . . )>Set, 'brought it to pass . . . that.' 299. byrnwiga : Hygelac. 301. dugofte, 'to his followers.' A distribution of treasure would have followed victory. US, 'to us Geats.' 302. MerewioingaS, ' of the Merovingian,' i.e. Theodric, one of the Merovingian dynasty of Frankish kings. For the Northumbrian gen. s. ending as cf. Scilfingas, 1. 63 n. 304. wid WSBter : the great lakes Wener and Wetter, in the south of Sweden. 305. Hrethel had three sons, Herebeald, Haethcen and Hygelac. Herebeald was accidentally killed by Hsethcen ; see 11 0, Introd. Note. On Hsethcen's death at the hands of the Swedish king Ongentheow, Hygelac succeeded to the Geatish throne. 306. The words o<5<5e him, which in the MS. immediately precede Ongenfteowes, cannot form part of the same half-line, which is of the simple A- type ; see Appendix, §§ 7, 8. We must therefore assume either that they were inserted in error by the copyist, or that they are part of one or more lines that have been omitted. Ongenfteowes eaferan : Onela and Ohthere; for Ongentheow cf. 1 31. 308. heafo, 'seas,' is the Mercian form of W.S. hafu, pi. of haf. The reference is to the great lakes Wener and Wetter and numberless smaller ones which lay between the Swedes and the Geats. Hreosna-Beorh is a name not occurring elsewhere. Some editors emend to Hrefna-Beorh in view of Hrefnesholt) 1. 334, but there seem to have been two battles at different places. 309. * They often made fierce and perfidious attacks.' 310. msegwine mine, ' my kinsmen' (uncles), i.e. Haethcen and Hygelac. 312. ofter, 'one of the two,' i.e. Haethcen. 313. Hsethcen was slain by Ongentheow, as we are told in 11. 323, 324. heardan ceape, 'a cruel bargain.' 315. ' Then, I have heard, in the morning one brother (Hygelac) avenged the other (Hsethcen) on the slayer.' 317. EoforeS : a Geatish warrior ; cf. 1. 363. 318. Scylfing: Ongentheow. 319. hond : apparently the hand of Eofor, who slays the old king when the latter attacks him : * his hand remembered the many (genoge) rights ; it did not withhold the mortal stroke.' 321. to, 'from.' 322. wihte, 'at all.' ac, 'for,' or 'nay, rather,' the usual meaning when a negative sentence precedes. 326. leode is obj. of gesohton. 327. fseder Ohtheres : Ongentheow. 328. ondslyht ageaf, 'returned to the attack.' NOTES I 5 I 329. brimwisan, ' the sea-chief,' i.e. Hcethcen, who had apparently carried off Ongentheow's wife (bryd). In 1. 353 the Geats are called scemannnm. afeorde, 'removed,' 'took away.' Some editors read ahredde, 'rescued.' 332. feorhgeniftlan : Hsethcen's Geatish followers. 335. sinherge, ' with a large force ' ; for this meaning of the dat. see 1. 4 n. ; for the prefix sin- see 1. 94 n. SWGOrda lafe, ' what was left by the swords,' i.e. the remnant of Hoethcen's followers ; cf. ^vealafe, 1. 144. 338. After cwaeft the conj. pcet is occasionally omitted in Beo. 339. getan, 'destroy,' properly 'to pour out,' the Anglian form of the W.S. gietan, a causal derivative of geotan, 'gush out,' 'pour'; cf. the similar Latin use vifiindere. 341. sarigmodlim : Hsethcen's band. 342. hie : also H.'s band. 344. dugofte, 'with the flower'; cf. sinherge^ 1. 335. on last, 'on the track (of Ongentheow). ' 347. mid him, 'among themselves.' 348. S6 goda here refers to Ongentheow, now fleeing from Hygelac. 350. This line, which is a parenthesis, is not quite clear ; we may transl. 'the warrior (Hygelac) had turned Ongentbeow back higher up (the hill).' 351. The subj. of hsefde is Ongentheow. 353. )>3Bt introduces a noun-clause expanding the meaning of Wlftres. 354. hord forstandan : the treasure, including booty and other fruits of victory, was defended to the last. 355. beam is probably pi. beah, 'he retreated.' 356. eorftweall : a stronghold surrounded by an embankment. ]?a W36S seht boden, etc. : the meaning of this passage is not clear ; we may transl. ' treasure was offered, a banner, to Hygelac by the Swedish people ; they came out on the plain. Then Hrethel's men (the Geats) pressed forward to the fort. There Ongentheow the grey-haired was driven to bay by the edge of swords, so that he, the people's king, had to yield to the will of one man, Eofor.' Some editors read oht, 'pursuit,' for geht, and Higelaces^ and translate 'then was pursuit offered to the Swedes (i.e. the Geats attacked them); the banners of Hygelac advanced over the plain to the fort.' 363. hyne, etc., 'him (Ongentheow) Wulf, son of Wanraed, had (previously) attacked fiercely with his weapon.' 365. him, ' from him ' (Ongentheow). 368. wyrsan wrixle, ' with a worse exchange,' worse, that is, for Wulf. 369. )>yder oncirde, ' returned to the charge. ' 370. sunu Wonredes : Wulf. 371. giofan : a Mercian or Kentish form for W.S. giefan. 372. he : Ongentheow. 373. he : Wulf. bugan, 'give way.' 374. faege is regularly used of men whose death is at hand. 375. hyne gewyrpte, '(afterwards) recovered.' 376. J?egn : Eofor. The complementary infin. to let is brecan, ' caused his broad blade, old and once a giant's, to split the ancient helm over the shield- defence.' Swords were valued for their age and history; eotonisc and entiscne denote a supernatural degree of excellence. Entas were the mighty men of former days, giants or demi-gods ; eoton was a supernatural monster ; cf. 1. 73 n. 377. his broftor : i.e. Wulf. I 5 2 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY 381. his m&g : Eofor's brother, Wulf. 382. fta him gerymed wearft, etc., 'when they had been enabled to win the victory ' (lit. ' control the slaughter-place '). 384. ' Meanwhile the warrior (Eofor) stripped the other (Ongentheow).' 388. he : Hygelac, Eofor's lord. feng here takes the dat. 389. leana is partitive gen., 'some rewards.' 390. geald, 'paid for,' 'rewarded.' dryhten ! Hygelac. 391. ham with to and cet does not take the dat. inflexion. 393. hund ]?USenda, 'the value of 100,000 (i.e. sceattas, see 1 92 n.) in land and linked rings.' 394. ne Sorfte, etc. , ' no man on earth need grudge them that reward, after they had won such glory.' Or, if him refers to Hygelac, we may transl. 'no man need reproach him ' (i.e. for giving too small a reward). 397. hyldo to wedde, ' as a pledge of favour ' ; hyldo belongs to a class of indeclinable fern, abstract nouns. 398. hyne : Heardred. 399. SUna Ohteres : Eanmund and Eadgils. Eanmund is mentioned in Beo. 1. 261 1 as a son of Ohthere. 400. helm Scylfinga : Onela. 402. Swiorice : see 1 31 n. 403. him . . . Wearft, 'for him (Heardred) that was the limit (of life).' 404. for feorme, 'in return for his support (of Ohthere's son).' 405. SUI1U Hygelaces is in apposition with he. 406. Ongenftioes beam : Onela. 408. The subj. of let, ' arranged,' is Heardred. We are told in another part of the poem that Hygelac's widow wished Beowulf to succeed to the throne, as her son Heardred was too young, but Beowulf preferred to act as regent, watching over the prince till he came of age. Now that Heardred is dead, Beowulf succeeds him ; cf. Beo. 11. 2369 ff. 410. S6 : Beowulf ; ' he remembered the payment due for the death of his chief ; i.e. resolved to take vengeance on Onela. 412. folce gestepte, 'helped (lit. exalted) with an army.' 413. sunu Ohteres : Eadgils. 414. he: Eadgils. 415. cyning: Onela. H 416. him : Beowulf, to whom a collar is given by Wealhtheow, queen of Hrothgar, the Danish king, as a reward for his having slain the monsters, Grendel and his mother. ful, 'cup.' 422. Hama is the Heime of Germanic story, the companion of Wittich (O.E. Wudga) ; see 1 13011. 425. Eormenrices : see 1 8 n. geceas . . . rsed, ' chose the eternal way,' a euphemism for 'died.' 430. ahsode, 'experienced.' 431. to, 'from,' 'at the hands of.' 433. Hygelac was slain in the fight with the Franks and Frisians ; see 4 F, Introd. Note. 5. THE FIGHT AT FINNSBURH MS. The MS. of this fragment has been lost, so that we are dependent on the text printed by G. Hickes in his Linguarum Veterum Septentrionalium Thesaurtis, Oxford, 1705. The fragment is edited with notes in the NOTES I 5 3 editions of Beo. by Holthausen, Klaeber and Wyatt-Chambers ; also by B. Dickins, I.e. 1 ff. Apparently one of Hnaefs men on the watch has noticed a light approaching the hall and reports it to Hnaef (cyning), who at once perceives that the moon- light is reflected from the armour and weapons of an approaching enemy. He thereupon rouses his sleeping men and sends them to their stations. 3. draca : dragons were supposed to breathe out fire ; see 14 E. 4. hornas : the gables ending in horn-like points. 5. 6. There is no break between beraft and fugelas in Hickes's text, but clearly two half-lines at least have been omitted ; we may transl. ' but in this case foemen are on the march.' 6ff. fugelas . . . OllCWyft, 'the birds (of battle) are croaking, the grey- coated (wolf) is howling, spears are rattling, shields answer them.' The eagle, the raven, and the wolf are the conventional attendants on battles in O.E. poetry; cf. Beo. 1. 3024 ff., se wonna hrefn . . . (sceal) earne secgan hu him <zt ate speoW) Jyenden he -wid1 wulfe w<zl reafode. 10. As it stands this line can be transl. ' which will bring to a head this hatred of the people,' but the sense is rather strained. By emending ftisne to (Sisses and willaft to willeft we obtain a better meaning, ' which this people's (the enemy's) malice is about to cause.' 12. hebbaft eowre handa, 'raise your hands,' i.e. take a solemn vow to fight to the death. 12, 13. hicgeaj? . . . mode, ' fix your purpose on deeds of valour, hurl (your spears) in the van of battle, be of good heart.' 16. Sigeferft I see 1 3 1 n. Eaha : not elsewhere met with. 17. Ordlaf and Guthlaf are probably the Oslaf and Guthlaf who in the Beowulf Finn episode appeal to Hengest for vengeance ; see 4 D 208. 18. hwearf him on laste, ' followed them ' ; lit. < moved in their tracks.' 19. Garulf apparently is the leader of the attacking party. 20 ff- ' That he should not bear his noble life nor his armour to the doors of the hall, since a warrior bold in attack wished to take it ' (i.e. his life). 22. ni)>a heard probably refers to Sigeferth. 23. he : Garulf. 25. Secgena : apparently the same people as the Sycgum of 1 31. 26. wreccea wide cuft : cf. 4 B 88. 27. fte . . . Wylle, 'for thee is destined whatever thou thyself desirest to ask from me,' i.e. life or death. SW3B]?er is a contraction of swa hw&fter, ' whichsoever of two. ' 30. celled is Grein's emendation on the analogy of celled bord in 16 283, q.v. ; its meaning is not known. 31. banhelm may mean ' corslet ' or ' helmet ' ; it occurs nowhere else. 35. Hickes's reading hivearflacra is clearly an error. Grundtvig's emendation hwearflicra is metrically weak for an E-type of half-line if judged by the Beowulf standard, but might be admitted in view of the slackness observable in the versification of this poem; cf. 21 219 n., and Appendix, § 7. The adj. hwerflic occurs in Boeth. p. 25 1. 10, with the meaning 'changing'; the adv. hwearjlice occurs once in a gloss with the meaning ' by turns,' so hwearflicra may mean * who fell in turn.' 36. stod, ' flashed out,' a common meaning. 37. The reading Finnsbttruh given by Hickes needs emendation, as Finns for Finnes is inadmissible ; buruh is a late form of burk, which is a monosyllable. Finnes burh seems here to be a walled town or castle belonging to 154 ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING Finn, outside his own kingdom. Hnoef s hall, which is being attacked, is in the town or within the castle precincts. 39. sel repeats the idea contained in wurj>licor. 40. This is another corruption in Hickes's text. Grein's emendation of swanas for the meaningless swa noc, if correct, would mark the poem as very late, as the meaning ' man-at-arms ' for swan was borrowed from the Danish sveinn. In O.E. swan means 'swineherd,' as in A.-S. Chron., anno 755, and elsewhere. By the omission of swa noc, probably due to careless proof-correction by Hickes, and reading swetne for hwitne with Ettmiiller, we obtain a metrically correct B-type half-line with perfect meaning, 'nor ever better paid for sweet mead.' Thanes were in honour bound to requite their lord's generosity by devotion on the field of battle. 42. hig : the ig here, as often, denotes a long i. SWa . . . feol, ' without one of them falling. ' The metre here is faulty, as the first stressed syllable of the second half-line should alliterate ; see Appendix, § 3. 44. wseg : for weg. 47. folces hyrde probably refers to Finn. II. ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING 6. THE WANDERER MS. in Exeter Book, fol. 76b. Text in Grein-Wiilcker, i. p. 284 ff. Ed. and transl. by Miss N. Kershaw in A.-S. and Norse Poems, 1922. 5. wyrd . . . arsed, 'fate in full is determined ' ; araed is for arceded, p.p. of arczdan ; ful is prob. an adj. here. 10. )>e . . . him, ' to whom,' an early form of the rel. pron. ; cf. 1 133 n. 14. healde his hoidcofan, 'guard his treasure-chest,' i.e. keep his thoughts to himself. 16. helpe gefremman, ' provide help,' i.e. find consolation. 17. domgeorne, lit. 'desirous of fame,' may here mean 'noble-minded,' 'proud.' dreorigne, 'sad,' agrees with hyge. 19. modsefan is the obj. of saelan in 1. 21. 25. dreorig qualifies ic understood. 27. The MS. reading mine, if correct, can only stand for myne, ' mind,' ' purpose.' But the metre would then be faulty, as mine takes a strong 'resolved' stress. Consequently emendation is needed. Wyatt's suggestion, minne, ace. s.m. of min, is the best ; we should then transl. ' one who had known my (lord) in the meadhall.' Keeping mline we might emend wisse to wissie and transl. 'one who might guide my purpose.' 29. wat . . . CUnnaft, 'he (alone) knows who makes trial,' i.e. has experience. 30. to geferan, 'as a companion.' 32. waraft usually means 'guard,' 'be in custody or possession of; here we may transl. 'possesses him,' i.e. fills his thoughts. 36. wenede to Wiste, 'treated with abundance,' 'spoiled' ; cf. \. 29. 37. Wat is used absolutely, 'understands,' 'has true knowledge.' 42, 43. on cneo . . . heafod describes the act of homage. 44. The MS. reading giefstolas may be the Northumbrian form of the gen. s., the case required with breac. 50 ff. In punctuating and translating this difficult passage it must be remembered that the wanderer is now thought of as rowing or sailing on the sea. SOIg NOTES I 5 5 * •* . . . sefan, 'his sorrow is renewed when the memory of his kinsmen passes through his mind, he greets with song and eagerly scans the companions of warriors (i.e. the occupants of other vessels), but they sail away again (unresponsive, for) the mind of seafarers does not recall many of the familiar songs ; grief is renewed for him who time after time (swil?e geneahhe) has to send his weary thoughts across the expanse of waters (i.e. keep a look-out ahead of the vessel).' Most editors think that this passage describes a dream or vision in which the wanderer joyfully greets the friends of the past and scans their faces, whereupon the visionary forms disappear (swimmaft on WGg). 62. It is possible that the original poem ended with magll]?egnas, as the remaining portion is of the conventional moralizing kind that is found in other A.-S. poems, such as 12, 13, the Ruin, etc. 65. wintra doel, 'a good number of years.' With SCGal we must supply beon. 70 ff- 'A man should wait, when he makes (or intends to make) a promise (or boast), until he, confident in spirit, knows exactly whither his purpose will tend.' 73 ff. Reflections on the fleeting character of this world suggested by the sight of ruined buildings form the burthen of the A.-S. poem called the Ruin. 79. dreame : the original meaning of dream is 'noise of singing, revelry,' etc., as in Beo. 1. 88, he . . . dream gehyrde hhidne in healle. By an extension of meaning it came to be used for 'joy.' 80. bi wealle : these words are probably inserted to complete the metre rather than to indicate the place where the warriors fell. 81. ferede in forftwege, 'bore them on their way forward,' i.e. caused their death. fugel : a bird such as the eagle or raven, which carries off pieces of carrion from the field of battle ; see 5 6 and 35. 83. deafte gedselde, 'assigned to death.' 85. Selda : the Anglian form of W.S. ielda. 86, 87- ' Until the ancient works of giants stood idle, lacking the noise of townsmen ' ; burgwara is g. pi. depending on breahtma ; geweorc must be taken as a plur. enta : old buildings, also treasure, weapons, and armour found in grave mounds, etc., were regarded as the handiwork of the giants of old ; cf. Beo. 1. 1679, where a sword is called enta geweorc, and 1. 2717, where the arched entrance to a burial-mound receives the same appellation ; cf. also 1. 2774, where the treasure-hoard is ascribed to the same source. 90. feor, ' far back in time,' a common meaning ; feorran is also used ; cf. 18 A 3- 92 ff. The thoughtful man stands by a ruined hall and soliloquizes as he pictures to himself the life that filled the hall in earlier days. 96. genap, 'has faded into mist.' The noun genip means 'mist,' ' cloud'; cf. 1. 104. 97. on laste . . . dugll]?e, 'in the place once occupied by the friendly company' ; last properly means 'footprint,' 'track.' 98. fab. properly means ' adorned with a design, pattern or marking. ' The ' wall ' is here probably the interior wall of the hall. With wyrmlicum cf. wyrmfah) 14 602. 100. msere here means ' notorious.' 104. nipeft, ' comes glooming up.' 105. hselejjum on andan, ' to the vexation of men.' 111. gesaet . . . nine, 'sat apart in meditation.' 112 ff. Such long lines occur fairly often in A.-S. poetry. It is generally thought that they are used in exalted or solemn passages, but this is not always the case. torn is obj. of acyj?an. \ 156 ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING 113. bote : obj. of gefremman. 114. eorl is in apposition with he. mid elne, ' effectually.' 115. to, ' from,' a common meaning with verbs of asking, expecting or believing. 7. THE SEAFARER MS. in Exeter Book, fol. 8ib. Text in Grein-Wiilcker, i. p. 290 ff. Ed. and transl. by Miss N. Kershaw ; see 6. 6. atol . . . gewealc \ y<5a gewealc occurs in Beo. 1. 464, and atol yfta geswing in 1. 848. 8. lie : sc. naca. 9. The MS. reading ivaron minefet is metrically faulty, as in the B and C types of half-line it is the first strong stress that alliterates. The original text may have had foete, the earlier form of fet, in which case the half-line would have been of the type with one strong stress ; see Appendix, § 9. 13. 'To whom fortune is fairest on land,' i.e. who is fortunate enough to live on land. 15. WTSBCCan lastuin, 'in the tracks of an exile,' i.e. far away from home. 16. A half-line has dropped out here, though there is no sign of a lacuna in the MS. 20 ff. 'I made the cry of the gannet my delight, and the scream of the gull I put before the laughter of men, the chanting seamew before the drinking of mead.' 24. ]?aet : sc. dif. 25. The epithet urigfe)>ra, 'wet-feathered,' is applied to the eagle in Judith 1. 210, and Elene 1. 29. Two half -lines seem to have fallen out here. 26. ferhft seems here to have the meaning of 'soul,' 'person' ; transl. 'not one of the kinsmen, not a single poor soul, was (or, would have been) able to sail (in such weather).' 27 ff. ' Therefore he who, proud and luxurious, possesses the good things of life, who (living) in towns (has) experienced but few dangerous journeys, will hardly believe how,' etc. The seafarer has a grievance against the fortunate, unsym- pathetic landsman. 27. him can hardly be transl. here. 31. nap nihtscua : cf. 6 104. The past tenses in this line and the next denote recurring action in the past : ' the squall (lit. night-shadow) would loom up, it would snow from the north,' etc. 33. for J>on . . . CUnnige, ' so too now my thoughts are battering at my heart, (impelling) me to face in person the deep waters, the heaving of the salt waves.' 34. hean is ace. pi. weak, with the def. art. omitted, as is usual in early verse ; cf. ecan, 1. 79. 36. Such ' psychological ' words as mod, heorte, sefa, feorhft, hre&er, gehygd, etc., are used vaguely in A.-S. poetry, being practically interchangeable. 37. In the earlier verse to is often used with the uninflected infin. 39 ff. A man may be ever so brave and favoured by fortune, yet he cannot face a sea- voyage without anxiety. 39. J>8BS, ' so ' ; to J>38S has the same sense. 41. dryhten here, as in 1. 43, probably means ' earthly lord,' ' chief.' 43. ' As to what commission his lord will charge him with.' 46. ne . . . nefne, ' nor will he think of aught else save.' 48. nimaft : here intrans., 'take on,' 'increase.' Miss Kershaw suggests blostmittft. NOTES I 5 7 51. ]?am . . . J>enceft, 'of him who is thinking of.' 52. We may read either flodivcgas, 'sea- waves,' oijlodwegas, 'sea-paths.' 53. The cuckoo is also mentioned in 9 40 as the harbinger of summer. 54. beodetf, 'utters,' 'proclaims.' 55. breOSthord : the sense requires the dat. breosthorde, but this would be metrically incorrect. But perhaps the sentence means that the bitterly com- plaining cuckoo fills the mind of the hearer with sadness. 57. 'lay down the footsteps of exile,' i.e. wander, travel. 58. min . . . hre)?erlocan, ' my thoughts pass over the confines of my breast,' i.e. go roaming. 61 ff. The seafarer likens his spirit (modsefa) to a sea-bird. 63, 64. hweteft . . . gelagU, * urges my thoughts on irresistibly to the whale- path, over the expanse of waters.' 64. The seafaring part of the poem ends with gelagll ; the rest is commonplace moralizing, like the latter part of the Wanderer. hatran, ' more warming,' 'more inspiring.' 68 ff. * Ever for each creature, before its time passes away, one of three things brings a risk (lit. becomes a doubt) : either sickness or old age or else armed hate may wrest the life from a man, if he is doomed and about to go. Therefore for each man the best memorial he can win before passing away is the praise of survivors (lit. after-speakers), of the living ; let him by bold deeds against the malice of foes, against the devil, bring it to pass (fremman) that the sons of men may afterwards praise him, and his fame live,' etc. 69. For the MS. reading tidege Grein suggested tiddege = tiddcege 'date' (of occurrence). 73. lastworda : lit. ' words that remain ' ; cf. the phrase last weardian, ' remain in one's footsteps,' 'remain behind.' 75. The obj. of fremman is the clause introduced by J>set in 1. 77- For fremman Sweet reads fremme, to correspond with gewyrce. 77. selda : see 6 85 n. 79. awa to ealdre, 'for evermore,' lit. 'ever for life.' 80. dugeJHim., 'the (heavenly) hosts,' a common meaning in religious poetry. 84. mid him, ' among themselves.' 85. dome, 'glory'; dom originally meant 'something laid down,' hence 'judgement,' 'opinion,' then 'good opinion,' 'fame,' 'glory.' 86. duguft, 'noble company.' 88. brucaft J?urh bisgO, 'possess it anxiously.' 91. On takes a full stress here ; see Appendix, § 1 1 (d). 93. Cf. 6 22, 23. 97 to end. ' Though a man may strew with gold the tomb of his own brother, (and so) with various treasures bribe the dead man (to excuse him) from accompanying him, yet no gold, when he buries it in his lifetime here, avails to ease the conscience (sawle) of the sinful man from his fear of God.' If the MS. reading byrgan be retained, the sense will require )>36t to be emended to peak ; the comma after geboremim will have to be omitted, a comma put after deadum, and a semicolon after wille ; we should then transl. ' though he desire to strew the tomb with gold, with various treasures, to bury one brother by another dead brother, yet he will not go with them (i.e. enter the tomb).' The change of byrgan to bycgan gives much better sense. 158 ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING 8. A WOMAN'S COMPLAINT MS. in Exeter Book, fol. H5a. Text in Grein-Wiilcker, i. p. 302. Ed. and transl. by Miss N. Kershaw ; see 6. 1. This line is similar to the first line of 7- 4. niwes and ealdes are, like yrm]>a, partitive gen. depending on hwaet. HO ... HU, ' no more (misery) than (I am suffering) now.' 5. The MS. reading wonn, ' struggled,' gives no sense unless we supply wip before wite. We might read gewonn, 'obtained,' or else fond, 'found,3 'ex- perienced.' 8. hwser londes, ' where in the world,' or ' in what land.' 9. 'Then I went away, seeking service in my sad need, a friendless exile.' me is dat. reflex., the usual construction vii\hgewitan. folgaft is homfolgian, 'to follow,' 'be in the service of ' ; cf. 3 38. 13, 14. ]?3et . . . longade, ' so that we might live (or, have been living) far, far apart in the world — most hateful (fate) — and I might suffer (or, have been suffering) longing.' lifdon may be either indie, or subjunct. 15. ' My lord bade me take up here a hard lot ' ; Grein reads eardy ' dwelling,' for heard ; her does not usually take a full stress, but may do so here for emphasis. 21. The order of the half-lines has perhaps been inverted by the copyist : 'many a time, with cries of joy, we vowed that nothing save death alone should part us.' 22. The subject of gedselde is owiht. 26. felaleofan is probably objective gen. ; transl. ' I must bear (the conse- quences of) the enmity displayed against my very dear one.' 27. Apparently the woman has been ordered to pass the daytime in a deserted cave or ruined hut at the foot of an oak in some gloomy mountain valley. 31. bitre here perhaps means 'repellent,' ' thorny.' 32. fill oft . . . frean, ' oft has my lord's departure fallen grievously upon me,' i.e. hit me hard, caused me suffering. 33. ' My dear friends are living in the earth (i.e. are dead), they are dwelling in the tomb.' 42. The first half-line is apparently a one-stress type ending x \ , which is very rare ; see Appendix, § 9. 42 ff. Taking these lines to refer to the enemy of the woman's husband, we transl. ' may the young man, who (by nature) should have a happy bearing, be sad — his heart's thought is stern — likewise (eac ]>on) let him have cares, a multitude of sorrows ; let his happiness depend upon himself (i.e. may he feel remorse for his action), may he be an outcast (lit. enemy) in a far country, because my friend is sitting under a cliff, frozen with the storm-wind, my weary love, with water all around him, in a dreary cave.' 47. We might instead of J>SBt read freer or ' hvucet (interj.). 52. wa . . . abidan, 'alas for her who in longing must wait for her dear one.' The masculine demonstr. pron. is occasionally used in reference to a fern, noun, cf. Beo. 11. 1260, 1344, etc. 9. THE HUSBAND'S MESSAGE MS. in Exeter Book, fols. I22b, I23a, I23b. The MS. is in parts injured or illegible. The text is printed in Grein-Wiilcker, iii. pp. 218, 219 (Riddle 61) and i. p. 306 ff. Ed. and transl. by Miss N. Kershaw ; see 6. NOTES 159 I. ic : the piece of wood, or perhaps a length of reed, on which the message in rune-letters is carved. 10. wordum wrixlan, 'make changes with words,' i.e. speak. The same phrase occurs in 4 Gr 472. WUHdreS dael, ' a marvel.' II. on sefan searolic, 'a clever device to think of.' 14. >ingum ge]?ydan, ' have purposely constrained me.' 19-22. ic . . . haese, ' I grew up and (now) I have to go on journeys to every foreign land, to cross promptly the salt water at the bidding of my master.' 25. heahhafu, * deep waters.' The MS. reading heah hofu, ' high dwellings,' does not make much sense. 27. ' How thou art minded concerning the love of (or, thy love for) my lord.' 29. >3Br, 'in him.' findest, 'shall find.' The O.E. present indie, often has a future sense ; cf. 1. 44. 30. J>isne beam : i.e. myself, the speaker. 37. ]>e is obj. of Iggran, ' he bade me tell thee.' 40. geac : cf. 7 53-5 5- 41, 42. siJ»6S . . . gelettan, ' part thee from thy journey, hinder thee from thy voyage.' 44. }>aet, 'until.' 46. monnan is perhaps pi. here, in which case J>ger means 'among whom.' J>in, 'of thee.' 47 ff. ' To his mind, as he told me, no greater wish in the world can come true.' )>ses >e, ' as.' 52-56. The sense of these lines is that the man has now become rich in his adopted country and has a noble home with many servants. 60. mengan, ' mingle,' ' churn up' with oars ; cf. 1. 38, lagu drefde. 61. The expression wilna gad occurs in Beo. 1. 660 and 1. 949. 64, 65. gif . . . twega, ' if only he has thee, to crown the vows ye once exchanged.' 66 ff. 'I turn together (i.e. rearrange) the letters S, R, EO, W, D, (and so) declare by his oath that as long as life lasts he will fulfil the covenant and the plighted vows of love which you and he uttered in earlier days.' The man has carved on the piece of wood the single word ' sword ' to show that he has sworn on his sword to be true to his love. The handle of a sword served in Christian times as a crucifix on which to swear. There is evidence that among the Germanic peoples in pre-Christian times it was the custom to swear solemn oaths on the sword or other weapon. The formal breaking of a treaty seems to have been accompanied by the breaking of swords on both sides, if we are to judge by the passage in 4 E 263-4. If however siveord in the latter passage be taken as 'swearing' (swerian) we may give it that meaning in the present passage, with no change in the general sense. 10. WOLF AND EADWACER MS. in Exeter Book, fol. loob. Text in Grein-Wiilcker, iii. p. 183. 9. ' I brooded in imagination (lit. expectation) on my Wolf.' The MS. read- ing dogode makes no sense. 11. beaducafa refers to Wolf. bogum bilegde, ' surrounded me with branches,' i.e. made an arbour to keep the rain out ; bogum might also mean 'with his arms,' i.e. embraced me. 13. wena £ine, 'my longing (lit. expectation) for thee.' 14. SCOCe gedydon is metrically faulty. l6o ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING 15. "Twas my sorrowing heart, not want of food (as my friends thought).' meteliste is pi. 16, 17. The woman is taunting Eadwacer : * Wolf is bearing our poor child (lit. whelp) to the forest ; 'tis easily parted what was never joined, our song together.' The child may be either Wolfs or Eadwacer's, as uncerne is ambiguous, meaning 'yours and mine' or ' his and mine.' 11. ELEGIAC AND MORALIZING PASSAGES IN BEOWULF For MS. and editions see notes on 4. A 3. J>urh sidne Sefan, ' in his comprehensive purpose.' 5. This line has suffered at the hands of a careless copyist. The MS. reading lufan makes no sense, and it does not fit the metre; hlisan, 'fame,' 'vain- glory,' exactly suits the sense of the passage ; latan h^vorfan is metrically unusual, as the first stress should alliterate. 10. his goes with ende, ' the end of it. ' 12. HO Wlh't = nauht, 'nothing.' 16. wendeft on willan, 'subjects him to his will.' J>aet wyrse, 'a worse fate,' 'misfortune.' 17. oferhygda dsel, 'arrogance,' a common periphrasis. 18. 19. 86 weard and sawele hyrde refer either to a man's conscience or to his guardian angel. 20. bisgum gebunden, 'in the bonds of affliction.' bona, 'the slayer,' the devil, elsewhere called gastbona, ' spirit-slayer.' 21. fyrenum, 'with evil purpose,' lit. 'with crimes.' 22. bift : sc. the arrogant man. 24. The first half-line belongs to the D-type of verse ; it is scanned w6m •wiind(p]rbebbdtim. 26. nallas On gylp SCleft, ' he does not give presents, as his reputation requires.' 29. weorftmynda dsel : seel. i6n. 32. fehft Oj>er to, 'another succeeds him.' 33. unmurnlice, 'without a thought for him.' 34. egesan ne gymeft, 'heeds not fear,' i.e. need not fear punishment, or else ' stands in no awe ' (of the dead man). B 57. WUnode, ' was situated.' 58. nearocrseftum fsest, 'fast closed (or strongly built) by cunning art.' 60. hringa hyrde : i.e. a chieftain. 64. gode, ' the noble warriors.' 66. }>ara fte is not infrequently followed by a sing. verb. 67. gesawon Seledream, ' they once saw the joys of the hall,' implying that they no longer do so. 70. After SCeal an infin. such as beon or weor<5an must be understood ; a frequent omission with sceal, m<zg, etc. 73. gebad, 'suffered,' 'received.' 77. hseleftum be healfe, ' for the service of men ' ; cf. our phrase, ' on behalf of.' 78. gomen, 'entertainment,' or 'playing.' 80. beateft, ' beats ' (with his hoofs). 81. forft onsended, ' sent on their way,' i.e. to their doom. C 83. to gebidanne . . . galgan, ' to live to see his young son swinging on the gibbet.' NOTES I 6 I 84. wreceS, 'utters'; the original meaning of wrecan is 'to drive out,' ' expel ' ; cf. 14 401. 86. helpe is the obj. of gefremman. 88. Symble is for simle, 'ever,' 'continually.' 89 ff. oftres . . . gefondad, ' he (the old father) cares not to await another heir in his kingdom (lit. towns), when one of them has through a violent death (lit. the compulsion of death) met with outrage.' The MS. reading is retained in the text : some editors, transposing deaftes and dseda, transl. ' has by the necessity (i.e. inevitable consequences) of his deeds met with death.' This certainly involves less strain in the sense of the words than the MS. reading, which requires dada to be taken as equivalent to fyrendada. 91. yrfGWeardaS, if the correct reading, is the Northumbrian form of the gen. s. ; cf. 4 A 63 n. 93. bure may mean either the whole house or an apartment in a house. 94. windgereste, ' wind-swept couch,' or we may read windge restcy with the same meaning. 95. The meaning of reote is not certain'; Holthausen takes it as = r<zfe, 'joy' ; rece, 'smoke,' has also been suggested; 'without smoke' would mean 'un- inhabited.' ridend . . . hoftman is a parenthesis, 'out in the darkness, swinging (on the gallows) the man sleeps.' 97. The father wishes to be alone with his grief. 12. A BAD CHARACTER • MS. in Exeter Book, fol. 83a. Text in Grein-Wiilcker, iii. p. I44ff. 4. bodan aercwide, ' the ancient saying of a messenger,' i.e. of a prophet or a preacher. 6. gealdre, lit. 'incantation,' 'magic formula,' here refers to the words of the wise man which enable one to distinguish the good man (Godes agen beam) from the bad. 7. >one wacran is obj. of witan. 10. A negative is clearly needed here ; transl. ' who in this fleeting life does not allow wanton pride to injure his understanding and drunkenness to rule him in his days.' 12. druncen is here a noun. 13. mse^elhergendra, 'singers of praise'; lit. 'praising in the assembly.' As this word occurs nowhere else it has been proposed to read mcepelhegendra, ' attenders at a meeting.' 16. WOrdum wrixlaft, ' exchange words,' perhaps referring to the poetic language in which the lays were chanted ; cf. 14 G1 472 an^ 9 10. 16-18. Witan . . . WUnige : the meaning is not clear, but we may perhaps transl. ' they are anxious to learn what battle-place lies inside the hall among the men,' i.e. they are looking out for a quarrel. 21, 22. SWa . . . gedaeled, 'thus are (men's) characters variously assigned.' 23-25. sum . . . J>3Bt, ' some men are violently impelled to arrogance ; inside them pride swells immoderate; there are too many of them.' ungemedemad is p.p. of medemlan, 'to moderate,' formed from medeme, 'midway,' 'moderate.' Unstressed un- is a sign of late composition. 27. feondes : the devil. 28. breodaft, ' plays tricks,' ' uses stratagems,' a contraction of breogdaft, the Kentish form of bregdaft, from bregd, 'trick.' bofi is from began, bogian, 'to boast,' a word elsewhere found only in late writings. M I 62 ELEGIAC, LYRIC AND MORALIZING 30. wise, 'manner,' 'behaviour.' 31, 32. bij> . . . SCeawaft, 'this man has another trick, when he perceives a pretext for a wicked act' ; finta properly means * tail.' 33. Note the rhyme ; see Introduction to 24. 35, 36. he ... gefremede, ' he is not conscious of the guilt incurred by the malicious attack.' 40 ff. ' He sits, flushed with the feast, deluded by wine ; he designedly lets his words go forth in a quarrelsome crowd, in a violent turmoil, fired with envy, full of overweening pride, with spite and cunning.' 44. CUnnan, 'recognize.' 48 ff. hafaft . . . WUldorcyninge, ' a perverse life holds the creature hurrying to perdition (grundfusne), alien to God the king of glory'; g36St = W.S. giest, which properly means 'stranger,' 'new-comer,' here refers to the 'devil's child.' 13. THE FATES OF MEN MS. in Exeter Book, fol. 873. Text in Grein-Wiilcker, iii. p. 148. 3. mid gebyrdum, lit. ' with birth,' may be merely a pleonastic addition to cennaff, or else it may mean ' in order of birth,' 'in succession.' 5. gegaeft gearrimum, ' comes to pass in tale of years,' an expansion of SCO tid cymeft. 9. Winter, 'the years.' bringaft, 'will bring.' 11. The MS. reading earfeftmacgum makes no sense, as sumum is sing. Transl. ' To one man it comes to pass in his youth that the end arrives, dis- tressing to his family, pitiful.' 12. SCCal, 'is destined.' 14. ne bift . . . geweald, 'such is not a man's ruling,' i.e. it is destiny. 15. iireoh, ' the fierce (sea) ' ; cf. eatoles (MS. eoletes], Beo. \. 224. 17. leomena leas, 'deprived of sight.' 18. folmum {Btfeohtan, ' fight his way with (i.e. trusting to) his hands.' 21. The man who is destined to be killed by falling from a tree the poet with grim humour compares, first to a bird, then to a dislodged fruit : ' though wingless, he flies, sails through the air, until in a moment he has ceased to be a fruit,' i.e. he is no longer on the branch. 23. The MS. reading lengre gives no sense. 26. bi]? on si>e, ' departs. ' 28. nest, 'provisions,' 'food' ; not to be confused with nest, 'nest.' 30. feormendra, ' cherishers,' friends to attend to his needs. 33. For the theme of the gallows see 11 0. ridan, 'dangle,' ' swing ' ; cf. the modern phrase ' ride at anchor.' 34. seomian hardly differs in sense from ridan. 36. him nimeft, 'takes from him.' heafodsyne, 'the beauty of the head,' i.e. the likeness of a man. 38. facne : the ' outrage ' offered by the raven (lyftsceaj>an). 42. bift . . . noma, 'his name is accursed,' i.e. he dies a felon's death. 43. The MS. reading brondas pencan makes no sense ; for aJ>CCgan cf. 10 2 ; cf. also 1. 47 infra. 46. read may be the adj. ' red,' or else the past tense (used as a perfect) of reodan, ' redden.' 49. yrre ealoWOSan, ' furious with ale '; wosa means 'juice,' 'liquid.' 50. bift . . . hraed, ' he has been too prompt of speech.' NOTES 163 52. J>OIine . . . Sine, ' when he is unable with his mind to impose restraint (lit. measure) on his mouth.' 56. ' And men call him a suicide,' i.e. they say his intemperate speech led to his death. Sylfcwalu means the act of suicide, not the self-slayer, so that we should have expected sylfcwalan. 62. msegburge I an analogical form for the usual -byrig, perhaps pointing to a comparatively late date for the poem. 63. 'Whatsoever any man may be able to continue to hold.' 64 ff. The remainder of the poem is of inferior quality and seems to belong to some other poem of the type of 22 B. 69. gewealdenne, ' under control,' hence 'practised,' 'consummate.' 70. tir is a common poetical word, especially in religious verse. It seems to have meant originally 'splendour,' hence 'glory,' 'renown.' tsefle, Lat. tabula, a game of the nature of draughts or chess. 72, 73. The MS. reading is ungrammatical, so that a change is needed, either of ivundorgiefe to wundorgiefu, or of weorfieft to weorpaft. 73. The MS. reading goldsmij>e is difficult, unless we regard it as a fern, abstract noun, 'the smith's art.' 74 ff. ' Often he gives confidence to (gehyrdeft), and equips excellently, the soldiers of the great king ; he (the king) gives him broad lands as a reward.' The skilled armourer, that is, makes good armour for the fighting man, who is thereby rendered more confident. Hyrdan is derived from heard, 'bold.' The prefix bryten- or breoton-, meaning 'great,' 'vast,' occurs in several compounds, and is not to be confused with Breten (Breoton, Bryten) meaning 'Britain.' 79. dream : noise of revelry, singing in chorus, etc. ; cf. Beo. 1. 88, where Grendel dream gehyrde hhtdne in healle. 83, 84. sceardfe]?er . . . neomegende : the MS. reading gearo se ]>c hleapeft is obviously wrong. The emendations suggested by some editors, viz. scearo or sceard for gearo, correct the alliteration but do not greatly improve the sense, scearo being a fern, noun meaning ' cutting ' or ' share,' while sceard is an adj. meaning ' notched.' The emendation SC6ardfe)>er, adopted in the text, would mean 'a notched or cut quill,' and this meaning is repeated in nsegl, the plectrum used in playing the harp. A careless copyist might easily write se J>e for feper, s and f being much alike in O.E. MSS. ; see note on 1. 93. 84. neomegende, ' whining,' is Grein's emendation for the MS. reading neome cende. Neomian is not found elsewhere, but would correspond to the O.H. German niumon, 'to chant.' neod, 'desire,' 'pleasure,' not to be confused with nied, nyd, 'necessity,' which in late MSS. is often written neod. 86. heoroSWCalwe, ' sword-swallow,' a picturesque variant for a hawk. 90. SO waelisca, 'the Welsh (hawk).' WSedum I the hood or jacket worn by the hawk. 93. The MS. reading weorod anes makes no sense. The copyist clearly had before him zveoroda nerged, ( the Saviour of hosts (i.e. of men) ' ; he mistook r for s, and ged for god. 96. The prefix eormen- occurs in several compounds such as cormengrimd, eormencynn, with the meaning ' great ' ; cf. the similar use of sin- ; also bryten, 1. 75. 164 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE III. NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE 14. BEOWULF A 1. Hunferft : the initial vowel of the stressed prefixes and- and un- is in O. E. verse occasionally preceded by the aspirate in the MSS. Unferth was the king's J?yle, O.N. fiulr, i.e. an orator clever at repartee, whose function was to amuse the company in the hall. He may have been the earlier stage of the king's jester of later times. 2. On another occasion also, Beo. 11. 1165-1167, Unferth is mentioned as seated at the king's feet. 3. Onband beadlirune: lit. 'unloosed his hostile private thoughts,' a picturesque way of saying that he gave vent to his irritation. 5. he ne U]?e, ' he would not admit. ' 8. Bieca is mentioned in 1 25 as ruler of the Brondings. 21. Heal?0-Reamas : the MS. reading is emended according to the form of the name in 1 63. 24. ' Where he possessed people, walled town and rings,' a way of saying he was the hereditary chief of the Heatho-Reamas. 26. Slimi B. : Breca. Softe, 'in very deed,' ' as a matter of fact.' 27. wyrsan ge]?mges, ' a worse issue,' i.e. failure. 29. Beowulf has come to Heorot with the special purpose of ridding the Danes of Grendel, an ogre who nightly devours some of Hrothgar's men. 32. Both worn and fela are nouns meaning 'large number,' hence 'much,' * many. ' 33. druncen, 'having drunk,' 'prompted by drink.' 34. from, ' concerning ' ; cf.\. 83. 42. heard : sc. swords. 43. wiht, 'at all,' strengthens the negative; cf. our use of 'whit,' 'bit,' and pas, point in French. 48. wado weallende occurs also in 1. 83. 56. fah feondscafta, 'a fierce, destructive enemy,' one of the sea-monsters, called laftgeteonan in l. 61 and manfordsedlan in l. 65. 62. J>enode, 'served,' 'treated.' 63. deoran, ' precious.' The words deor, ' brave,' and diere, ' dear,' ' precious,' are often confused by scribes in Beo. and other poetical texts. 64. 'The wicked destroyers did not have the festal joy of eating (J>egon) me.' nses, like nalles, is commonly used as a negative particle rather stronger than ne, no,, and no. 70. The MS. reading ford makes no sense ; transl. ' so that never afterwards around the tall (ship) did they hinder mariners from their course.' 71. lade : gen. s. 77. By nicor is meant some fabulous sea-creature, probably originating in dis- torted accounts of seals or walruses. They lie about on rocky shelves by the sea; cf. 1. 235. 78. heardran feohtan, 'a bitterer fight.' 79. earmran, 'in worse plight.' 82. flod aefter farofte, 'the current (bore me) along the channel,' an expansion of S36 0>baer. Finna land : see 1 20, 79, notes. 83. fram : see 1. 34 n. wiht is obj. of secgan. 84. searonifta : part. gen. depending on wiht. NOTES 165 85. billa brogan, ' terrible deeds of the sword ' ; brogan is ace. in apposition with wiht. 86. ne gehW3eJ>er incer, * nor either of you,' neither you nor he. 88. no ... gylpe : Beowulf means that it is nothing to be proud of that he is superior to Breca and Unferth. 89. Unferth's treacherous attack on his brothers is alluded to again in Beo. 1. 1 167. to banan : a common form of the predicate with weorftan. 91. J>eah . . . dllge is ironical, 'though thy wit be so good.' B. For an account of Grendel and his origin see 1. 217 ff. and 18 B. 97. geaiWOSt wisse : lit. ' knew most readily,' i.e. made quite certain of, identified. 98. faettum fahne, 'decorated with plates of gold.' The gilded roof of Heorot is several times mentioned in the poem as a prominent feature of the wonderful hall ; cf. Beo. \. 926, geseah steapne hr of golde fahne. 101. heardran haele, 'with crueller fortune,' i.e. for himself. 102. line : lit. ' warrior ' ; it must be remembered that Grendel is a degenerate human being ; cf. 1. 214 and 17 21, 22. 103. dreamum bedseled, ' bereft of joys,' i.e. cut off from human fellowship. Onarn, 'gave way,' 'opened.' 104. fyrbendum, ' fire-bands,' i.e. clamps of forged iron. hire : the door. 106. The dropping of the aspirate from hrape at an early period is to be noted. mujJan, 'opening.' 107. fagne, ' patterned,' i.e. paved with a rough mosaic of stones. The road leading from the sea-shore to Heorot is called stanfah, Beo. 1. 320. 108. Stod, ' flashed,' cf. 5 36. 109. For the doubled g to indicate that the preceding i is long see 16 182 n. 114 f. anra . . . lice, 'part the life of each one from his body'; anra is part. gen. depending on gehwylceS and means lit. 'of the ones,'\ 'of the individuals.' 116. ne . . . gen, 'it was not fated.' 118. ofer, 'after.' 120. under . . . WOlde, ' was going to make a sudden snatch,' lit. ' to proceed with sudden grips ' ; under occasionally indicates the circumstances under which a thing takes place. 125. For the prefix sin-, syn-, 'great,' 'spacious,' cf. syndolh, 1. 199, and 4 0 94 n. 129. rinc : Beowulf. 130.* he : Beowulf. 131. Wlft earm gesset seems to mean ' raised himself on his elbow.' 132. fyrena hyrde, ' lord (lit. shepherd) of sins,' sinful being. 133 f. middangeardes and eorj>an depend on men. 136. no ... meahte, 'none the more was he able to get away3; aer is a contracted form of the compar. aror. For fram used as an adv. cf. 14 A 45- 141. sefenspraece : i.e. his promise to Hrothgar. 143. For the meaning of eoten see 4 B 73 n. 144. S6 msera, 'the infamous creature.' )>26r, 'if; cf.\. 180. 147. J>3Bt . . . ateah, 'that was a grievous journey that the destructive creature took to Heorot.' 151. The meaning of the MS. reading eahtscerwen is not known. The emendation ealuscerpen would mean ' ale- vomiting,' the result of terror. The Danes outside in the town are listening to the noise of the terrific struggle. I 66 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE 152. The prefix rggn- or ren-, like sin-, denotes great size or strength ; cf. Gothic ragin-. 155. he: the hall; J>aes, 'so.' 157. The shocks of the combatants bumping against the walls starts the tables from the platform running round the hall. 159. golde geiegnad : a phrase used to show the splendour of the hall inside as well as outside ; cf. 1. 98 n. 160 ff. J>SBS anticipates the noun -clause beginning with Jycet and need not be transl. : * the wise men of the Scyldings (Danes) never expected in the past that any man with moderate force (gemete) could ever break up that hall (hit), so handsome and adorned with ivory, or by cunning unpin it, unless the fire's embrace should engulf it in smoky flame.' 165. niwe, 'afresh,' emphasizes geneahhe, 'without ceasing.' stod, ' fell upon ' ; cf. 1. 108 n. 167. Of Wealle : from the wall of the town. 168. Godes andsacan : Grendel. 169. sar, 'his hurt.' 170. hsefton for haftum, 'to the captives of hell,' i.e. his kinsfolk, who are supposed to hear Grendel's cries. 172. This line occurs again, 1. 188 ; the addition of £ysses lifes merely helps to fill out the line. Note the prominent stress on the demonstrative pronouns ; see Appendix, § 1 1 (e). 173. eorla hleo : Beowulf. senige ]?inga, ' for anything,' ' by any means. ' 177. eorl : sing, used for plur. Beowulf's men, now fully awake, try to help their leader. lafe, ' sword,' lit. 'heirloom.' 179. ftaer, 'if only,' a common meaning of Jxzr with the subjunct. ; cf. 1. 144. 180. J>8Bt is explained by the /^/-clause in 1. 183. 183. Sawle : Grendel's life. ]?3et . . . nolde, ' that no choicest blade on earth, no war-sword, would injure (lit. 'greet') that giant foe; he (Beowulf) therefore had renounced weapons of victory, every sword.' 187. his: Grendel's. 190. feonda here means ' fiends,' demons of hell. 191 ff. S6 J>6 . . . gefremede, 'he who had in joy of heart committed so many crimes against the race of men, perceived that,' etc. )?set pre- pares for the /^/-clause in 1. 194. 195. ac, 'for.' 203. }>e is the instrumental case with the comparative, the original of the modern 'the' in such phrases as 'the more the merrier,' etc. 0211. 1)888 J>6, 'so far as.' 213. WiaBClastas tr8Bd, ' lived an outcast ' ; see 1. 1 02 n. 216 ff. no . . . gasta, 'they (men) do not know of any father (of Grendel), whether any of the mysterious spirits was once his father ' ; acenned is not needed, except to fill out the line. 219. The first half-line is an A-type, the last two sylls. -hleojm taking a * resolved ' secondary stress ; see Appendix, § 8. 223. milgemearces defines feor, ' measured in miles.' 224. hllngde ' the MS. reading hrinde is kept by some editors and transl. 'covered with hoar-frost.' The word hringed \?> used in the poem (1. 1245) to describe a chain-shirt, so that we may here transl. ' twisted,' ' tangled.' 226. The subject of m<Bg is man understood. 227. J>ses, 'so.' NOTES 167 231. aer need not be transl. ; it prepares us for the following <zr-clause. 232. Ofre, 'bank,' 'shore'; cf. Germ. Ufer. 233. heoril, ' of good omen ' ; the adj. unheore, ' ill-omened,' « monstrous,' occurs several times in the poem ; cf. Germ. Ungehetier^ ' monster.' D 241. lastas, ' the tracks ' of the mother of Grendel, an ogress who, planning to avenge her son's death, had carried off by night from Heorot one of Hrothgar's most valued thanes named ^Eschere, and escaped to her haunts in the mysterious mere. 245. >one selestan : sc. yEschere. 246. )>ara J?e : see 12 44 «. 247. beam : Hrothgar. 250. nicorhusa, 'caves,' 'hollows in the cliff-side' ; for nicor see 1. 77 n. 251. feara Sum, 'one of a few,' i.e. accompanied by a few men. 257. weorce : predicative use of dat., 'for a trouble,' 'grievous.' 259. oncyft repeats the idea contained in weorce. 261. to is an adv. and has a strong stress, ' the people looked on ' ; cf. 19 I78n. SSBgOn occurs several times in O.E. verse for the more usual sawon ; both are from the W. Germ, sa-ywon. 262. hatan = hatum ;• song = sang. 263. flislic, 'rousing,' 'inspiring.' 264. sefter, 'along,' 'across,' a fairly common meaning. 265. SUnd Clinnian, ' swimming,' lit. 'testing the sea.' 269. wyrmas, 'serpents' or 'dragons,' perhaps the same creatures as the stzdracan of 1. 266. 273. him . . . Stod, 'stuck in his vitals.' 275. Slindes J>e SSBnra, 'the more sluggish in swimming,' i.e. he ceased swimming. fte . . . fomam, ' whom death destroyed ' ; fte hyne marks an early stage in the development of the rel. pronoun ; cf. 1 I33n. 277 f. hearde . . . genSBged, 'boldly seized and vigorously assailed.' nifta is gen. plur. used as an adv. 280. gist: here 'strange creature'; giest often means ' new arrival,' or even ' intruder.' £ 282. hiorosercean bser : a periphrasis for 'advanced.' 284. anes mannes : of himself. 288. Stondan is to be taken with geseah supra, ' saw a stone arch standing.' 291. unbyrnende, 'without being burnt.' 292. deor, ' the bold (Beowulf).' 296. hlynnan is compl. to becom, 'his voice penetrated under the white cliff, resounding with defiant (heafto) clearness.' 299. from : adv., ' forth.' 301-302. hruse . . . beorge, ' the ground resounded, on fire under the cliff.' born is past indie, of biernan ; cf. \. 368. Some edd. keep the MS. reading biorn, and, putting no stop after beorge, transl. ' the warrior, the lord of the Geats, heaved up his shield against the terrible creature.' 309. rond : Beowulfs shield had been specially made for the occasion, very large and entirely of iron. 311. he : Beowulf. 315 ff. J>onne . . . moste, ' than his purpose had sought (i.e. than he had expected), if only he had been allowed to prevail on that occasion, on the first day (of its use).' 320. No meaning can be given to the MS. reading incge. Incg or Ing may be the name of the last owner of the sword. I 68 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE 323. bysigum gebaeded, ' oppressed by anxiety. ' 329. efte Sift, 'an easy (i.e. willing) step'; only dire necessity forced Beowulf to give ground. 335. fta aglsecean, ' the formidable (adversaries).' 336-337. hrefter . . . Stefne, ' his interior once more welled up with a fiery blast.' 342 ff. hiora . . . ]>enceft, ' in one of them (Wiglaf) his heart was hot with anxious fear ; (the tie of) kindred can never change for him who thinks aright.' 346 ff. Wiglaf is a kinsman of Beowulf ; in 1. 350 he is called a ' Waegmund- ing.' The young man's mother may have been a Scylfing, i.e. of the Swedish royal family. His father had been in the service of the Swedish king Onela. 349. he : Beowulf. The loyal retainer was expected to repay his lord in the hour of need by unstinted support in battle ; this duty is often alluded to in Bee. and 16 ; cf. also 5 38-41. 352. forhabban, ' restrain himself.' 355. For Ohthere see 4 G. A passage is here omitted in which we learn that the sword and other armour came to Weohstan, who gave them to his son Wiglaf. The latter then addresses his men, saying that in honour bound he must go to the help of his lord ; cf. 11. 404, 405. 358. laest eall tela, 'perform all well,' i.e. do all that befits a noble warrior. 360. be fte lifigendum, * in thy lifetime ' ; cf. 9 69. 363. fullSBSttl is an early form of the 1st pers. sing. pres. indie. 366. niosian, which takes the genitive, is here compl. to CWOH1. 368. wift ronde, 'at the edge.' 373. msegenstrengo is dat. sing. ; it is an indeclinable noun. 374 f. ]>3Bt . . . genyded, ' so that, driven with fury, it stuck fast in the (dragon's) head.' 380. SO fte, ' which,' is occasionally used for seo <5e ; transl. ' which, as I have heard, overdid every stroke with a sword,' i.e. put too much strength into the blow. 382. naes . . . Sel, ' he was none the better for it,' i.e. it handicapped him. 385. }>a . . . ageald, ' when space allowed ' ; he retreated in order to make a more effective rush forward. 386., heals : ( Beowulf s) neck. 387. banum, 'tusks.' 392. heafblan, properly 'head,' here means 'safety.' 394. nioftor hwene, ' a little lower,' i.e. in a spot unprotected by his bony plates or scales. 401. feih . . . Wiaec, 'valour drove out life,' i.e. the brave man slew the dragon. F 415. he : the flame. 418. geomeowle : there is no other mention of Beowulf s queen in the poem. 422. Wigendes egesan, 'terror of the foe (lit. fighter).' 425. The MS. reading hlczw on liftc is a metrically faulty half-line, unparalleled elsewhere in Beo.t except in 1. 779 (14 161), as the i of hlitSe is short, and could not take the stress (A-type) ; see Appendix, §§ 3 and 7. For hlcew see 4 i Son. 428. bronda lafe, ' the leavings of the flames,' i.e. the ashes. 430. findan, 'devise,' a not uncommon meaning. 431. on beorg dydon, 'placed in the mound.' 435. lifaft, 'remains.' 437. riodan is for ridon, by « back-vowel umlaut.' NOTES 169 438. ealra twelfe, ' twelve (chosen) from all.' 440. wrecan, ' utter' ; cf. 14 G 471- 442. duguftum may here mean 'as good custom requires,' i.e. 'duly'; dugllft often means 'noble company,' 'noble custom,' 'etiquette.' 444. ]?OIine . . . SCile, ' when he must go hence.' G 461. glcedne, ' prosperous,' ' flourishing,' and so good-tempered ; cf. 4 E 225 n. 463. on geflit faran, 'race.' 468 f. worn merely repeats ealfela. Word . . . gebunden, 'de- vised other words bound up with truth,' i.e. gave a fresh rendering of the familiar story ; or else we may regard the sentence as a parenthesis and transl. ' one word found another bound with truth,' i.e. the apt words suggested and succeeded each other. If we adopt the second rendering, S6Cg must be taken as a repetition of guma in 1. 466. 471. ' To tell happily a well- wrought tale.' 472. WOrdum wrillan, ' to make changes of words,' is an apt characterization of the peculiar style of A.-S. verse composition. H 475. Cynna means 'genealogy,' 'family history.' 477. fill, ' cup.' 478. e)?elwearde : her husband, King Hrothgar. 479. bliftne : supply bean. 482. ides Helminga : Wealhtheow. 483. dllgu)?e Ond geogoj^e : the older men and the younger ones sat at separate tables. 484. The queen comes last to the chief guest, Beowulf, as a special mark of honour. 488 ff. ]?aes J?e . . . frofre, ' for that her desire had been fulfilled, namely, that she might put her trust in a warrior for the relief of their injuries.' The long-prayed-for rescuer had arrived. 492. gyddode means ' made a speech ' ; giedd is a speech or a song, contrasted with ordinary talk ; cf. 22 220 n. 494. Healfdenes sunu : Hrothgar ; cf. 4 A 61. 496. maran weorode, ' with a greater company. ' 499. The rhyme here may be unintentional ; internal rhyme becomes fairly common in later verse, see 24, Introd. Note. 503, 505. Hrothwulf, King Hrothgar's brother's son, appears to have been in later years at enmity with his cousins, Hrothgar's sons. 506. Segen : Lat. signum, a banner on a staff, a standard ; another name is hiltecumbor. 512 ff. ' I have not heard that many warriors have given to others by the ale- bench four gifts (lit. treasures) in more friendly fashion. Around the dome of the helmet the border (walu) wound in wire served as a protection outside, so that no hard and dangerous sword (lit. ' leaving of files ') could injure it, when the warrior had to advance against fierce (foes).' 520. eorla hleo, 'protector of warriors,' i.e. Hrothgar. 522. ]?ara anum Stod, ' on one of which appeared.' 526-527. naefre . . . feollon, ' never did that famous (prince's) prowess fail in the battle- van, when men were dropping dead.' 532. hofe sinum : Hrothgar's private apartments in another part of the royal house. His retainers sleep in the banqueting-hall (reced). 535. bencj>elu : the raised flooring running round the walls of Heorot, on which the narrow ale-benches were placed. NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE 537. faege may mean that this attendant afterwards falls a victim to Grendel's mother ; or it may be used merely because it alliterates with fus. 545. efne SWylce msela, 'as often as,' lit. 'just such (a number of) times.' I 547. eorla hleo : Hygelac. 548. Hrethel was Hygelac's father and Beowulf's grandfather. lafe, 'sword,' properly 'something left behind,' 'heirloom.' 550. On SWGOrdes had, 'in the form of a sword.' 552. Seofan J^lisendo means according to some editors seven thousand hides of land. In another passage Hygelac gives two warriors ' a hundred thousand of land and closed rings ' ; see 4 Or 393, 394. 553 ff. Uncle and nephew are to share the royal domain and its privileges. 555, 556. oftrum . . . W<BS, ' the royal authority (would fall) more par- ticularly to that one (i.e. Hygelac) who was the better (i.e. senior).' J. In connexion with this section the student is recommended to read K. Stjerna's Essays on Questions connected %vith the O.E. Poem of Beowulf, translated and edited by J. R. Clark Hall, 1912. 562. regnhearde : seel. i52n. 563. bence I outside the hall, at the main entrance. 566. ufan grseg apparently refers to the steel heads of the spears. 571. sund cunnian : see l. 266 n. 574. inwitfeng is in apposition with hildegrap, and aldre with hre]?re. 580. SWinlicum I a metal figure of a wild boar set on the top of the helmet worn by the Geats and other Germanic tribes. 585. an foran means 'in the front rank' (i.e. in a class by itself). 586. atertanum fab : decorated with a twig-like pattern produced by a corrosive (lit. poison). 594. ealdsweord eotenisc occurs in 4 G 378, also in Beo. 1. 2616 ; see 4 B 73 n. 609. hylt I the hilt was all that remained of the sword ; Beowulf presents it to King Hrothgar. 610 f. 01 ... fyrngewinnes, * the beginning of that ancient feud was engraved,' a reference to the Flood, which according to the Hebrew legend destroyed the 'giants.' Either a few words relating to the legend or more probably a picture illustrating it was engraved on the hilt. The giants are described as descended from Cain ; see 18 A 23-26. 613. frecne geferdon, 'they behaved defiantly.' 618. hwam : either 'by whom' or 'for whom.' 620. wyrmfah : cf. wyrmlicum fah, 6 95. 15. THE BATTLE OF BRUNANBURH MSS. The poem is preserved in five MSS. of the A.-S. Chronicle. The text here printed is that of the Parker MS. Edition in the Battle of Maldon and Short Poems from the A.-S. Chronicle, by W. J. Sedgefield, 1904 ; also (with transl.) by Miss N. Kershaw ; see 6- 6. hamora lafum : an expression for a sword, lit. ' what is left by the hammers ' ; cf. Beo. 1. 2829. 7. Eadweardes : son and successor of Alfred the Great. 12. the MS. reading dennade occurs nowhere else ; we should perhaps read (Sdnade ' grew wet,' from ftdn ' wet.' 24. Myrce : the Mercians fought under ^thelstan. NOTES I 7 I 26. Anlafe I the English form of the Scand. Olafr. Two leaders of this name appear to have taken part in the battle. 31. eorlas : see 16 6 n. eorlas is the A.-S. form of the Sc. jarlar. 33. bregu: Anlaf. 41. freonda gefylled, 'with friends killed,' lit. 'killed as to friends,' a curious construction. 43. forgrunden seems to be for forgrundenne, as it refers to SIUIU. 54. Dynges mere : not identified. 55. Dyflen \ Dublin was the capital of a Norse kingdom at this period. 60-65. With this passage we may compare Beo. 11. 3024-3027, se wonna hrefn, fus ofer fagum (sceal) fela rcordian, earne secgan hu he cet ate speow, fienden he iui(S wulfe w&l reafode ; cf. also 16 106 n. 16. THE BATTLE OF MALDON MS. The only MS. known was destroyed by fire in 1731, so that we are dependent on the text printed by Thomas Hearne in his History of Glastonbury r, published in 1726. The first few lines were missing from the MS. Text. The text has been frequently reprinted, e.g. in Grein-Wiilcker, i. p. 358 ff. Edition by W. J. Sedgefield, 1904. 2. The subject of het is Byrhtnoth the ealdorman. King ^Ethelred's deputy in Essex. 6. COrl I Byrhtnoth. In older O. E. verse eorl means ' warrior ' ; in the tenth century it came to be used as equivalent to the Danish jarl, and in the later part of A.-S. Chron. is used instead of the older ealdorman. 9. cniht : the Offan mseg of 1. 5. 11. his is extra metrum ; cf. 1. 49, second half; see Appendix, § 7. 18. rad : Byrhtnoth alone remained on horseback. 22. The first half line is metrically faulty, as it belongs to none of the usual types ; cf. 1. 263 n. 23. J?3Br . . . W3BS, 'where those most dear to him were.' 24. heorftweiod, 'family retainers*; cf. 11. 204, 261. 27. On beot, 'threateningly.' 30. most : here 'must' ; the original sense was 'may.' 31. wift, ' in return for ' ; cf. 1. 39. 33 f. ' Than that we should engage in so fierce a battle ' ; forgyldon and dtdon are pres. subjunct. 34. speda]? to ]?am, ' have the means to do that,' i.e. if you can raise the money. 38. on ... dom, 'at their discretion.' 40. US : dat. used reflexively with gangan. 41. COW frizes healdan, ' keep the peace with you,' ; frizes has an adverbial sense here. 47. ealde is either wk. ace. n. sing, or ace. pi. 48. COW . . . deah, ' are bad for you ' ; the use of the sing, verb when )>e has a plur. antecedent is not unusual. 49. abeod : see note on 1. ii. 51. The contracted form stynt (stenf] could not occur in the older verse, where the uncontracted forms of the second and third pers. of the pres. indie, are alone used. 53. ^E]?elredes : king of England. 54. feallan SCeolon is metrically faulty ; see 14 425 n. 172 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE 55. to is extra metrum, see n. on 1. 1 1 ; such ' grace-notes ' are very rare in the older verse in A-, D- and E-types of half-lines ; cf. 1. 189, and see Appendix, § 7. 56. gangon I pres. subjunctive. 57. Note the alliteration of the f instead of the it of un-, which in the older verse would have received strong stress and alliterated. 64. mihte : supply feran. 66. lucon, ' barred ' (the passage). 68. Pantan : the Black water. mid . . . bestodon: seen, on 1. ii. 71. fyl gename, 'met his death'; fyl = E.W.S. fiell, connected vi\\hfeallan. 72. ]>Bi . • . gearowe is metrically unusual, geaiOWG being superfluous. 74. bficge : the bridge, which spanned the narrow channel which remains full of water at low tide. 75. 86 . . . Wlllfstan : half-lines of this metrical type, with only one strong stress, which falls on the last syll. but one, occur quite frequently in Beowulf and other verse, but only in the first half of the line. They are especially common in the present poem in that position ; see Appendix, § 9. 84. See 1. 1 1 n. 87. Upgang . . . moston, ' might be allowed to come up,' over the 'ford' or shallows, and finally up the bank; cf. A.-S. Ckron., anno 1046, forwerndon heom . . . upganges. 92. Byrhtelmes beam, i.e. Byrhtnoth. Byrhthelm or Bryhthelm is the first part of Brighton, Bryhthelmestun. 95. WSelstOWe wealdan, ' possess the slaughter-place,' a common phrase, used also in prose, for gaining the victory. 98. Wegon : non-W.S. forms with e for W.S. <? occur several times in the poem. 102. Wlhagan for wighagan : the defence formation with overlapping shields, perhaps borrowed originally from the Romans. 106. Birds of prey and wolves are the customary attendants on battle in A.-S. and O.Icel. poetry; cf. 15 60-65 n-> and 19 162-167. 113. W8elr3este geceas, ' chose the bed of death,' a picturesque way of saying ' died.' 115. his: Byrhtnoth's. 118. SWenges ne Wymde : cf. Beo. \. 1520, hond sweng ne ofteah. 120. )>aes, 'for that.' fteoden: Byrhtnoth. 122. Stemnetton, * fought in their turn ' ; stemn means ' term of service ' ; cf. A.-S. Citron., anno 894 (Parker MS.), hie haefdon pa heora stemn gesetenne. 125. on here means 'from.' 131. beornes : one of the Danes. 134. SUj>erne, 'thrown from the south,' so that Byrhtnoth, dazzled by the sun's rays, could not completely avoid the foeman's spear. 143. he : Byrhtnoth. 144. he : the Dane. 146. se . . . bli)>ra : for metre see n. on 1. 1 1 . 147. man : Byrhtnoth. 149. drenga : a Danish word for a man-at-arms; O.N. dreiigr. 150. 86, ' it,' the spear. to is an adv., 'towards him.' 151. J>egen : Byrhtnoth. 155. Wulfmser : not the Wulfmser of 1. 1 1 3. 156. forheardne : sc. spear. 157. 86 : the Dane. 158. his: Wulfmser's. NOTES 173 159. SCCg : another Dane. 160. beornes : Byrhtnoth's. 164. to raj>e, 'just in time.' 165. >a amyrde, ' by checking.' 167. he: Byrhtnoth. 170. baed seems to have its later sense of ' ordered.' 180. hi : sc. sawle ; ace. s. helsceaftan : see 1. 86 n. 182. big for bi : ig is occas. used to denote a long i ; cf. 14 109 n. 183. As there is no alliteration in this line Grein and other editors read bewegen, ' killed,' to alliterate with Wulmser. 185. The first half-line is metrically faulty, as in a B-type the first stressed syll. alliterates, not the second ; see Appendix, § 3. For hi we should have expected pa. 190. ' In the trappings to which he had no right,' i.e. Byrhtnoth's weapons, armour, etc. 195. J?onne . . . Waere, 'than was fitting'; mseft properly means 'due proportion.' 197. him to dugll)>e, ' for their advantage.' 198. On dSBg, 'on a day,' 'one day.' 202. Second half-lines of the A-type preceded by one or more unstressed syllables extra met rum occur several times in this poem, but are extremely rare in the older verse ; see 11. 55, 240. 207. ofter twega, 'one of two things,' * either.' 215. The subject of mSBg is man understood. 226. >aet, 'until.' 239. wende . . . man : J?3es is gen. governed by wende, and prepares the way for the /^-clause in 1. 240, 240. J?am I the def. article is used in this poem much more frequently than in the older verse. The metre of this line is irregular ; each half-line is an A- type preceded by weak-stress sylls. extra metrum. Further, in the second half-line WSSre takes the alliteration and priority of stress over hlafoid. 242. SCyldburh is the wighaga of 1. 102. 249. embe : Kentish for ymbe. There is a village in Essex called Sturmer, probably named after the river Stour. 263. J>8Bt . . . gewrecan is metrically faulty ; see 1. 22 n. 265. 86 gy Sel, ' the hostage. ' Young sons of kings or chiefs who were taken or exchanged as pledges of future good conduct were brought up at the foreign court and may even have spent the rest of their lives there ; see A.-S. C/iron., anno 755, alle Icegon butan anum Bryttiscum gisle. 271. Sefre embe Stunde, 'ever and anon,' 'frequently.' 283. The meaning of cellod is not known ; cf. 5 30. 284. l&rig occurs also in 19 239 ; its meaning is not known, but it may be connected with the Latin lorum, 'strap.' 288. The second half-line is metrically faulty, as the first strong stress alone should alliterate ; see Appendix, § 3. 300. The MS. reading wigelines is clearly for wigelmes, i.e. Wighelmes. Unless Wighelm is another name for Thurstan, 'Wighelm's son' must be another fighter, unnamed. 313. ]?e Uie, ' in proportion as our ' ; )>e is instrum. 318. me is reflex, dat., like him in 1. 300. This reflex, dat. is common with verbs of motion. 325. The end of the poem has beenjost. 1/4 BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN IV. BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN 17. A. C^DMON'S HYMN MSS. (i) The Northumbrian version is in the text of one of the earliest (early eighth century) Latin MSS. of Bede's History, now in the Cambridge University Library, KK.V. 16, fol. I28b. (2) The W. S. version occurs in several of the Latin MSS. of the History. Text in Grein-Wtilcker, ii. pp. 316, 317. The Northumbrian text is, together with that of Bede's Death-Song, the oldest extant specimen of A.-S. speech; the spelling should be noted, e.g. gidanc for later ge&anc, heben for hefen (heofon), and tt for the later use of the rune for w. 3. uuldurfadi4r is gen. s. 6. til is a North, form, which survived in Middle English and afterwards came into the literary language. 8. sefter I here an adv. tiadse : North, for W.S. teode. 9. folda : the final n of weak noun inflexions was early lost in O. North. B. BEDE'S DEATH-SONG MS. In the text of a Latin MS. of the ninth century in the town-library of St. Gallen, Switzerland. Text printed in Sweet's Oldest English Texts, p. 149. 1-5. Transl. ' Before the inevitable journey no one will be more thoughtful than he need be to reflect, ere his going hence, what of good or of evil may be adjudged his spirit after his death-day.' 18. BIBLICAL AND RELIGIOUS PASSAGES IN BEOWULF 3. feoifan, 'far back in time,' a common meaning. 5. SWa is here used as a rel. pronoun ; it is extra metrum, a rare metrical licence in Beo. ; see note on 16 55, also on 1. 19 ; see also Appendix, § 7. 6. SUH.nan and monan are either genitives depending on leoman, or else they are ace. s., with leoman ace. pi. in apposition with them; transl. 'exultant in victory, He placed the brightness of the sun and moon as a light for land- dwellers,' or else 'placed the sun and moon, the luminaries, as,' etc. 11. drintguman : the Danish followers of Hrothgar. 13. feond On helle : the poet at one time speaks of the ogre Grendel as living in a swamp, at others as confined in hell. 14. gJBSt I prob. an Anglian form of the W.S. giest, 'stranger,' 'visitant'; but giest and gdst, 'spirit,' are frequently confused in the A.-S. poetical MSS. ; cf. 4 183 n. and 23 45 n. 16. fen Ond fasten, * his fastness ' in the swamp. Fens and woods were used by fleeing troops or outlaws as places of refuge. fifelcynnes eard, i.e. ' swamp.' Yoiftfel see 2 42 n. 17. Wer : Grendel has the form of a gigantic man. 19 f. in ... cynne : see l. 5 n. ]?one cwealm . . . )>aes . . . slog, ' the death which he inflicted on Abel.' 21. The first he refers to Cain, the second to God. 22. In verse, prepositions often follow their case so as to allow of a B- or an E-type of half-line ; see Appendix, § I2d. 23. lintydias, 'monstrous beings,' or as we should say, 'fabulous creatures.' NOTES I 7 5 0 24-25. eotenaS : see 4 B 73 n. ylfe : ylf "or alf meant a harmful spirit, able to possess a man, and requiring to be driven out by exorcism. OlCneaS were probably sea-monsters of some kind, like fifel, nicor, and fiyrs, cf. O.N. orkn, a kind of seal. gigantas was doubtless a word introduced by Christian missionaries to supplement the native English inventory of mythical creatures. 26. &BS, 'for this.' 27. haergtraflim : hearg, O.N. horgr, is a heathen (Germanic) place of worship, situated in the depths of a sacred wood or grove. 28. wigweorJJUIlga : lit. ' worship of idols ' ; "wig, ' idol, ' is also called deofolgield. WOldum, * with prayers.' 29. gastbona, 'the spirit-slayers,' i.e. their god ; the word is used also of the devil. 31. helle : a compendious term for heathen beliefs and practices. 33. ne . . . God is a mere repetition of the preceding sentence. 34. ne huru, ' nor even. ' 35-40. wa . . . wilnian, ' woe to him who by cruel fate (lit. ' malice ') must push down his soul into the embrace of fire, with no hope of relief or of any change ; happy is he who after death may come to the Lord and claim (lit. ' desire') protection in the arms of the Father.' 50-52. This clause contains the curse, ' that the man who plundered the floor (of the cavern) should be guilty of crime, confined in dungeons (lit. ' heathen temples'), fastened in hell-bonds, punished by defilement.' The punishments in hell of the wicked are frequently described with gusto by A.-S. poets; hergum geheafterod is clearly the equivalent of hellbendum fsest in the eyes of a Christian ecclesiastic at a time when heathen beliefs and even practices were still prevalent. 53-56. Hrothgar is speaking about the object of Beowulf's visit to Heorot. 58. dseda getWSefan, 'deprive of action,' i.e. kill. 64-66. Beowulf is speaking to Hrothgar about Grendel, whom he has killed. 70-71. This is said of Beowulf on his death after the fight with the dragon. 19. EXODUS MS. in the Bodleian, Junius xi. Text printed in Grein-Wiilcker, ii. p. 445 ff. Edition, with introduction, bibliography, notes and glossary, by F. A. Blackburn, 1907. See also Brandl, p. 1028, and S. Moore, "Sources of the O.E. Exodus," Mod. Phil. vol. ix. 1. Compare the opening lines of Beowulf (4 A). 2. Moyses and secgan, 1. 7, are accus. with the infin., domas, wordriht, bote and rsed being accus. governed by secgan ; transl. ' we have heard . . . that Moses . . declared,' etc. 3. wera cneorissum, eadigra, lifigendra, hseleftum are equivalent terms meaning ' men,' ' mankind.' 5. beallisifte refers specifically to the journey of the Israelites through the wilderness, and generally to man's journey through the dangers of life. 7. gehyre Se fte wille was doubtless a customary formula at the beginning of a lay ; cf. the concluding words hliste se Jye zville of the verse proem to King Alfred's translation of the De Consolatione Philosophiae of Boethius. 8. J>OH.e, ' him,' sc. Moses. 16 ff. him, magorseswum and sunum all refer to the Israelites. 19. The spelling handlean for andlean occurs twice in Beo., alliterating in one case with h, in the other with a vowel. I 76 BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN 22. folcriht has here much the same meaning v&folc or hodscipe ; cf. eftelrihtes, 1. 211 and 14 I 555- 29. frod fsedera cyn, ' the old (or wise) race of patriarchs,' in apposition with yldo beam. 30. he : God. 31. aldor: Moses. 32. on forftwegas, ' (ready) for the advance.' 33. Ungera is in W.S. ungeara, 'not long before.' witum refers to the plagues of Egypt. 35. hryre is dat., 'through the fall.' 36. ' Their hall-joys ceased (lit. slept), robbed of treasure,' i.e. Pharaoh and his lords ceased to distribute treasure in their halls. 37. haefde : the subject is God. 39. bana, ' the slayer,' may refer to Pharaoh, or perhaps to death personified. 40. The emendation of dryrmyde to drysmode is based on the word drysmaft, which occurs in Beo. 1. 1375, where it seems to mean 'drizzle' ; see 14 C 236. In the present passage drysmodo may be transl. ' was soaked.' 41 . dugoft : the Egyptian army. 43 ff. ' The hands of the laughter-smiths were manacled ; the people, the moving host, started on (lit. 'greeted') the vouchsafed but hated journey.' The 'laughter-smiths' are perhaps the entertainers, gleemen, etc., of the pleasure- loving Egyptians, now dispersed. If the MS. reading gretan be retained we transl. ' permission (was) given to the people to start on the hated journey, the host moved.' 45. feond : the devil. 46. hergas, ' the devil's army,' or we may take it as the plur. of fuzrg, hearg, 'temple.' heofon is apparently used to denote the forces of heaven, or God's law. Some editors emend to heofung, ' lamentation.' 49 ff. ' So for this the Egyptian people, accursed of old, suffered duress for many years, because they had intended, had the Lord allowed, to refuse for ever to the kinsmen of Moses their long- felt desire for the dear journey (i.e. to the promised laud)'; faesten properly means 'stronghold,' hence 'prison,' ' duress.' 53. onlangne has the same sense as andlangne, which would not alliterate. 54. fyrd : the Israelite army. from was prob. freoni originally, as in 1. 14. 55. msegburll, here ' army,' is properly ' the fortified place or city of the kinsmen,' cf. 1. 352. 56. faestenna is required by the metre, the half-line being of the E-type ; see Appendix, § 8. 57. The MS. reading leodweard is clearly a mistake for leodgeard, as Grein suggested; the expression land ond leodgeard occurs in Genesis, 11. 229, 1773. 58. This line is identical with Beo. 1. 1410. 59. guftmyrce seems to mean ' hostile dwellers on the march or border.' 60. heora refers to guftmyrce. 61. mearchofu morheald, ' their habitations on the sloping moorland of the marches.' The second half of this line is metrically faulty ; we might insert ond before Moyses, which would make a B-type. 62. The MS. reading meoringa seems to be for an original meorringa, the Northumbrian form of mearringa, corresponding to the W.S. interring, 'impediment,' 'obstacle.' 63. haeleft is plur. If the MS. reading tirfastne is kept, it will refer to NOTES 177 Moses, and the subject of heht will be God. Reading tirfeBSte, accus. pi. m., we take Moses as the subj. of heht. The MS. reading hva niht may be regarded as a compound word like seofon niht in 14 A 19, and fif nihfa, ib. 1.47- 65. bearhtme, ' with a mighty sound,' a metathesis- form of breahtme, connected with brecan. 66. ^Ethanes byrig, 'the cities of Etham.' 67. msegnes maeste, 'with the greatest of their force,' i.e. with their very great force, a repetition of SBlfaie. 68. genyddon, ' pressed on ' ; understand hie, as niedan is transitive. 69. Sigelwara, 'people of the sun,' i.e. Ethiopians. 71. hatum heofoncolum, '(burnt) by hot coals of heaven,' i.e. by the fierce sun. 73. baslce : the pillar of cloud is vaguely conceived by the poet, who gives it various names. 78. hate may be a noun here, as in Beo. 1. 2605 ; thus we may transl. ' it (the cloud) absorbed the fiery flames (of the sun), bright with the heat.' wafedon, 'gazed,' as at a marvel or spectacle, i.e. were amazed; wafung is a spectacle or show. 79. gedrymost is from dream, ' noise of a multitude.' The MS. reading dcegsccaldes makes no sense. 81. segle : the poet constantly varies his images when speaking of the pillar of cloud. In 1. 85 it is called a tent. 82. SWa is here used like the relative pron. with the subjunctive in Latin ; transl. 'such a sail that men knew not its ropes.' 84. ealle Ciaefte, 'with all their efforts.' 87. )>eoden : God, in apposition with he. holde, 'his faithful people.' wic, ' encampment,' i.e. end of a day's journey. 95 ff. ' Each of which evenly shared the high service of the Holy Spirit, (dividing) the journey of the bold ones by day and night.' The pillar of fire at night and the pillar of cloud by day watched over the march of the Israelites. 103 f. fyrdgetrum repeats werod in 1. 100. forft . . . metan, ' they saw the guide of life (i.e. the pillar) measuring its way onward through the air,' i.e. the cloud starting on its journey. The MS. reading lifweg, ' life- way,' hardly gives good sense. 106. flodwege, ' by the road which led to the sea.' 107 ff. ' Every evening the beacon in the heavens arose, another rare marvel, after the sun, which had gone to its setting, and it shone (lit. to shine) with flame over the men, a burning beam.' 109. Setlrade beheold is a parenthesis referring to the sun. 110. SCinan is complementary to astah in 1. 107. 113-115. SCeado . . . ahydan, ' the gloom grew less, the intense night- shadows, the darkness, could not nearly hide (any one).' heolstor is apparently nom. s. in apposition with nihtSCUWan. The verbs swiftrian and swe<5rian are frequently confused by copyists ; see 1. 242 n. heofoncandel, here used of the beam of light, is usually applied to the sun. 117 ff. ' Lest the terrible wilderness of the grey heathland might in the sea- gales wrest away their lives with sudden clutch.' 118. hares hashes is Sievers's emendation of the MS. reading, which is metrically defective. 121. baelegesan hweop, 'threatened with terrible flame.' 123. forbaernde is here subjunct., 'that it would burn.' N 178 BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN 124. hyrde may mean either ' heard ' or ' encouraged ' (from heard], 126 ff. ' The shield-fighters saw the road straight before them ; the banner (i.e. the pillar of fire), eager to advance, high above the hosts, helped the army right up to the sea-fortress (i.e. the shore) at the land's end.' 130. wyrpton hie, 'recovered.' 131. Either the Israelites are called metej^egnas merely because they are eating at the moment, or else metej>egnas refers to the commissariat officers. 133. flotan : another name, evidently complimentary, for the Israelites ; cj. 1. 223. Note the dat. (i.e. instrumental) husum used with braeddon, 'spread their tents.' wic : see 1. 87 n. 135 ff. News comes of a threatened attack in the rear by the Egyptians. 136. Oht inlende : pursuit by the Egyptians. stodan, ' fell upon them.' 137. wrSBCmon, 'exile,' here used of the Israelites. 138. se fte refers to lastweard, him to wrsecmon. 140. wean is ace. s. and repeats ohtnied. witum fsest, ' bound up in penalties,' i.e. criminal. waere, 'treaty,' 'covenant.' gymdon I the Egyptians are the subject. 141. yldra, 'senior,' 'chief,' i.e. Pharaoh, who promised Joseph to settle his father and brethren in Egypt; see Genesis xlv. 18-20. 142. yrfeweard: Pharaoh, lit. 'heir.' 143. aefter maftmum, ' of their property.' Pharaoh had profited by the famine . to acquire the land of the people for himself; see Genesis xlvii. I3ff. 144. ealles : adv., 'entirely.' siftftan . . . forgefe (153), 'after they, the Egyptian race, became angry on account of the opposition of one man (Moses), and then they planned massacre against his kinsmen, prepared a persecution and destroyed (lit. consumed) the treaty. At the hearts of the men (Egyptians) were surges of battle, thoughts of violence ; they treacherously (lit. with false pledges) intended to repay the gift of life with an act of crime, so that the people of Moses would have paid with their blood for that day's deed, if mighty God had but granted them (the Egyptians) success in their errand of destruction.' The passage is not quite clear ; we have taken the Egyptians to be the subject of woldon in 1. 150. 145. Grein's emendation aniuig for the meaningless antwig of the MS. does not give correct metre. 146. heo : a non-W. S. form of At, hie. 148. hea^owylmas I violent emotions are frequently expressed by using weallan, 'to boil,' 'well up,' or ivielm, 'boiling,' 'surging.' 150. feorhlean refers to the saving by Joseph of the lives of the Egyptians. 154. eorla : the Israelites. 157. oferholt, 'upper wood,' is not met with elsewhere; it probably means the forest of spears rising above the Egyptian army ; but perhaps the original word was eoferholt, 'boar-spear.' 158. This line in the MS. comes after 1. 160. 159. gllft hwearfode may mean 'battle returned,' or else 'the army wheeled.' 161. After on hwsel some words have clearly been dropped out by the copyist ; hw&l is perhaps an error for wcel. 162 ff. For these accompaniments of battle cf. Beo. 11. 3024-3027 ; and 16 106 n. 164. WOnn may be either the adj. meaning 'dark,' or else the past indie, of winnan^ ' to contend,' ' quarrel ' ; if it is the former, we must supply hreop with waelceasega. NOTES 179 166. beodan is a ' back-vowel umlaut ' form of bidon, ' waited for.' 167. fyl : a variant of w fd, 'the dead.' 168. mearcweardas, 'keepers of the marches,' i.e. wild beasts or evil beings inhabiting the wilderness. 169. fleah, . . . gast, 'doomed souls were flitting,' i.e. ghostly apparitions were seen at night. By these touches of the supernatural the poet emphasizes the horror of the situation for the Israelites. 170. J?6gnas : the Egyptian captains. 171. mseton milpaftas, * measured the mile-paths,' i.e. marched ; cf. 20 I24n. bogum, ' legs.' 172. segncyning : the Egyptian king. wift foran, ' in front of,' is a compound preposition with separable elements like be foran, be tweonum^ etc. 176. Waelhlencan : the prefix wcel- here has the meaning ' battle ' rather than ' corpse ' ; but the first element of a compound noun has often no mean- ing, being prefixed merely in order to alliterate. 178. freond : the Israelites ; this is a parenthesis inserted in the description of the Egyptian king's activities. on takes a strong stress here ; cf. 14 261 n. 179. landmanna : the Egyptians. 180. hine : the Egyptian king. The MS. reading wagon must have an object, and is therefore emended to WSBIOIl. 181. har, 'whitish-grey,' is regularly used of a wolf; the 'sword-wolves' are the Egyptians. gretton, * welcomed.' 183. The first half-line is metrically defective, as the first e of alesen is short and cannot by itself take a strong stress as required in this type of half- line ; cf. 11. 189, 197, 200, etc., also 14 425 n. ; see Appendix, § 9. 186. This line may be rendered 'with the hereditary courage of their noble line.' 190. inge has no sense unless we regard it as Kentish for iunge or giungey 'young'; for the alliteration cf. 1. 339. Sievers attributes this alliteration to Kentish influence. 192. to hwaes, ' to what quarter.' 193. geatwe bseron : cf. \. 59 and note. 194. The word eorp occurs in 22 57 with the meaning 'dark,' 'brown'; it here refers to the swarthy hue of the Egyptians. ecan, ' reinforce- ments,' is probably accus. in apposition to werod ; it may however be dat. plur., which would give it the meaning of ' with reinforcements.' 197- After mSBgenheapum we must understand a word meaning 'come,' 'advance.' 199. broftorgyld is equivalent to broftra gyld, ( in compensation for their (slain) brethren.' 200. wicum, * the camp ' (of the Israelites). 201. egesan stodon: cf. 1. 136. 203. flugon . . . Spel, 'the terrible tidings flew along.' 204. Werud : the Israelites. wlance : the Egyptians. 206, 207. )>3et . • . tosomne, ' so that the foemen could not see among them- selves any longer,' i.e. they were covered with a mist. sift W36S gedssled, 'their course was interrupted.' 208 ff. ' Compelled to march, they (the Israelites) spent the period of night, though foes lurked on every side, either the (hostile) force or the sea.' It looks as if the poet had intended to provide an object for hSBfde, but began the sentence afresh with nahton. I So BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN 211. etJelrihteS hardly differs in meaning from eftles ; cf. folcriht, \. 22 n. 216. eorlas and folc are the objects of somnigean. 217. frecan is forfrecum, governed by bebead. 218. hycgan on ellen : cf. 5 i2n. 219. beacniim, ' signals,' i.e. trumpet-calls. 222, 223. We should expect beorgum, ' hills,' rather than burgUJH. brudon feldhusum, ' struck their tents '; cf. ii. 132, 133. flotan : the Hebrews ; cf. 1. 133. 227-229, ' In each one (of the tribes) companies (cista) were gathered under their shields, fifty in number, of the flower (dugllfte) of the people, of noble race.' 230. CllfteS, 'familiar,' 'common.' 231, 232. The gen. plurals depend on hund. 233 ff. ' The less strong ones the leaders of the host did not admit (lit. 'welcome') into the number of warriors, those who on account of their youth,' etc. 237. feond is gen. s. 239. lasrig: see 16 284 n. SWOl, 'burning heat.' Grein suggested spor, ' trace,' for the unintelligible siuor of the MS. 240. A wound is called gylpplega gares, 'glorious sport of the spear.' 241. The eo of onfteon must be read as a dissyl. on account of the metre (A-type) ; see Appendix, § 7. 242. The MS. reading swi&rade, ' grew strong,' makes translation difficult. Reading SWeftrade we transl. 'if in the companies their strength had failed, so they chose the attacking force for stature, (considering) how among the people courage might render honourable service.' The poet means that the senior officers picked out strong, seasoned men to carry out the attack, not merely high-spirited youngsters who lacked training. For the confusion between s^vl(5rian and swe<5rian cf. 1. 1 1 3 n. 248. forftwegas is the older North, genitive s. ; cf. 4 A 63 n. up gerad, 'swung' or 'waved on high.' 250. siftboda : the pillar of cloud. 251. lyftedoras brsec, 'broke its air- barriers,' i.e. should begin to move. We should have expected the subjunct. brace after hwonne in a dependent question. 252. Mldecalla, ' battle-shouter,' herald. 255. modiges : sc. Moses. 265. The MS. reading cegnian does not occur elsewhere ; ognian also is not elsewhere found, but would be a normal derivative of oga, ' terror.' 266. ne Willaft, ' do not,' perhaps an imitation of the Latin nolite. deade is a stronger word than fsege ; it is used proleptically and means ' as good as dead,' 'soon to die.' 269. OH is for an, ann, 'grant,' 'give.' 271. Supply ic with bidde. 278. to hardly seems needed, either by the metre or by the sense. 279. The indef. article is in verse often rendered by sum with gen. plur. ; <f> 1- 357- 280. sloh, 'have struck.' Moses smites the water with a branch as he speaks, and the waters recede, leaving a dry road. 287. fage feldas, 'the variegated (sea) floor.' forft heonon usually means 'henceforth,' but must here be transl. 'heretofore.' The original sense is ' looking either forward or backward over a period of time.' 288. The MS. reading in ece is metrically inadequate. NOTES I 8 I 289. S3elde saegrundas is in apposition to feldas ; transl. ' the sea bottom (hitherto) confined.' Cosijn's emendation sund wind for sutSwind provides an obj. (sund) for fornam ; transl. ' the wind, the blast of the sea-road, removed the sea.' 291. The MS. reading sand sacir span is clearly wrong. One suggested emendation is to read spaw for span, on the analogy of 1. 365, and to transl. 'the sea-current spewed up the sand.' But this would be faulty metre (D-type), as -cir ( = cierr) is not a weak-stress syll. The reading in the text, sandsse aspranc, would mean ' the sandy sea has sprung apart.' The letter a when carelessly written resembles ci, while the letters s, p, w, r and f are frequently confused by copyists. The c=gzA. the end of aspranc might easily be omitted owing to the c in ic. 293. eorlas is nom. of address. ofest is Selost occurs in Beo. 1. 256. 294. weorften, ' get away.' 296. in randgebeorh, 'into a shield of defence,' i.e. into a wall resembling the serried ranks of shields in the wighaga or ' shield-formation.' 299, 300. Werod . . . msegen: these words occur also in 11. 100, 101. The use of modigra in an E-type of half-line, which requires a long *', is a metrical licence, not found in the oldest verse. 307. The MS. reading hige gehyrdon is metrically faulty ; moreover, a subject is needed for the verb, so that we prefer to read hi gehyrdon. gehyrdon is for gehyrwdon, from gehyrwan, ' to'despise,' W.S. gehierivan. 308. laeste near, ' drew nearer,' i.e. to the sea. 310. feorfte : Judah was the fourth son of Jacob. 313. The MS. reading an onorette is evidently an error ; transl. ' hastened alone along the unfamiliar road.' 314. for, 'in front of.' 322. drihtfolca msest is an expansion of hie, the subject of hsefdon in 1. 319. 323 f. be }>am . . . J>olian, ' thereby the leaders of the army (showed that they) would not, as long as life endured, suffer humiliation long.' Or herewisan may refer to the lion, and then we transl. ' with such a leader they would not,' etc. 327. hsegSteald : sing, used for plur., to fit the metre. 328. WSBlslihtes is gen. limiting modige, 'gallant in the deadly clash (of weapons).' 333. The occurrence of the word SSBWicingaS makes us pause before admitting, with most scholars, an early date for the poem. The earliest recorded instance of wiring, 'pirate,' is in the A.-S. Chron., anno 879, where Danish raids are mentioned. 335, 336. he ... aswefede, ' he (Reuben) had by his sins lessened (lit. ' put to sleep,' 'lulled') his authority.' siftor, 'later,' i.e. not among the first. 337. leofes: Moses. 339. For the alliteration see 1. 190 n. 342. )>ridde ]?eodmaegen refers to the sons of Simeon and is the subject of on^rang. 344. The MS. reading deawig sceaftiim makes poor sense ; for the emendation cf. deafrsperu, 22 68. 346. meretorht occurs also in Boethius, Metra xiii. 1. 61. 349. >y, 'thereby.' 350. The MS. reading wolcnum does not make much sense. 352. maegburga riht means the traditional order of precedence of the tribes to which they had a ' right.' I 82 BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN 353. eorla JBftelo, ' the lineage (or rank) of the warriors,' is practically the same as maegburga riht. 354. leodfruma, i.e. Abraham, who is called heahfsedera sum in i. 357. 358. The MS. reading onriht is not found elsewhere, nor is anriht, but the latter word might well exist, with the meaning ' possessing alone the right,' i.e. the privileged one of God. 359 ff. ' So the old ones relate in their wisdom, they who have learned most about the tribes, of the origin of (men's) lives, of the descent of each.' After 1. 361 comes, without transition of any sort, a passage of 84 lines, be- ginning with an account of Noah and the Flood, and continuing with the story of Abraham's attempted sacrifice of Isaac, cut short by Divine intervention. This passage, which we omit, is usually regarded as an interpolation to fill up a lost part of the text of the poem. The story of the passage of the Red Sea is resumed in line 362. 362. folc \ the Egyptians, who on attempting to cross the Red Sea are over- whelmed by the collapse of the piled-up 'sea-walls.' 370. gnomra is comparative ; ' their boastfulness became sadder.' 371. atol yfta gewealc : cf. atol yfta geswing, Beo. 1. 848. 375. Streamas Stodon, ' the seas reared up.' 378. flod blod gewod : an instance of ' internal rhyme,' which is occasionally found in O.E. verse ; transl. ' blood spread through the waters.5 381. The MS. reading eyre makes no sense. 382. wigbord scinon : the numerous short parentheses are a feature of this poem. 385. The MS. reading fortSganges nep makes no sense. £sne, ' retainer,' ' serving man,' is in later A.-S. verse used for wer, * man ' ; cf. Daniel 1. 243. 383 ff. Again the MS. reading needs emendation, as barenodon has no meaning. Transl. ' the sands prepared themselves for the appointed destiny, when the flood of waters, the cold sea with its salt waves, now accustomed to its changed course (seflastum), the stript messenger of fate (nacud nydboda), the hostile onward-moving spirit, which threatened the foe, should come back to its eternal foundations.' A messenger is stripped for rapid running. 399. weallfSBSten : the wall of waters. 400. meretorras further varies the simile. 402. A word has fallen out immediately before or after werbeamas, as the metre shows. The sea is piled up like a wall on either side of the passage of the Hebrews, as if held back by barriers. These barriers give way when struck by the Almighty. Wer\$> the Mod. English 'weir.' wlance . . • mod, ' the proud people (the Egyptians) could not restrain the fury of the flood, nor could the embrace of helpers (restrain it), but with a dreadful roar it injured many.' 403. The MS. reading pa(5 needs emendation. 404. he refers to merestream. 406. To be metrically correct the first half-line requires teak instead of ateah (A-type). 407. weollon W88lbenna, ' the wounds gushed,' i.e. they bled. The MS. reading witrod yields no meaning ; wigrod, ' battle-pole,' is the pole or mast, the seglrod of 1. 83, which, hitherto invisible behind the cloud or ' sail,' as the poet calls it, now descends from heaven with terrific force and breaks down the sea-wall (flodwearde, l. 409). 409. The epithet famigbosma, 'foam -fronted,' describes the foaming surge caused by the fall of the wigrod. 410. aide mece, ' (as) with an old (i.e. good) sword.' NOTES I 8 3 414. The MS. reading here is clearly wrong, as mcdwsega msest requires a verb. The letters h and b, r and p could easily have