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BOSTON
JOURNAL OF NATURAL HISTORY,
CONTAINING
PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS
READ TO THE
BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY,
1843 — 44.
PTJBLISHID BY THEIR DIRECTION.
VOL. IV.
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL
QARDEM
CHARLES C. LITTLE AND JAMES BROWN.
MDCCCXLIV.
BOSTON':
Plil.NTKD BV K11EK.MAN AND BOLLES,
WASHtNGTON STKKET.
^:1^ ... .V iNEV/ '-'ORK BOTAi.ICAIj
GARDEN
CONTENTS.
Page.
Art. I. Dissection of two adult Dromedaries^ a Male and a Female.
By J. B. S. Jacksox, M. D., 1
II. Descriptions of the Fishes of the Ohio River and its Tributa- ries. By Jared p. KiRTLAND, M. D., (^continued from iii. 4S2), 16
III. Observations on the Genus Scalops, (Shreio Moles,) with Descriptions of the Species found in North America. By J. Bachmax, D- D., - 26
IV. 071 the Occiirreyice of the Phosphate of Uranium in the Tour- maline Locality at Chesterfield. By J. E. Teschemacher, 35
v. Descriptions of tiveyity -four Species of the Shells of Neio England. By J. W. Mighels, M. D., and Prof. C B. Ada.ms, 37
VI. Descriptions and Figures of the Araneides of the United
States. By X. M. Hentz, 54
VII. Descriptions of two neiv Species of Fishes. 5?/ D. Humphreys
Storer, 31. D., 58
VIII. On a new Species of Raffleria, fro7n Manilla, By J. E.
Teschemacher, .----•--63 IX. Remarks upon Coral Formations in the Pacific ; with Sug- gestions as to the Causes of their Absence in the same Parallels of Latitude, on the Coast of South America. By Joseph P. Couthguy, ...... QQ
X. Niagara Falls. Their physical Changes, and the Geology and Topography of the surrounding Country. By James Hall, 106
XI. Note to the Editors respecting the fossil Bones from Oregon.
By Henry C. Perkins, M. D., 134
XII. Reynarks upon Coral Formations in the Pacific, &fC. By J. P.
CoTjTHOUY, (continued from p. 105), . . - - 137
XIII. Descriptions of some of the Species of naked, air-breathing Mollusca, inhabiting the United States. By Amos Bin.ney, 163
XIV. Additional Descriptions of. and Observatioyis on, the Fishes of Massachusetts. By D. Humphreys Storer, M. D., - 175
XV. An Inquiry into the distinctive Characteristics of the aborigi- nal Race of America. By Samuel G. Morton, 3L D-, • 190 XVI. Descriptions and Figures of the Araneides of the United
States. By N. M. Hentz, (continued from p. 57), - 223 ^O XVII. Descriptions of the Fishes of Lake Erie, the Ohio River, CT'.i and their Tributaries. By J. P. Kirtland, 31- D., (con-
' tinued from p. 26), - - - - - - -231
•"<::t^ XVIII. Description of a Species of Helix, newly observed in the C<i Un ted States. By Amos Binney, 3L D., - - - 241
^_- XIX. Observations on the Habits of the Python Nataleyisis. By
^^ Thomas Savage, M. D , 242
^^ XX. Observations on the Characters ayid Habits of the ocellated
^** "Turkey, (3leleagris ocellata, Cuv) By Samuel Cabot,
M. D., 246
CO*
IV.
Contents.
XXI. On the Existence of siliceous (?) Spiculcein the exterior Rays of Actinia ; and Memoranda concerning the siliceous Animalcules of Boston. 5i/ Prof. J. W. Bailey, - 252
XXII. Enumeration of the Fishes of Brookhaven, Long Island, with Remarks upon the Species observed- By William O. Ayres, --- 255
XXIII. Enumeration of the Fishes of Brookhaven, S^c. By William
O. Ayres, (continued from p. 264), ... - 265
XXIV. Descriptions of four Species of Fishes from Brookhaven,
L. I., all of which are believed to be tiew. By Williaji;
0. Ayres, 293
XXV, Descriptions of the Fishes of the Ohio River and its Tribu- taries. By Jared p. Kirtland, M. D., (continued from
p. 240), 303
XXVI. Catalogue of the marine, fluviatile, and terrestrial Shells of the State of Maine and adjacent Ocean. By J. W. MiGHELS, M. D., 308
XXVII. Descriptions of six Species of Shells, regarded as new. By
J. W. MiGHELs, M. D., 345
XXVIII. Monograph of the Species of Pupa found in the United States, with Figures. By Augustus A. Gould, M. D. (continued from iii. 404), ...... 350
XXIX. Descriptions of two undescribed Species of North American
Helices. By Amos Binney, .--.-. 360 XXX. Observations on the external Characters and Habits of the Tro- glodytes JVisrer, Geof. By Thomas S. Savage, M. D. ; and on its Organization. By Jeffries Wyman, M. D., - 362
XXXI. Descriptions and Figures of the Araneides of the United
States. By N. M. Hentz, (continued from p. 231), - 376
XXXII. Description of an African Beetle, allied to Scarabaus Poly- phemus, tvith Remarks upon sotne other Insects of the same Group. By T. W. Harris, M. D., .... 397
XXXIII. On the Importance of Habit as a Guide to Accuracy in sys-
tematical Arrangement, illustrated in the Instance of the Sylvia petechia of Wilsoti. and all subsequent Writers. By Thomas McCulloch, Jr., ------ 406
XXXIV. On the Anatomy of Tebennophorus Carolinensis. By Jef-
fries Wyman, M. D., 410
XXXV. On the anatomical Structure of Glandina truncata of Say.
By Jeffries Wyman, M. D., ------ 416
XXXVI. Beaumontite and Lincolnite identical with Heulandite. By
Francis Alger, 422
XXXVII. Probable Influence of Icebergs upon Drift. By J. L.Hayes, 426
JLXJLV III. Descriptions of Land Shells from the Province of Tavoy, in
British Burmah. By Augustus A. Gould, M. D., - 452
XXXIX. Descriptions and Habits of some of the Birds of Yucatan. By
Samuel Cabot, Jr. M. D., 460
XL. Enumeration of the recent freshwater Mollusca ivhich are com- mon to North America ayid Europe ; with Observations on Species and their Distribution. By S. S. Haldeman, - 468
XLI. Descriptions and Notices of some of the Land Shells of Cuba.
By Augustus A. Gould, M. D., ----- 485 XLII. Miner alogical Notices. By J. E. Teschemacher, - - 498 XLIIl. Analysis of Pink Scapolite, and of Cerium Ochre, from Bol- ton^ Mass. By Charles T. Jackson, - - - - 504
BOSTON
JOURNAL OF NATURAL HISTORY,
COIJTAINING
PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS,
BEAD BEFORE THE
Boston cSocCetg of Katttral J|(fltorfi,
AND PUBLISHED BY THEIR DIRECTION.
VOL. IV.— NO. 1.
PtTBLISHISTG COMMITTEE.
GEORGE B. EMERSON, THADDEUS W. HARRIS,
AUGUSTUS A. GOULD, D. HUMPHREYS STORER,
CHARLES K, DILLAWAY.
BOSTON: CHARLES C. LITTLE AND JAMES BROWN.
1842.
CONTENTS OF VOL. IV. NO. I.
Page.
Art. I. — Dissection of two adult Dromedaries ; A Male and a Fe- male. By J. B. S. Jackaon, M. D 1
Art. II. — Descriptions of the Fishes of the Ohio River and its Trib- utaries. By Jared P. Kirtland, M. D. 16
Art. hi. — Observations on the Genus Scalops, (Shrew Moles,) with Descriptions of the Species found in North America. By J. Bach- man, D. D,, Charleston, S. C 26
Art. IV. — On the Occurrence of the Phosphate of Uranium in the Tourmaline Locality at Chesterfield. By J. E. Teschemacher. 35
Art. V. — Descriptions of Twenty four Species of the Shells of New England. By J. W. Mighels, M. D., of Portland, Me., and Prof C B. Adams, of Middlebury College, Vt 37
Art. VI. — Descriptions and Figures of the Araneides of the United States. By Nicholas Marcellus Hentz. 54
Art. VII. — Description of two new Species of Fishes. By D. Hum- phreys Storer, M. D. 58
Art. VIII. — On a new Species of Rafflesia, from Manilla. By J. E. Teschemacher. 63
Art. IX. — Remarks upon Coral Formations in the Pacific ; with Sug- gestions as to the Causes of their Absence in the same Parallels of Latitude on the Coast of South America. By Joseph P. Couthouy, 66
Art. X. — Niagara Falls — their Physical Changes, and the Geology and Topography of the Surrounding Country. By James Hall. 106
Art. XI. — Note to the Editors respecting Fossil Bones from Oregon. By Henry C. Perkins, M. D. . 134
NEW VCRX BOTANiCAC
BOSTON
JOURNAL OF NATURAL HISTORY.
VoL.IV. JANUARY, 1842. No. 1.
Art. L— DISSECTIOxN OF TWO ADULT DROMEDARIES; A MALE AND A FEMALE. By J. B. S. Jackson, M. D.
The animals which are the subjects of this paper, died in this city within a day or two of each other, having been well, so far as was known, till within a few days before death. They were about six years old, and weighed, by estimate of their keepers, about 850 lbs. each. Most of the organs were carefully examined, but some, though not over- looked, were not particularly noted, and have therefore not been recorded.
The Hump on the back of the female consisted principal- ly of dense fat ; fifteen inches long, twelve wide, and five and a half thick. Masses of fat, of a very regular and oval form, were found in the soles of the feet, apparently intend- ed to give elasticity to the step.
Tongue of the male, sixteen inches long and two and one half wide at the tip. Anteriorly thin, and covered by a rough cuticle. Thickened portion, posteriorly, seven inches long and two wide ; on each side of it a row of five or six glands, from two to seven lines in diameter and remarkably developed.
The Soft Palate of the female was seven inches in length.
To its under surface was attached that remarkable organ,
which has been often described by naturalists, but of which,
so far as I am aware, there has been no anatomical descrip-
1
Jackson's Dissection of
•'v.
V
tion given, except that*of''^ro.f. Sayi,^of Pisa, (Edinburgh Phil. Journal, Vol. XII.) ^Ir consistQji of a duplicature of mucous membrane hanging in loose folds, extremely soft and flaccid to the feel, and held together by a very lax cellular tissue ; the surface had rather a dark red color. On cut- ting it through, there was no appearance of a cavity, neith- er of glands nor muscular fibres. It descended into the cavity of the mouth three and a half inches, and arose by a broad base, of a triangular form, having its apex posteriorly, and measuring two inches transversely in front ; it commen- ced one and a half inches from the anterior extremity of the soft palate and did not reach its posterior or free edge by three and a half inches. Above it, and as if forming a part of the soft palate, is a firm and highly vascular tissue. Anterior to it there is, beneath the mucous membrane, a great number of glands, of a very regular, flattened oval form, of the size of large apple seeds, and situated close to- gether, as they are often found about the lower extremity of the oesophagus of birds. On each side of it, and occupying about the seat of the tonsils in man, are numerous glands of a rounded form and about the size of peas ; from the large and open orifices of the ducts of many of these there project- ed, sometimes one or two and sometimes several light colored fibres, which looked like coarse hairs or bristles, about two or three lines in length, and easily withdrawn, not seeming to be attached within the cavity of the follicles ; what these were was by no means apparent. Between this organ and the posterior edge of the soft palate there were no glands to be seen, except a few towards the sides; the upper surface of the palate, however, within the posterior nares was cover- ed with them, though they were not larger than pins' heads. Prof. Savi, who made his observations upon the large col- lection of dromedaries near Pisa, remarked, as naturalists generally have, upon the rattling sound which the palatine organ produces in the throat when the animal is excited, especially during the rutting season, and that during the act of copulation it is even protruded externally from the mouth, in the form of a deep red, vascular, membranous bag
a Male and a Female Dromedary. 3
or bladder, which seems to be inflated. It may be protruded forward by the air forced upon it from behind, or it may perhaps be susceptible of a sort of erection, but it cannot be properly inflated, as it contains no cavity. Prof. S. considers this organ as the uvula, and labors strenuously to main- tain the point ; but he seems to have been led to this view of the subject from having fallen into the great error of supposing that the uvula is found in all the other mam- malia as well as in man. Cuvier (Anat. Comp. III. 283,) and Mr. Lawrence, in a note to his edition of Blumenbach, state that it is found only in man and in the simise ; there certainly was no appearance of it in the present case, and the peculiar organ in question, as already stated, did not reach within three and a half inches of the posterior edge of the soft palate.
In the male, the palatine organ was rather larger, but otherwise the same as in the female ; the arrangement and development of the glands were also the same, with the same appearance as of hairs projecting from the orifices of some of the ducts. As to the size of the palatine organ, Prof S. makes it about four times as long as it was in the present individuals, though these had died in the month of March, which is just the rutting season, the time when the organ is more frequently protruded, seems to be more excited, and would be at least as much developed as at any other time.
The Stomach of the Female consisted of three cavities. The first, or the paunch, was of a rounded form, about two or two and a half feet in diameter, and nearly filled with food, which was unchanged and for the most part dryish, though in the depending parts there was a little water. The inner surface was formed by a white, thin, dense, wrinkled cutis, without papillae, and lined by a delicate cu- ticle. The muscular coat was strongly developed, the fibres generally extending from the cardiac orifice to the opposite extremity of the organ, so as to force up the contents towards the oesophagus in the process of rumination, the cud being evidently returned into the mouth from this cavity, and not from the second, as in the bullock ; there was also a thin
4 JacksoTi's Dissection of
layer passing in an opposite direction, besides some irregular fibres which would give a rotatory movement to the contents. The most efficient muscular power, however, was a large, thick band in the posterior parietes ; it was eighteen inches in length, arose near the cardiac orifice, around which it communicated with the small band which went to the sec- ond cavity, and was at this part six inches broad ; at the thickest part, midway, it was an inch and a quarter in width, and at the further extremity it became broader, thinner, and was gradually lost in the parietes.
The cells in the first cavity, which serve the animal as a reservoir for water, were arranged in two rows. The first extended fifteen inches from the orifice of the second cavity, along the posterior parietes, towards the left side. Ten trans- verse and parallel septa were sent off at a right angle from the strong muscular band, varying in length from five to nine inches, and in depth from three-fourths to more than two inches, but becoming less and less marked towards the left side, where they gradually disappear. These septa are intersected by others which are thinner, for the most part quite regular, and situated about one inch apart, thus forming the cells which, by estimate, would hold generally from one to four ounces ; at the left extremity, where these last septa are most deficient, the cells are very large, one of them measuring five and a half by two inches, and being capable of holding not far from three or four gills. The first named transverse septa are from two to four lines thick on their free edge, in which are seen well developed muscular fibres arising directly from the large band in the posterior parie- tes of the organ, though less strongly marked than they are represented by Sir E. Home (Comp. Anat. pi. 25) ; his fig- ure, however, was teiken from the two-humped camel, and not from the dromedary ; the cells, also, are surrounded by a few irregular fibres, which would tend to expel their contents. In order to see the fibres in any part of this cavity, the cutis had to be dissected away. — The second row of cells commenced about opposite the middle of the first row on the right side, and extended thirtyfour inches round towards the
a Male and a Female Dromedary. 5
front of the organ. There were nine transverse septa, from three to five inches in length, quite regular at the anterior extremity, but much less so posteriorly ; the largest were two and a half inches apart. Midway they formed large con- tinuous cells, capable of holding eight ounces or more ; ante- riorly, they were intersected by other septa, forming very reg- uleir cells which would have held from two to four ounces, but posteriorly the cells were very irregular, holding about two ounces.
The second cavity of the stomach, which must serve merely as a receptacle for water, had a crescentic form, the small curvature measuring seven inches, and the large fifteen. It communicated very freely with the first ca /it y at the dis- tance of four and one half inches from the oesophagus : the opening into the third cavity is smaller, and immediately below this it formed a cul-de-sac which was two inches deep ; midway, it measured transversely on the inner surface, nine and a half inches. In the small curvature there was a smooth space, four inches wide at the left extremity, but diminishing to one inch at the right. Along this space there ran a strong- ly marked muscular band ; it arose on the left side of the termination of the oesophagus, measured there one inch wide, but gradually diminished and terminated at the opening of the second cavity into the third. Thus the opening of the third cavity is drawn up towards that of the oesophagus to receive the cud that has been chewed, and which is prevented from falling again into the first cavity by the united action of the large muscular band in the first cavity, and the small one in the second. The cells of this cavity were much more numerous, and very much smaller than those of the first, with which they were almost directly continuous ; on an average, they would have held from three to four drams, but the largest, which were situated at the left extremity, were from two to four times as large. There were thirteen transverse septa, counting them on the large curvature, but some of these bifurcated and some united towEirds their extremities. These were intersected by two others, four or five inches long and one fourth of an inch wide,
6 Jackson's Dissection of
which arose from the left extremity of the cavity, ran paral- lel along the large cmvature and were gradually lost ; they were also intersected by very numerous, short, but not con- tinuous septa Avhich formed the cells. This cavity, Hke the first, was lined by cutis, without papillae ; cuticle not raised. Muscular coat about two lines thick ; fibres mostly longi- tudinal, thouorh some were transverse : the same structure was also seen about the cells and in the septa.
The third cavity, or true organ of digestion, was for the most part thin and membranous, of an elongated form, but somewhat incurvated, and measured three and a half feet in length. Being cut open, it measured three inches across at the left extremity, fourteen inches at the largest part or about the junction of the first and second thirds, eight inches where it became contracted, or at the distance of six inches from the pylorus, after which it dilated to twelve inches, and then contracted again at the pylorus to four and a half inch- es. This cavity at the left extremity Vv^as of about an uni- form size throughout the first five inches, but there was not the slightest appearance of a separate cavity as generally described, and as is strongly represented by Home in the Bactrian camel ; otherwise, the form of this third cavity corresponded perfectly with his figure (pi. 24.) He re- marks upon the intermediate cavity as so small that it might be overlooked were it not for the distinctness of its orifices ; but this last was not found in either of the individuals under description. He remarks, also, upon the absence of septa and of the cuticle which generally characterize the third cavity of ruminants, and which absence, in the present case, seemed to be a strong additional reason for denying the existence of an intermediate cavity. The mucous membrane general- ly, was smooth, soft, extremely thin, and thrown into loose longitudinal folds, of which there were counted about forty, commencing towards the left extremity, where the dilata- tion began, and terminating within six inches of the py- lorus; in it were some small mucous follicles. Upon the inner surface of that portion of the left extremity which is generally described as an additional cavity were seen the
a Male and a Female Dromedary. 7
faint remains of cells wich passed imperceptibly into the plicae ; Sir E. Home remarks upon " a faint appearance of a honey-combed structure, so slight as to require a close in- spection to ascertain it." In the last six inches of the py- loric portion, the structure of the lining membrane was en- tirely changed. The greater part had the soft villous ap- pearance of a mucous coat, but was much thickened. The remainder, situated in the large curvature and to the extent of about six inches square, was about one line in thick- ness, and very peculiar in structure, consisting of fine, up- right, parallel fibres, easily separated from each other and from the subjacent parts ; the surface was smoother than that of the surrounding mucous coat, though thrown into very thick and strongly marked rugae. Just at the pylorus was the glandular body, as it is described in the camel and bullock by Home ; it was about one inch broad and about one half an inch thick, from which place it extended back- wards along the small curvature, and was gradually lost in the parietes ; it was covered by mucous membrane and con- sisted of a soft, w^iite tissue, without any glandular ap- pearance. The pylorus was well marked, though not very prominent. The muscular coat of this cavity was quite thick, especially at the rugous part, the fibres being trans- verse.
The Stomach of the Male corresponded mainly with the above description. In the first cavity, the cells on the left side extended fourteen inches ; there were ten transverse septa, four and a half to nine inches long, three-fourths of an inch to two inches apart, and intersected, though not regu- larly, by short septa ; three or four of the cells would pro- bably have held eight or ten ounces. The cells on the right side commenced about opposite the middle of the large muscular band and were thirtynine inches in extent ; thirteen transverse septa ; cells midway about three inches wide and very shallow, but at each extremity much smaller. The muscular band was twenty two inches long, and mid- way one half inch thick. Small curvature of the second cavity eight and one half inches, and the large ten and one
8 Jackson's Dissection of
half; inner surface midway and transversely ten and one half inches ; twelve transverse septa, more regular than in the fe- male, the two large ones which intersected them, running about half the length of the cavity ; cells would have held from half an ounce to an ounce ; small muscular band seven- teen inches long, one inch wide, and about two lines thick ; muscular coat generally thick, and the fibres transverse, being in the female mostly longitudinal. Third cavity forty in- ches long. Measured transversely at the left extremity three inches, diminishing afterwards to two and three- fourths, but without any appearance of there being an intermediate cavity ; at the largest part it was fourteen in- ches, at the contracted part nine, at the largest part after it again dilated nineteen, and at the pylorus four inches. There were about forty or fifty longitudinal plicae ; beyond these the lining membrane was about one half a line thick, firm and rough on the surface, and there was seen the pe- culiar rugous membrane that was described in the female, ex- cept that the color here was cineritious. The gland at the pylorus, as it has been called, was two inches long, one inch wide, and half an inch thick.
Small Intestine of the male eighty five feet long, of the female eighty and a half Just below the pylorus, and to the extent of about one foot, was a remarkable dilatation, the change from this to the smaller part below being very abrupt ; this is well represented in Sir E. Home's figure of the Bactrian camel, (pi. 24;) he describes it, however, as a dilatation between the pylorus and the duodenum, and not as a dilatation of the intestine itself. Being cut open throughout, the male intestine measured at the dilated por- tion sixteen inches ; below this, varying from two and a half to four inches, and at the coecal valve five and a half inches ; mucous membrane quite thin and smooth in the upper third, but became more and more thick and villous towards the coecum ; muscular coat quite thin and the fibres transverse.
Aggregate glands very strongly marked and peculiar in structure. In the upper quarter of the female intestine were six patches, from two to eight lines in diameter, circular,
a Male and a Female Dromedary. §
ft well defined, but not at all raised. In the male, just below
the dilatation of the duodenum, were numerous and similar patches, from two to three hues in diameter, and arranged in parallel rows. In all of these the openings of the follicles were large. Within the last fifteen inches of the intestine, in the female, were also six patches, situated in a straight line, and opposite the mesentery, generally from half an inch to one inch in diameter, of a circular form, and well de- fined ; the smallest were two or three lines only, som^ were oval, and one measured one and a quarter inches by half an inch. These appeared, at first sight, like decided ulcer- ations, being surrounded for the most part by a sharp and raised edge, which, beginning almost imperceptibly, became gradually wider, until at last it was expanded into a proper membrane, partially overhanging the surface of the patch, but not connected with it except at its circumference. The width of this membrane varied in the different patches, the greatest being six lines ; it was soft, smooth, rather thick, apparently organized and continuous with the surrounding mucous membrane. The surface itself of these patches seemed healthy, the follicles of which they were composed being quite distinct, and as much so where they were cov- ered by the membrane as where they were not. In the male, the patches at the lower end of the intestine had a sim- ilar appearance, but were less carefully noted. The small patches in the upper part of neither the male nor female intestine showed any trace of the peculiar membrane above described.
Large Intestine sixty two and a half feet long in the male, and fifty and a half in the female ; length of caecum in each, twenty inches. Being cut open throughout, the dimensions and general structure in each was about the same. In the male the measurements transversely were as follows : in the coecum from eight to ten inches ; for the first eight feet (from the coecal valve,) six to nine inches ; it then dimin- ished to two or three inches and so continued for the next eighteen or twenty feet, the convolutions at this part being closely connected and embedded in fat ; it afterwards increas-
2
10 Jackson's Dissection of
ed again to four and a half inches. Mucous membrane at first quite thin and smooth,, but thrown into longitudinal folds after the intestine became smaller. Muscular coat thick ; fibres mostly transverse, but throughout there were some lon- gitudinal.
Aggregate glands. In the coecum and ascending colon were numerous patches resembling in structure those found in the small intestine. In the female there were seven about the coecal valve, from two to five lines in diameter, of a dark grey color, partially covered by the peculiar mem- brane above described, and having at first sight the appear- ance of burrowing, cicatrizing ulcers; in the coecum were four others, about three lines in diameter and resembling the above. In the first part of the colon were numerous patches without the membrane ; generally from two to three lines in diameter, but one, which was nearly circular, was over an inch, and another, of an oval form, measured six b}^ eight lines. The patches in the male were much less numerous ; in the colon were five, from two to four lines in diameter, having the peculiar membrane, but being much less grey than in the female.
The Liver was an irregular, flattened organ, consisting mainly of one large right lobe, from the anterior part of which there extended a long, thin, narrow lobe towards the left side. In the male, the transverse diameter of the two lobes, taken together, was twentysix and a half inches ; right lobe twentyone inches antero-posteriorly, and three and one half inches thick ; left lobe twelve inches long, from five and one half to nine inches wide, and one inch thick ; the female was rather smaller. On the surface were numerous irregular fissures and small imperfect lobes. The organ had a bluish ash-color, was quite dense though flaccid, and seemed made up of large and very distinct granulations. Near the posterior edge of the right lobe in the male were two morbid productions, each about one inch in diameter, of a regular, rounded form, and well de- fined, the surrounding substance being quite liealthy ; one was apparently a tuberculous mass, white, opaque, and curdy ; the other was an hydatid, consisting of a firm external cyst,
a Male and a Female Dromedary. 11
within which was a second, quite distinct from the first, very delicate, villous on the inner surface and filled with serum.
Gall-bladder wanting. In the female the lensth of the duct external to the liver, was three and one half inches. Opening into the intestine eleven inches from the pylorus, without a valve, and very little obhque ; being cut open, it measured transversely, to a small extent at this part, eight lines, but just after receiving the pancreatic duct, it was con- tracted to two. In the male it measured transversely, with- out being cut open, three lines before and four lines after re- ceiving the pancreatic duct.
The Pancreas consisted of small, flattened lobules, of a dull pink color, loosely connected and intermixed with a great abundance of fat. It was twelve inches long in the male, eighteen in the female, and for the most part from three fourths to one and a half inches wide, there being a second lobe arising from near the head of the first. The duct, in the female, measured two lines across in the body of the organ, when cut open, and terminated in the hepatic duct, two inches from the opening of this last into the intestine.
The Spleen was a thin, flattened organ, of a crescentic form, the convexity being towards the abdomen ; it adhered to a very small extent to the stomach, and extended into the left iliac fossa ; color dark red, and texture coarse. In the fe- male it was twentytwo and a half inches long, from four to five inches wide, and three-fourths of an inch thick.
The Kidneys were very regulsir in their form, somewhat rounded, and measured seven inches long, from three and a half to five inches wide, and about three inches thick. Tu- bular portion single, and terminated in an uniform, concave surface, opposite to the centre of which was the opening of the ureter.
Bladder of the female about the size of a common orange, and empty ; mucous membrane somewhat rugous ; muscular coat thin. — Urethra three and two-thirds inches in length ; transversely, one inch at neck of bladder, one and a half inches midway, and seven lines at opening in vagina. Well marked, dense, longitudinal rugas on whole length of inner surface,
■"^S»;
12 Jackson's Dissection of
with intermediate, oblique lines, somewhat like the arbor vitae in the human cervix uteri. Muscular coat became more and more thick towards opening into vagina, where at last it measured from two to three lines.
Penis twenty inches in length, and for the most part about as large as the fore-finger, though near the pubes much larger. Towards the free extremity it gradually diminished in size, tapering almost to a point, and in a very remarkable manner ; the last seven lines were bent to a right angle with the body of the organ, and somewhat twisted, having the dense feel of cartilage, and measuring at the very extremity but two lines in diameter. The urethra terminated just at or beneath the angle formed by this last portion, and was still further concealed by a firni, sharp point, two lines in length, which projected forwards from one side of its orifice. The lining membrane of this canal was dense, and about one-half a line thick : some spongy tissue externally about midway ; no muscular fibres seen. Corpora cavernosa formed by an abun- dant, coarse, cellulo-fibrous network, without a septum : the investing fibrous membrane extremely thick and dense, meas- uring from one to one and a half lines. Besides some smaller muscles, a short, thick pair arose from the pubes to be inserted into the penis near its origin, and a long, slender, and very beautiful pair ran nearly the whole length of the organ, along its under surface, connected with the sphincter ani at one ex- tremity, and lost in the integuments at the other. The prepuce was five inches long, and formed a large, thick mass of flesh, consisting of cellular substance intermixed with some r^uscular fibres ; fraenum distinct.
Vasa Deferentia within the pelvis at first tortuous, but for the last four or five inches straight ; rather more than one line in diameter at fii'st, the canal being a mere pin hole. Towards their termination the diameter increases to three lines, and being cut open, the cavity measures about three lines transversely ; inner surface smooth and polished, show- ing the openings of numerous minute follicles. Terminated at last in the urethra, on each side of the verumontanum. No note made of the testicles.
a Male and a Female Dromedary. 13
VesiculcB seminales wanting.
Membranous portion of the urethra six and one-fourth inches long ; transversely, on the inner surface, one inch at neck of bladder, one and seven-eighths inches at verumon- tanum and five lines only at the commencement of the penis. Yerumontanum two and one-quarter inches from the neck of the bladder and not very prominent ; numerous fine, dense rugae diverged ofi" from it, amongst which were con- cealed the openings of ducts ; there were, also, longitudinal rugae, more marked and extending off from it along the me- dian line anteriorly and posteriorly. Spongy tissue external to the mucous coat, and about one line thick. Muscular coat very strongly developed, measuring one-half an inch at the thickest part ; the fibres were transverse and met upon that surface of the canal which was towards the rectum, in a thick mass of condensed cellular membrane or tendon about three- fourths of an inch wide.
The Prostate gland consisted of a single, broad, thick, and very regular lobe, of a somewhat triangular form, the apex being directed towards the urethra, measuring two and three- fourths inches transversely, and two inches in the opposite direction. The texture was close, whitish and homoge- neous ; filled with an opaque, creamy fluid, the ducts termi- nating in many openings on each side of the verumontanum. According to Cuvier, (Anat. Comp., 1st ed.. Vol. V., pp. 43 and 47,) this gland in the ruminants is always double, and has but a single excretory duct ; he also remarks on the large size of the central cavity in the camel.
Cowpers glands, situated just behind the bulbo-cavernosus muscle, were remarkably distinct. They were of a very reg- ular, oval form, one inch long and one-half an inch at the widest part, of a light red color, slightly granular in structure, and directed obliquely forwards towairds the median line. The ducts were large, filled with a starchy secretion, and terminated at the bottom of a cul-de-sac, which was five lines in depth and formed by the inner membrane of the urethra. Each of these glands, separately, was surrounded by a strongly developed expulsor muscle, which was from
14 Jackson's Dissection of
one-fourth to one-third of an inch thick at the free extrem- ity ; towards the urethra it became much thinner, and had on its external surface a very thin fascia, giving to the whole, before being cut open, a striking resemblance to the gizzard of a bird ; this same structure I have lately met with in a ram from Africa, and it is said to be found in the ruminants generally.
Vagina ten and one-fourth inches in length from the open- ing of the urethra ; transversely, on the inner surface, three and one-fourth inches at the meatus, six and three-fourths inches midway, and five and one-fourth inches at the upper ex- tremity. Lining membrane thick, dense and polished ; lon- gitudinal rugae towards the meatus, but they become very fine and irregular higher up. Muscular coat distinct through- out, though for the most part very thin ; fibres longitudinal ; more developed towards the outlet, and measured there from two to three lines in thickness.
The Uterus, being cut open, measured from its commence- ment to the bifurcation internally two and one-half inches, and to the same externally five and one-half inches ; trans- versely, on the inner surface, four inches at commencement, and three and one-eighth inches at bifurcation. The left horn, cut open, was five and one-fourth inches long, two and seven- eighths inches transversely near its commencement, but after- wards becomes smaller. Parietes varied from one and one- half to three lines in thickness. Upon the inner surface of the uterus were five or six irregular, transverse folds, which gradually became less marked from below upwards, the last half inch being quite smooth. Inner surface of the left horn somewhat rugous towards the free extremity, but smooth towards the uterus ; muscular coat again well marked, but became thinner towards the extremity^ Left Fallopian tube six inches long and rather smaller than the human ; projected two lines into the cavity of the uterus in the form of a con- ical papilla ; the other extremity extremely tortuous and ter- minated in an expansion of peritoneum, which almost com- pletely invested the ovary.
The Left ovary ^ one and one-half inches long by one inch
a Male and a Female Dromedary. 15
wide, was apparently diseased ; about two-thirds of it occu- pied by a cyst filled with a watery mucus, and lined by a proper villous membrane ; in the remaining portion was a dark grey cyst.
In each of the Broad Ligaments were distinct, but scat- tered and irregular, transverse muscular fibres.
The Heart was about as larse as in the horse, and had the same conical form. Auricles of a regular, rounded form, and equal to about two and one-half or three inches square ; ap- pendices not strongly marked ; muscular substance in the left from two to three lines thick, but in the right it was thinner ; fossa ovalis deep. In the female, the left ventricle was nine inches long and the right seven and one-half, measuring on the outside ; the left was ten lines thick at the upper extrem- ity, then diminished to eight, increased again to twelve, and at the apex was but two, without the fat, of which there was some at that part ; the right was from two to four, averaging about three ; inner surface of the left for the most part smooth. Mitral valve divided into two distinct portions, and measured along its adherent edge eight inches ; the tricuspid eight and one-third. Pulmonary artery six inches transversely on the inner surface, just above the valves, and one and one-half lines in thickness ; ascending aorta four and one-half inches and three lines thick. From the arch of the aorta there arose two vessels, so near to each other as almost to have a common origin ; one of these was the left subclavian ; the other was the common trunk of the right subclavism and the two carotids. The above measurements were taken from the female ; the heart of the male was rather larger.
The Trachea of the male had seventyone rings, ranging from five to nine lines in width, and expanded posteriorly, so as to overlap each other ; also overlapped so as to form more than a complete circle, except at the lower extremity. Trans- verse diameter inferiorly one and one-half inch, the antero- posterior being rather less ; superiorly the flattening was lat- eral. On the right side a large bronchus was given oil just above the proper bifurcation. Muscular coat very strongly developed, the fibres measuring one and one-fourth Jnch in
16 Fishes of the Ohio
length. Towards the upper part of the trachea, on the right side, was a dark red, glandular looking body, of a regular form, three and one-half inches long by two inches wide ; probably one lobe of the thyroid gland .
The Lungs consisted of a single lobe on each side, without any trace of division, but sending a prolongation upwards from the apex. The left, in the male, measured twentyseven inches along its outer surface ; greatest width ten inches, and thickness two and one-fourth inches. Cells and lobules about as large as in man. These organs, in both subjects, contained very numerous diseased masses, from one-half an inch to two inches in diameter, apparently a chronic affection, and consist- ing of a deposit of very soft lymph with a mixture of pus, the surrounding structure being quite healthy. The bronchial and some of the cervical glands were similarly affected. The inner surface of the trachea, also, was diseased at its upper extremity, and on the anterior face, to the extent of two inches by one and one-half inch, being thickened, rough and opaque, but not properly ulcerated.
Art. II,— descriptions OF THE FISHES OF THE OHIO RIVER
AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. By Jared P. Kirki-and, M. D.
(Continued from Vol. III., page 482.)
Lepisosteus. Lacep. L. oxyurus. Raf. The Ohio Gar-Fish.
Lepisosteus oxyurus. Raf. Ichthyol. Ohiensie. p. 74.
«' " Kirtland. Report on Zoology of Ohio. p. 190.
Lepisosteus Huronensis. Richardson. Fauna Boreali-Amer. p. 237.
Plate I. Fig. 1. -
Head more than one-fourth of the total length ; jaws eleven- seventeenths of the total length of the head ; forehead flat- tened between the eyes ; base of the head less in circum- ference than any other section of the body anterior to the dorsal fin ; sub-quadrangular ; jaws narrow, elongated, slight-
and its Tributaries. 17
ly narrowed towards the tip ; upper jaw longer, terminating in an oblong knob. A series of unequal teeth are placed in clusters along the margin of each jaw. Eyes behind the angle of the mouth.
Body small, regularly fusiform, transversely flattened ante- rior to the dorsal fin ; scales hard, corneous and arranged in oblique rows.
Dorsal Jin situated nearer the base of the tail than the anal fin.
Caudal Jin oblong, oblique, upper and lower edge ob- scurely serrated.
Anal Jill larger and longer than the dorsal.
Pectoral Jin ovate and short.
Length. The specimen before me is twentytwo inches j I have seen them five feet in length.
Color. Back and head brown or umber-colored, sides yel- low, and belly white.
Habitat. Lake Erie, Ohio river, and many of their trib- utaries.
D. 7 ,• C. 12 ; A. 6 ; P. 10 rays.
Observations. This species is readily distinguished from the Duck-bill and Alligator- Gars, by the great length of the jaws. It maybe seen, apparently sleeping, on the surface, and gently carried round on an eddy for an hour at a time. Before our streams were interrupted by the construction of mill-dams, it was common in most of the permanent rivulets in Ohio, but it is now becoming scarce. As an article of food it is not much esteemed, and is not often eaten.
It is not a little surprising that this species should be intro- duced by Richardson into his " Fauna Boreali- Americana," as being previously unknown, with the name of '' L. Huron- ensiSj^^ when it had been so well described by Rafinesque six- teen years before. Cuvier was acquainted with Rafinesque 's publication, as his occasional references to it prove, and still, when a prepared specimen of this fish was sent to him by Richardson, he called it " Esox osseus, Lin. Lepisosteus ros- trdtuSy Nobis." M. Agassiz, however, considering it a distinct species from E. osseus, requested Mr. John E. Gray, the dis- 3
18 Fishes of the Ohio
tinguished curator of the British Museum, to draw up a mi- nute description for him. Mr. Gray must have been unac- quainted with the '' Ichthyologia Ohiensis," else he would never have remarked of the species referred to, '' It also differs from all the other known species of the genus in being spot- ted."
L. ferox. Raf. The Alligator Gar-fish.
Lepisdsteus ferox. Raf. Ichthyo!. Ohien. p. 75.
" " Kirtland. Rep. on Zool. of Ohio, p. 196.
Plate I. Fig. 2.
Head one fourth of the total length of the fish, broad and flat on its upper surface ; skin rugose ; jaws nearly equal, not half the length of the head, short, oval and obtuse, armed with numerous strong and prominent teeth, of various sizes and lengths ; the palatine arch armed in a similar manner. The upper jaw expands into a knob, beneath its extremity. Eye situated behind the angle of the mouth.
Body fusiform, cylindrical, and flattened on the back, cov- ered with large bony scales, which are imbricate, and arranged in oblique series ; each scale is sculptured on the external surface.
Dorsal fin more posterior than the anal, and its tip reaches beyond the commencement of the caudal fin at its inferior edge. The anterior ray serrated before.
Caudal fin oblique, serrated on its superior and inferior edges. Several of the rays in this fin, and in some of the other fins, are compounded at the middle of their lengths.
Anal fin serrated on its anterior edge, and attains with its tip the commencement of the base of the caudal fin.
Ventral fill horizontal ; its anterior ray serrated.
Pectoral fin ovate, situated beneath the posterior edge of the operculum.
Color yellowish brown, in the prepared specimens.
Length from four to six feet.
Habitat. Ohio river, very rare.
D. 8 ; 0. 11 ; A. 8 or 9 ; V. 6 ; P. 15 rays.
and its Tributaries. 19
Observations. This fish is an inhabitant of the Mississippi, and occasionally strays up into its tributaries, the Illinois, the Ohio, and perhaps some others. I have never met with a recent specimen, but find the skins of two, prepared in the Western Museum of Cincinnati ; one was stufi'ed, the other dried in an extended form. Mr. Dorfeuille, the former pro- prietor, informs me that one of them was taken some distance up the river, towards Pittsburg. It is five feet and eight inches in length, and twentyfive inches in circumference, and is so well prepared that, though somewhat decayed, it is believed the drawing taken from it, and accompanying this description, affords a tolerable representation of the recent fish. I am under great obligations to Mr. Bartlett, of the Museum, for permission to use his specimen.
Mr. Silsbee, a member of my medical class, has also pre- sented me with the bony scales of one taken about four years since, by some fishermen, with a seine, at the mouth of Mill Creek, a mile below the city of Cincinnati. It must have been still longer than those in the Museum, judging from the size of the scales.
Both my figure and description disagree in many points with the description of Mr. Rafinesque, but are essentially correct in reference to the specimens from which they were taken. And it should be recollected that he made out his description from a sketch and a jaw in possession of Mr. Clifi'ord.
Rafinesque says, that in the Mississippi it attains to the length of eight to twelve feet, and is a match for an alligator. It is truly a formidable fish, — the shark of fresh water. Its bony scales and head must be almost impenetrable, and im- pervious as the mail of the alligator ; and its formidable teeth and bony jaws, as well as its superior agility, must render it a powerful competitor ; though I should doubt its ability to destroy a full grown alligator.
The shortness of the jaws and head, the sculptured surface of the scales, and the great size and general contour of the body, will readily distinguish it from the common or the duck- bill Gar-fish.
20 Fishes of the Ohio
L. platostomus. Raf. The Duck-bill Gar-fish.
Lepisdsteus 2fl(itdstomus. Raf. Ichth. Ohien. p. 72.
»' ** Kirtland. Rep. on Zool. of Ohio. p. 196.
Plate I. Fig. 3.
Head hardly one fourth of the total length of the fish, flat- tened above the angles of the mouth, broader behind the eyes. Upper jaw the longer, equal to the remainder of the head ; expanding on the under side of the tip into an elastic knob, and gradually widening from thence to the junction with the skull ; its surface rough and deeply furrowed with a curved sulcation extending from behind the nostril to the head, above the eyes, on each side. Lower jaiv wider at the base than the upper, but narrower at the tip ; their margins furnished with numerous sharp and prominent teeth. Tongue asper- ous, bi-lobed at its tip. Throat lax and pendulous beneath. Operculum 3.nd pre-operculum bony and compressed. Nostrils near the extremity of the upper, and anterior to the tip of the lower jaw.
Body cylindric, flattened above ; back somewhat elevated ; scales corneous, and arranged in oblique series.
Dorsal Jin sub-oval, posterior to the anal.
Caudal fi7i oblong-oval, the base oblique ; upper and lower rays serrate.
Anal fin similar to the dorsal, in form and size.
Ventral fin ovate, its rays cartilaginous, anterior to the middle of the body.
Pectoral fin ovate-falcate.
Color. Head and back dusky, and umber ; sides yellow- ish ; abdomen white; iris golden yellow. Dorsal, caudal, and anal fins maculate. A series of obscure, circular spots is situated on the medial line behind the anal fin.
Length. The specimen I have before me is twentysix inches ; others, it is said, have attained the length of four or five feet.
D. 8 ; C. 12 ; A. 9 ; V. 6 ; P. 10 rays.
Observations. I have had the good fortune to obtain a sol-
and its Tributaries. 21
itary specimen in the Cincinnati market, but did not learn where it was taken. Rafinesque speaks of the species being common in the western waters. This might have been true in earher times, but at this date, it is so rare here that I have found one fisherman only, who professes to know it. The shorter, wider, and flattened jaws, distinguish it from the Common- Gar ^ — and the longer and tapering jaws from the Alligator- Gar.
Fig. a. The entire fish.
Fig. b. The upper surface of the head and upper-jaw.
PoLYODON. Lacepede. P. folium. Lacep. The Spoon-bill Sturgeon. Paddle-fish.
Pohjodon feuille. Lacepede. Griffith's Cuvier, Vol. X. p. 591. Folyodon foUum. Wilson. Article" Ichthyology," in Encjclopaedia Bri-
tannica, seventh edition, p. 230. " " Rafinesque, Ichthy. Ohien. p. 82.
" " Mitchiil and Hildreth. Silliman's Journal, Vol. XII.
p. 362, and figure. Spatularia reticulata. Shaw. General Zoology, Vol. V. p. 362, et fig.
PI. II. Fig. 1.
Head regularly conic, extended into a spatulate snout, on a line nearly continuous with the back. Snout flat, its edges thin and compressed, its centre furnished with a firm and thick cartilaginous rib, extending the whole length, but grad- ually diminishing in size from the junction with the head to the tip of the spatula. The surfaces marked with irregular hexagonal reticulations. Two parallel, cartilaginous nerves extend from the base of the skull to the termination of the snout, running through the centre of the upper surface. They appear to be formed by numerous diverging and concentric rays.
The Head is somewhat gibbous at its union with the body, from thence it is declivous to the first third of the length of the snout. Operculum invested with a fleshy membrane, which extends as far as the abdominal fin. In the dry specimen the operculum is radiate, which is not apparent when recent.
2% Pishes of the Ohio
The Head, including the operculum and snout, is longer than one half the total length of the fish, and the snout exceeds the united length of the head and operculum. Nostrils dou- ble, situated immediately above and before the eyes. Spira- cles behind and above the eyes, on a line with the nostrils and edge of the snout. Jaws expansive, thin, flexible, carti- laginous, acutely margined and minutely denticulate. The lower jaw closes within the upper. The palatine arch, the lingual cartilage, and the inner extremities of the first pair of branchial arches are furnished with numerous small teeth.
Body sub-cylindric, flattened laterally, and tapering from the pectoral fin to the tail. Skin scaleless ; smooth in the recent specimen, but asperous when dried. Vent prominent, situated beneath the dorsal fin.
All the fins numerously rayed, and all except the caudal one, trapezoidal, and inserted on fleshy and elevated bases.
Caudal Pin expanded, bi-lobed ; the lower lobe shorter, broader, and less oblique than the upper, which is serrated on its superior edge.
Color. The head, back and sides are of a beautiful steel blue, the throat and abdomen white, and the gill-covers macu- lated by stellate impressions. Length, from one to five feet. Habitat. The Ohio river and its tributaries. Observations. This species is distinguished from the Platirostra edentula, of Lesson, by possessing numerous teeth, by the snout being on a line with the back, by the greater length of the appendage of the operculum, by the form, size, and direction of the lobes of the caudal fin, and by the smaller size and less oval form of the body.
It is taken in considerable numbers in the Licking river, near Cincinnati, and exposed for sale in the markets. Its flesh, I am informed, is tough and not palatable, though it is occasionally eaten.
During the winter it does not forsake our streams, but se- cretes itself in the mud and beneath logs in the deepest waters. The peculiarly shaped nose seems designed to enable it to search in the mud for its favorite food ; and we often find
and its Tributaries. 23
the end of that appendage coated with tenacious clay, when first taken.
What it subsists on I have never been able to discover from any thing contained in the stomach. In the specimens which I have examined, a quantity of thick, muddy mucus only, was contained in the stomach, except that in two there were a number of Tceiiia or Tape-worms. Each of these parasites was about two inches in length when extended, and was made up of numerous joints about a line in length.
Two drawings, with descriptions of this fish, were publish- ed in the American Journal of Science, Vol. XII. one by Dr. Hildreth, another by a Mr. Clements. These authors proba- bly overlooked the minute teeth, which, in recent specimens, are thickly invested with a tenacious mucus, but are more evident when the specimens are dessiccated.
LuxiLus. Rafinesque. L. erythrog aster. Raf. The Red-belly Shiner.
Luxilus erythrog aster. Rafinesque. Ichthyologia Ohiensis, p. 47. *' " Kirtland. Report on the Zoology of Ohio. Catc-
logue, p. 169.
PL II. Fig. %.
Head short, rather obtuse. Eyes circular ; irides golden yellow ; pupils black. Jaivs equal.
Body full, sub-cylindrical, slightly compressed laterally. Lateral line curved downwards along the abdomen, but up- wards as it approaches its base.
Caudal Jin bi-lobed ; dorsal, anterior to the anal fin.
Length, from three to four inches.
Color. Fins a delicate yellow, back dark olive, with an interrupted black stripe through its centre ; sides with two black stripes, the upper extending from the caudal fin to the base of the head ; the lower from the tail to the operculum, and interruptedly along the base of the head, across the iris, to the tip of the nose. The space between these black stripes, white and silvery ; the abdomen white, occasionally
24 Fishes of the Ohio
tinged with carmine in some specimens, and wholly of a bright carmine in others. The colors of the female are less vivid than those of the male, and the black stripes on the sides are often displaced by a muddy dun color.
C. 20 ; D. 8 ; P. 12 ; V. 8 ; A. 8.
Habitat. All the small brooks and rivulets in the West.
Observations. In my specimens, the anal fins were eight rayed, though Rafinesque describes the species as having only seven rays.
The colors are the most vivid in the Spring of the year, when great numbers may be seen congregating on the shoals and ripples of every spring-run, preparing to deposit their spawn. After that process has been completed, they cease to be gregarious, lose their beautiful colors, and return to the deeper waters.
The thicker and more cylindrical form of the body, the shortness of the head and jaws, and the different arrangement of the colors, as well as its different habits, will readily dis- tinguish it from the Luxilus elongatus.
A hasty observer might mistake the male and female for distinct species. I have therefore furnished a sketch of both sexes.
Fig. a. male.
Fig. b. female.
Lota. Cuvier. L. maculosa. Le Sueur. The Eel-pout.
Lota maculosa. Cuv. Griffith's Cuv. Vol. X. p. 487.
" " Richardson. Fauna Boreali- Americana, p. 248.
** " Kirtland. Report on the Zoology of Ohio. p. 196.
Gadus maculdsus. Le Sueur. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Vol. I. p. 83.
PI. III. Fig. 1.
The following description, of Le Sueur, I extract from the first volume of the '^ Journal of the Academy of Natural Sci- ence, of Philadelphia."
*' G. maculdsus. Jaws equal ; lower one with a single
and its Tributaries. 25
cirrus ; ground color of the body reddish, marbled with brown, with roundish white spots scattered throughout ,• head large, long and depressed ; eyes oblong, in a vertical line with the angle of the mouth ; nostrils double, anterior are elongated into a small barbel ; pectoral fins long, subtriangular, placed horizontally ; jugular fins pointed, falciform, and whitish ; anal fins shorter than the dorsal, and marked with pale spots ; caudal fin large and rounded ; body mucous, covered with small roundish scales, resembling depressed tubercles ; lateral line in the middle of the body ; teeth small, sharp, and dis- posed in twelve or fifteen ranges, resembling those of a wool- card ; the palate and throat are equally furnished with teeth. Branchiee 7 ; P. 18 ; D. 10—71 ; Jug. 6 ; A. 70 ; C. 44 rays.
The above described species I discovered in Lake Erie, on the 14th of July, 1814. It is an esteemed fish, and is commonly known under the name of the Dog-fish, and Eel- pout. My specimen was two feet four inches in length."
Observations. Le Sueur is incorrect in giving this species the common name of Dog-fish — that term is exclusively ap- plied to the Amia calva.
The Eel-pout is an eatable fish, but is far from being es- teemed, its flesh being dry, tough, and not highly flavored. It is taken in considerable numbers about the harbor of Cleaveland, by hooks and seines.
Salmo. Lin.
<S^. namaycush. Pennant. The Namaycush. The great
Trout of the Lakes.
Salmo namaycush. Pennant. Arctic Zoology, Vol. II. Supplement, p. 139.
" « Richardson. Fauna Boreali-Americana. p. 179, et fig.
'•« " Kirtland. Report on Zoology of Ohio. p. 195.
Salmo amelhystus. Mitchill. Journal Academy of Nat. Science, Vol. I. p. 410.
PI. III. Fig. 2.
Head obtuse, broad between the eyes, near one-fourth of the total length of the fish. Maxillaries equal to one-fourth the length of the head, curved downwards behind their mid-
4
26 Bachmari's Observations
die, armed with strong teeth through the whole extent of their inferior edges ; a second row of teeth on the interior margin of the upper jaw, and a single row on the lower jaw. Anterior teeth inflected. Eyes anterior to the angle of the mouth. Tongue armed with two rows of strong teeth.
Body sub-cylindric, fusiform, compressed a little on the sides.
Dorsal fin over the middle of the body, and anterior to the ventral s.
Adipose fin small, falciform.
Caudal fin rather broad, bi-lobed, lobes equaL
Anal fin reaches with its tip the base of the caudal.
Ventral fin situate behind the dorsal emd attains to the vent.
Pectoral fin falciform, acute, and does not extend as far back as the dorsal.
Color clouded with brown and white ; darker on the back, lighter on the sides, and white on the throat and belly. All the fins reticulated with brown.
Length. Thirtyfour and a half inches is the length of a specimen before me.
Habitat. Lake Erie and the Upper Lakes.
B. 13 ; D. 13 ; C. 19 ; A. 12 ; V. 9 ; P. 14 rays.
Observations. This fish inhabits the deepest waters of Lake Erie, but does not often approach the shores. One was however taken at the end of the pier by a boy fishing for pike, two years since. It is caught in considerable numbers during the winter, near Buffalo, by letting down hues through holes in the ice. In some of the upper Lakes it is abundant.
Art. III. OBSERVATIONS ON THE GENUS SCALOPS, (SHREW MOLES,) WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF THE SPECIES FOUND IN NORTH AMERICA. By J. Bachman, D. D., Charleston, S. C.
Although this genus has, until very recently, been com- posed of only a single acknowledged species, {Scalops Caiia- densis of Desm.) its systematic derangement has given great perplexity to naturalists. Linna-us placed it among the
on the Genus Scalops. 27
Shrews (Sorex), and Pennant among the Moles {Talpa). Baron Cuvier finally established for it a new genus (Scalops), where it still remains. The specimen, however, which he made the type of the genus, contained but thirty teeth. The upper jaw had but three lateral incisors, or false molars, on each side, leaving considerable intermediate spaces between the incisors and true molars. In this dental arrangement he was followed by Desmerest, Dr. Harlan, Griffith, and nearly all the naturalists of that period. Subsequently, however, Fred. Cuvier gave a correct description of the teeth, which he found amounted to thirtysix. Dr. Harlan, finding a skele- ton from the vicinity of Philadelphia, which, in its dental arrangement, corresponded generally with the characters given by Fred. Cuvier, considered it a new species, and described it under the name of Scalops Pennsylvanica^ (see Fauna Americana, p. 33). Finally, Dr. Richardson described a spe- cimen which was obtained on the Columbia River, which contained fortyfour teeth, very difierently arranged. This animal he refers to the S. Canadensis, {aquaticus, of Lin- naeus,) supposing that the difference in the dentition, as observed by different authors, was owing to their having ex- amined and described speciinens of different ages. (See Fauna Boreali-Americana, p. 82). I will endeavor to explain and correct these contradictory views.
The specimens examined by Baron Cuvier, Desmarest, and Dr. Harlan, were evidently young animals, with their denti- tion incomplete. One half of the specimens now lying be- fore me, present the same deficiency in the number of teeth— also the edentate spaces between the incisors and grinders, remarked by those authors. Those, on the other hand, that were examined by Frederick Cuvier, Dr. Godman, and the skeleton of Dr. Harlan's Scalops Pennsylvanica, were the adults of the same species ; and the description of Dr. Rich- ardson's specimen was that of a new species. (See Journal Acad. Nat. Sciences, Vol. YHI. p. 5S.) I have been obliged to make a slight alteration in the generic characters to admit the species which have since been discovered.
28 Bachmaii's Observations
FAMILY. INSECTIVORA.
Genus S galops. Cuv. Shrew-mole.
Generic Charactei^s. Tecth^ from thirtysix to fortyfour. Head long, terminated in an extended, cartilaginous, flexible, pointed muzzle. Hands and arms broad, and armed with strong nails, fitted to excavate the earth, resembling in their general appearance those of the European mole, {Talpa). Eyes, and ears concealed by the hair, and scarcely percepti- ble. The hind feet are slender. Toes five on each foot, furnished with small, hooked nails.
1. ScALOPS AQUATicus. Liuu. Common Shrew-miole.
Sorex aqudiicus ; Lin., System. JVat. I2i/t edition^ corrected^ Vol. I. 74. Talpa fusca; Pennant, Brit. Zool. Quadrupeds. 314. Scalops Canadensis ; D E sM . , Mam .115. Scalope de Canada; Cuv., Re^ne. Anim. 134. ShreiD-molt ; Godman, J^at. Hist. I. 84. pi. 5, f. 3. Scalops Canadensis ; Harlan, Favna. 32, young. Scalops Pennsylvanica ; ILvklak, ibid. 33, adult.
Dental formula. Incisors |. False molars ^^. True mo- lars f.=36.
In the adult animal there are twenty teeth in the upper jaw. The incisors are of a moderate size, rounded on their front surface, and flattened posteriorly. Immediately behind the incisors are found two minute teeth on each side, crowded together. These are succeeded by four larger, false molars of a cylindrical shape, and pointed. The fourth is the smallest. The fifth is a little larger, and slightly lobed, and the sixth, which is the largest, is more conspicuously lobed. Then follow three true molars, each furnished witli three sharp tu- bercles.
In the lower jaw, which contains sixteen teeth, the two posterior incisors are very small ; these are succeeded on each side by another, much larger, pointed, and extending forwards. The three false molars Avhich succeed these are pointed, and the third and largest slightly lobed. The three true molars are composed of two parallel prisms, terminated, each by three points, and presenting one of their angles on the
on the Genus Scalops. 29
outer side, and one of their faces on the internal surface ; the two first are of the same size ; the last somewhat smaller.*
In the young animals, which I conjectured to be under a year old, I have found the two small thread-like teeth that are placed behind the incisors, in the upper jaw, entirely wanting, as also the fourth lateral incisor on each side, leav- ing vacant spaces between them and presenting the appearance ascribed to them by Cuvier and Desmarest. The latter teeth are first supplied, and finally, as the animal becomes fully matured, the two first also make their appearance, when all the edentate spaces between the molars and grinders are filled up.
The description, not only of the teeth, but of the form and habits of this quadruped, are so correctly given by Godman, in his excellent article on the Shrew-mole, (Vol. I. p. 81,) that in the present state of our knowledge little remains to be added. My descriptions, from specimens now before me, of an animal common in every part of the United States, are only given in this place to enable the student of nature con- veniently to compare it with other species which will be noticed in this article.
Form. The common Shrew-mole has a thick, cylindrical body, and the head, at the first sight, seems attached to the shoulders without an intermediate neck. The snout is naked, cartilaginous, and very flexible, extended five lines beyond the incisors. The under surface projects a little beyond the nostrils, which are oblong, and open on the upper surface near each other. The mouth is large, and when open, re- sembles in miniature, that of the hog. The eyes are a mere speck, concealed by the fur, and, to appearance, covered with an integument. There is no external ear, but a small, circu- lar aperture exists, about three-fourths of an inch behind the eye.
The whole of the fore-arm is concealed by the skin, and its broad palms only are visible. The palms are large and naked, not unlike these of the human hand, bordered with stiff hair. The nails are large, nearly convex above, and
* Godman.
30 Bachman^s Observations
flattened on the inner surface. The hind feet are compara- tively smal], naked on the under surface, and nearly so above. The nails are slender, and moderately arched. The tail is short, round, nearly naked, sparingly sprinkled with short hairs.
Color. The nails are a horn-color. The snout, in the living animal, is of a light flesh-color ; chin, feet, and tail, being the naked portions of the body, are nearly white. The hair, which is about five lines in length, and very soft, smooth and lustrous, is for three -fourths of its length dark plumbeous, tipt on the outer surface with light brown, giving the whole animal, above and beneath, a dark brown appearance, varying under different lights, with black, silvery, and purple re- flections.
Dimensions. Measurement of a specimen in the flesh.
Length from snout to root of tail, - 4 inches, 7 lines.
do. of tail, - - - - - "9
Breadth of palm, - ... 6
Length of do. to end of nail, - - - 9
Heel to extremity of nail, - - - 6
Geographical Distribution. I have received specimens of this animal from nearly all the States of the Union, East of the Mississippi. It abounds in South Carolina and Georgia, and is common in the Middle States. I have obtained it in Mississippi and Florida ; it exists also in Canada and the New England States. In restoring to this species the specific name of its first describer, I have adhered to a rule which it is necessary to adopt in order to prevent the repetition of synonyms. The name '' aquaticiis,^^ certainly does not apply to the habits of the animal, but that of Canadensis j in reference to its locality, is equally unfortunate, as it is far more common in the Southern States than in Canada. I have attached the name of the original describer of the spe- cies, although it has been removed to another genus ; believ- ing that the first describer is entitled to this credit, in prefer- ence to him who has merely placed it under another genus. Were this rule adhered to, in all cases, some check might be put on the art of system-making, now carried to such an
on the Genus Scalops. 31
extent, that the student of natural history finds it a grievous evil.
2. ScALOPs TowNSENDi. Bach. Townsend's Shrew-mole,
Scalops Canadensis ; KjcHxnBso:!!. Fauna Boreali-jSmericana. p. 9. Scalops Townsendi ; Bach. Jour. Acad. Nat. Scien. VIII. p. 58.
Characters. Townsend's Shrew-mole. Larger than Sca- lops aquaticusj color darker, having a different dental arrange- ment.
This species, first described by Dr. Richardson, was incor- rectly referred to the common Shrew-mole of the United States ; but its size and dentition are sufficient evidence of its being a new and distinct species.
A specimen of this quadruped was kindly presented to me by Mr. Nuttall, who requested that, in case it should prove a distinct species, it might be given under the above name. I subsequently received from Mr. Townsend another specimen, a little larger in size, which I presume to be a mere variety, although very singularly marked.
Dental formula. Incisors |- ; False mol. If ; True mo- lars 1^44.
Length of the head and body, - 7 inches, 6 lines.
Length of tail, ... - 1 6
Breadth of palm, - - . - 6
The body of the specimen received from Mr. Nuttall, is thick and cylindrical, shaped like the Shrew-mole of the United States. The whole upper and under surface is of a dark color, in most lights appearing black ; the hair, when blown aside, exhibits a greyish black color, from the roots to neai' the tips. The tail is slightly clothed with short, strong bristles.
The specimen brought by Mr. Townsend, is thicker, and about an inch longer. It has a white stripe, about two lines wide, commencing under the chin and running in a somewhat irregular line, along the under surface of the body to within an inch and a half of the insertion of the tail ; there is also
32 Bachmari^s Observations
a white streak commencing on the forehead and extending along the snout.
The specimen of Mr. Townsend is labelled, " Banks of the Columbia River, May 9th, 1835 ;" that of Mr. Nuttall was, I believe, obtained in the same locality.
In the upper jaw, the incisors are large, and a third higher than the false molars which immediately follow them. These are succeeded by three small teeth of a nearly conical shape, increasing in length from the first to the third. The fourth false molar on each side is the smallest, the fifth is a little larger in size, and slightly compressed, the sixth still larger, and has a considerable posterior projection. The four poste- rior grinders, or true molars, are much larger and higher than the anterior ones. The first of these is rather small, and has two lobes with a small internal tubercle; the second and third are the largest, and nearly resembling each other, exhib- iting three distinct points, two external and posterior, one anterior, the external ones being the longest; the last grinder is the smallest and of a triangular form.
In the lower jaw are two very small incisors in front. Next to these are two of a considerably larger size, which, although regarded as incisors, are nearly of the same shape and appear- ance as those which come next to them. The false molars are six on each side, of nearly the same size and inclining forward. The three true molars which succeed, are large, nearly of the same size, and although smaller, correspond with those in the upper jaw.
3. S GALOPS Breweri. Bach. Brewefs Shrew-mole.
Characters. Brewer's Shrew-mole. Glossy cinereous black above, brownish beneath. Palms narrow. Tail flat, broad and hairy.
Through the attention of my friend Dr. Brewer, an indus- trious and intelligent naturalist of Boston. I am enabled to present a new and very distinctly marked species, to which I have attached the above name. The specimen was found by Dr. L. M. Yale, at Martha's Vineyard, an Island on the coast of New England.
on the Genus Scalops. 33
Dental formula. Incisors | ; false molars |J ; true mo- lars I =44.
The skull of Sc. Breweri is narrower and more elongated than that of the Sc. aquaticus. The cerebral portion of the skull is less voluminous ; the inter-orbital portion is narrower, each of the intermaxillary bones in Sc. aquaticus^ throws out a process which projects upwards and forms the upper boun- dary of the nasal cavity, and are very slightly separated by the nasal bones, whilst in Sc. Breweri^ these processes are shorter, and scarcely project upwards above the plane of the nasal bone. Thus, when we view the snout of the Sc. aquat- icus, laterally, it is distinctly recurved at the tip ; whereas in Sc. Breweri the upper surface is almost plane. But the most striking difference between these skulls is exhibited in the dentition, inasmuch asj in our present species, there are alto- gether 44 teeth, in Sc. aquaticus there are but 36. Thus, in the number of teeth Sc. Breweri resembles Sc. Townsendi.
The body of Brewer's shrew-mole is perhaps a little larger than that of the Sc. aquaticus. Its snout is less flattened and narrower ; its nostrils, instead of being inserted in a kind of bouton, as in the European Talpa, and the swine, or on the upper surface of the muzzle as in the common shrew- mole, are placed on each side, near the extremities of the nose. This species is pentadactylous, like all the rest of the genus. Claws longer, thinner, and sharper than the common shrew-mole. Palm much narrower. Its most striking pecu- liarity however, is its tail, which, instead of being round and nearly naked, like that of the Sc. aquaticus^ is flat and broad, resembling in some respects that of the Beaver, and is very thickly clothed, above and beneath, with long stifi" hairs, which extend five lines beyond the vertebrae.
Color. The color, above and beneath, is a glossy cinereous black, like velvet, precisely similar to that of the European mole ( Talpa Europcea) with which I have compared it. Un- der the throat there is a slight tinge of brown, the tail is ashy brown above and light beneath. The fur is about one-third longer than that of the common shrew-mole.
5
34 Bachman's Observations.
Length of the head and body, • 5 inches 1 1 lines.
Tail vertebrae, - • - - 1
Do. including fur, - • - 1 5
Breadth of tail, ... 4
Do. of palm, ... 4
Length of do. to end of middle claw, - 7
In the Maseiim of the Zoological Society of London there is a specimen, obtained from the United States, which I think is the same species. It is marked in the printed catalogue, No. 145 " Sc. Breweri, Bachman's MSS." It however differs in having the fur more compact and shorter, the color some- what darker, and in fact almost black. The hairs of the tail, instead of being of a brownish ash color, are black, and the hind feet, instead of being covered above with brownish white hairs, as in my specimens, are brownish black.
Dimensions of the skull of the above three species.
Length of Skulls. Width of do. Length of palate.
•S. aquaticus^ 1 inch 4 lines 8 lines. 7 lines.
|
s. |
Townsendi, |
1 |
(( |
7J |
(( |
9* |
li |
8i |
(( |
|
s. |
Breweri^ |
1 |
(( |
3 |
C( |
7i |
(( |
6J |
(( |
4. ScALOPS LATiMANus. Bach. Broad palmed Shrew-mole.
Characters. Broad palmed Shrew-mole, larger than the common Shrew-mole, intermediate in size between Sc. Town- sendi and Sc. Breweri. Hair longer and thinner than in either of the other species, and slightly curled. Palms larger than in any of the known species ; color nearly black.
In the rich and daily increasing collections contained in the Berlin Museum, one of the most valuable in Europe, especially in the Mexican and South American birds and animals, I observed two specimens of an undescribed species of Scalops, obtained from some part of Mexico, which, through the kind- ness and liberality of Professor Lichtenstein, the director of the Royal Museum, I was permitted to describe. I subse- quently received a similar specimen from Texas, near the northern boundary line, and I have no doubt it exists also in Arkansas. I regret that I had no opportunity of examining the skulls and teeth of the specimens in the Berlin Museum,
Phosphate of Uranium in the Tourmaline. 35
and that, in the specimen from Texas the skull is wanting. The external form, however, is sufficient to estabUsh it as a distinct species.
In shape this species resembles our common Shrew-mole ; it is, however, much stouter and larger, appearing nearly double the size. Its color is darker, the hair is longer and co£u:ser, and much less compact, presenting none of the smooth, lustrous appearance of the Sc, aquations. Its most striking peculiarity, however, and that which entitles it to its specific name, is its very broad palm.
Color. Hairs, from the roots, dark gray, tipt with dark brown, giving it a blackish appearance. Teeth large, nearly double the size of Sc. aquaticus. Tail naked, as in the for- mer species.
Length from the point of nose to root of tail, 7 inches 7 lines. Length of tail, - - - 1 " 7
Breadth of palm, - . - 10
Tarsus, ----- 7
Art. IV.— on THE OCCURRENCE OF THE PHOSPHATE OF URANIUM IN THE TOURMALINE LOCALITY AT CHES- TERFIELD. By J. E. Teschemacher.
In breaking up for examination some specimens of the green and red Tourmaline, from the well known Chesterfield locality, for the purpose of finding the Microlite of Professor Shepard, I observed a few minute, yellow crystalline plates of a cubic form ; as I found them completely soluble in nitric acid, it was evident they could not be the mineral described by the Professor.
Possessing, myself, but few facilities for chemical analysis, I collected together sufficient to forward to Mr. A. A. Hayes, of Roxbury, requesting a qualitative analysis, with the sug- gestion that the external characters agreed entirely with those of the Salts of Uranium. This gentleman kindly sent me the following reply :
36 Phosphate of Uranium in the Tourmaline.
" The mineral is one of the Uranium family, as you suggest- ed, and appears to contain phosphoric acid and oxide of Ura- nium, as essential constituents, only. In nitric acid it readily dissolves, without effervescence ; the result of the solution treated with ammonia, gives a yellow ammoniacal salt of ura- nium. When the ammoniacal salt is treated with carbonate of ammonia it dissolves, and in a solution of muriate of ammonia can be precipitated as a white flocculent matter, re- sembling the phosphate of uranium. The solution in nitric acid gives with Ferrocyanate of Potash the characteristic chesnut-brown precipitate of Uranium Salts."
The quantity found was small ; there were however two or three well defined cubic crystals, from two to three lines diameter, and varying in color from straw-yellow to light green. Some crystals exist in the red centre of the Tourma- line, and are exposed on splitting the crystals ; others are on the quartz and on the Albite forming the mass.
Many of these Tourmalines are in a state of internal disin- tegration ; the interior is then often found in a fibrous stale. In the midst of, and attached to, the fibres, I have found sev- eral crystals of this phosphate of uranium, probably existing there originally, and not sharing in the decomposition of the surrounding substances.
I am not aware that this mineral has yet been noticed from this locality, and believe it to be hitherto of very rare occur- rence in the United States.
The examination of these Chesterfield Tourmalines is ex- tremely interesting. I have found two other substances accompanying them, of species unknown to me, and differing from any I possess ; these shall be examined at my leisure.
The frequent abandonment of the study of Mineralogy for that of the more imposing science of Geology, is much to be regretted ; and I believe when the former shall be pursued with the peculiar views of elucidating the processes of the formation and consolidation of rocks of various mineralogical composition, the actions by which crystalline deposits, inclu- ding those in cavities, are produced, and particularly of inves- tigating the changes, re-combinations and metamorphoses
The Shells of New England. 37
different minerals undergo from the commencement and throughout the progress of internal as well as of external de- composition, that much unexpected light will be thrown on several of the great problems of Geology. Boston, 6th April, 1841.
Art. v.— descriptions OF TWENTYFOUR SPECIES OF THE SHELLS OF NEW ENGLAND. By J. W. Mighels, M. D., of Portland, Me., and Prof. C. B. Adams, of Middlebury College, Vt. (Read Nov. 17, 1841.)
We regard nineteen of the recent, and the two fossil spe- cies as new. The other three species we have discovered, for the first time, on our coast. The two species of Cingula, viz. C. semicostata and C. arenaria^ are probably identical with Turbo semicostatus and T. are^idrius, of Montagu : one species of Margarita, probably identical with M. acuminata^ Sowerby.
Notwithstanding the extraordinary advance which has been made, within four years, in the Conchology of New England, by the discovery of species hitherto unknown, or not observed within our limits, the rich treasures of Nature's storehouse are not yet entirely exhausted. The stomachs of fishes, to which attention was first directed by our honored associate, Mr. J. P. Couthouy, have been fertile sources of discovery. With the exception of Pleurotoma violdcea, all the following recent ma- rine species have been taken from the stomachs of Haddocks, {Morrhua ceglejimis. Lin.) and Codfishes, {Morrliua Amer- icana^ Storer. ) In addition to these, a rich store of most of the species described by Mr. Couthouy and Dr. A. A. Gould, and until very recently extremely rare, has been obtained from the same sources.
We most cheerfully acknowledge our indebtedness to our esteemed friend, Dr. Gould, for his aid in identifying most of the species, and to several gentlemen who have aided us in our explorations ; among whom wc would particularly notice
38 Mighels^ and Adams^ Descriptions of
J. Ray, M. D., formerly of Eastport, now superintendent of the Insane Hospital at Augusta, Me., and Mr. N. T. True, Preceptor of the Academy at Monmouth, Me.
THRACIA TRUNCATA.
Plate IV. Fig. 1.
T. testa parva, solida, per-inequilaterali, postice truncata, et striata : callo nymphali producto.
Shell small, white, rather solid, abruptly truncate posteri- orly, very inequilateral ; surface Avith three regions ; the ante- rior region separated from the posterior by an umbonial angle, which extends from the beak to the lower extremity, marked with numerous minute incremental striae ; posterior region with the incremental striae distinct and very much crowded ; areolar region narrow, with regular striae of growth ; epider- mis thin, of a pale straw-color ; beaks small, that of the right side moderately excavated for the reception of the left ; poste- rior dorsal margin straight, descending abruptly to an angle with the anterior, which is also straight, making an angle with the inferior, which is moderately curved: anterior margin regularly rounded ; anterior dorsal margin slightly curved ; ligament rather large and prominent ; interior of a clear white ; nymphaeal callosity not spoon-shaped, produced ; pal- lial impression deeper than wide.
Average length, ^75 inch ; height, ,5 inch ; width, ,29 inch.
Cabinets of Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., J. W. Mighels, and C. B. Adams.
Habitat. Casco Bay, Me., obtained in 1840, from stom- achs of haddock.
Remark. Although this shell is small, its solidity, quite unusual in the genus, forbids the supposition that it is imma- ture. It is remarkably distinct from other species in the dis- parity of the anterior and posterior sides, whose length are as eight to three. It must be regarded as exceedingly rare, three or four years exploration having developed only four or five specimens.
Shells of New England. 39
CYCLAS MINOR.
PJate IV. Fig. 2.
C. testa, minima, ovatci, inequilateral!; natibus tumidis, approximatis ; mar- ginibus rotundatis; dentibus omaibus fortibus.
Shell very small, ovate, inequilateral, finely striate, shining, horn color, yellowish towards the margin ; beaks rather prom- inent, moderately tumid, not undulate, approximate, situated two-fifths the distance from one extremity to the other ; mar- gins rounded, both the cardinal and lateral teeth well de- veloped.
Length, ,18 inch ; height, ,15 inch ; width, ,11 inch.
Habitat. Found among dead leaves, in a swamp, in Wey- bridge, Yt., in the spring of 1839. Subsequently it has been found in several other places in the vicinity, and in Portland, Me. It is not confined to the water, but is often found a foot or more from it, burrowing deep in the mud, and under stones. It is in the Cabinets of the Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., J. W. Mighels, and C. B. Adams.
CYCLAS NITIDA.
Plate IV. Fig. 3.
C. testa sub-ovatfi, inequilateral! ; natibus parvis, baud approximatis; dentibus lateralibns fortibus, cardinalibus obsoletis.
Shell sub-ovate, inequilateral, finely striate, shining, horn color, yellowish towards the margin, often blueish on the umbones ; beaks small, rather prominent, not undulate, not approximate, situated about two-fifths of the distance from one extremity to the other ; inferior margin well rounded, the other margins moderately rounded ; cardinal teeth obsolete, lateral teeth well developed.
Length, ,3 inch ; height, ,24 inch ; width, ,2 inch.
Habitat. We obtained a few specimens of this species at Norway, Oxford Co., Me., in the summer of 1840. It is very rare. It is in the Cabinets of the Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., J. W. Mighels, and C. B. Adams.
Remarks. The embryo shell is elliptical, obliquely striate,
40 Mighels^ and Adams^ Descriptions of
compressed ; is ,06 inch long, ,05 inch high, and ,025 inch wide. It resembles C. minor ^ Nob., but the beaks in these shells are approximate and proportionally larger ; this species differs also in having the cardinal teeth obsolete both in the young and mature shell, and it is much larger.
NUCULA DELPHINODONTA.
Plate IV. Fig. 5.
N. testa parva, eolida, trigona, transverse sub-sulcata ; angulis umbonalibua duobus'; natibus prorninentibus, sub-terminalibus ; dentibus anticis tribus, pos- ticis septem, elevatis, conicis, acutis.
Shell small, solid, very wide, oblique, triangular, trans- versely ribbed and striate irregularly ; anterior margin nearly straight above, curved below, inferior margin well rounded, posterior moderately curved, making a right angle with the anterior ; surface divided into three regions by the umbonial angles which diverge from the beaks ; these are prominent, nearly terminal, often eroded ; epidermis green ; seven poste- rior and three anterior teeth, which are very long, slender and pointed.
Average length, ,13 inch; height, ,11 inch; width, ,09 inch.
Cabinets of Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., J. W. Mighels, and C. B. Adams.
Habitat. Casco Bay. Several hundred specimens were taken from the stomach of a single haddock, in the spring of 1841. At several times subsequently we have obtained them from the same source, sparingly.
Remarks. This species is allied to N. proxima, Say, and N. teiitiis, Turton, but is distinct from both in the number and arrangement of the teeth ; also in respect to form, ante- rior and posterior umbonial angles, and in its greater width.
NUCULA CASCOENSIS. Plate IV. Fig. G.
N. testii ovato-lanceolatA, sub-inequilaterali, compressa ; postic^ attenuata; areolfi valde compressa; natibus parvis ; dentibus anticis decern, posticis duo- decim, parvis.
Shell ovate-lanceolate, rather thin, finely striate, slightly
Shells of New England. 41
inequilateral ; anterior half regularly semi-oval ; posterior half tapering nearly to a point, with an areola well defined, sharply compressed, with a slight wave below the areola ; epidermis greenish straw-color ; beaks small, nearly central ; within pearly- white ; teeth small, ten anterior, and ten or twelve pos- terior, including some very minute ones near the beaks.
Length, ,6 inch ; height, ,35 inch ; width, ,09 inch.
Cabinets oi G. B. Sowerby, Esq., J. W. Mighels, and G. B. Adams.
Habitat. Gasco Bay. A single specimen was found in the stomach of a haddock in the spring of 1840. Subse- quently we have found a single specimen of the above dimen- sions, and four or five very small ones.
Remarks. This species is allied to N. limatulaj Say, and N. myalis, Gouth., but is easily distinguished from both by the number of the teeth, the beaks being nearer the posterior extremity, and being much more compressed than either. It more nearly resembles the latter, but is uniformly lighter colored.
PECTEN TENUICOSTATUS.
Plate IV. Fig. 7.
P. testa parvd, tenui, Bub-inequivalvi ; valvasuperiore plerumque rubro-fusca, tenuicostata, costis tnajoribus 25 usque ad 30, totidem minoribus ; auribus cos- tulatis; valva inferiore pallide rubro-fusc^ ; extus et intus lasvi.
Shell small, sub-orbicular, higher than long, thin, equilat- eral, sub-equi valve, upper valve a little more convex ; with twentyfive to thirty slender ribs and smaller ones interme- diate ; for the most part reddish-brown ; inferior valve smooth, paler than the upper ; ears slightly unequal, those of the upper valve delicately ribbed, of the other smooth ; color internally the same as externally ; inner surface of the lower valve smooth, that of the upper grooved.
Length, ,5 inch ; height, ,56 inch; width, ,14 inch.
Cabinets of Mons. Largillier, J. W. Mighels, and G. B. Adams.
Habitat. Gasco Bay, taken from stomachs of haddock in the summer of 1840. We have found but four specimens.
6
42 Mighels^ and Adams^ Descriptions of
Remarks. This is unquestionably a very rare species. It does not appear to be very nearly allied to any of the other species found on our coast. Further research will be neces- sary to determine whether or not the specimens already found are mature. Like most of the Pectens, this shell varies very much in coloring.
CHITON MENDICARIUS.
Plate IV. Fig. 8.
C. testa elongatd, in medio longitudinaliter ad latus irregulariter granulatd, cinere^, nubeculat^ j areis-parum conspicuis ; margine coriaceo, rabro.
Shell cinereous, with dark clouds, long-oval with obtuse dorsal ridges, surface with elevated dots or granules disposed in longitudinal lines, except towards the margin, where they are irregular and larger ; no visible concentric striae ; triangu- lar areas very indistinct, outer ones small ; margin coriaceous, red.
Length, 1 inch ; breadth, ,4 inch ; width of margin, ,06 inch.
Habitat. Casco Bay. This very distinct species was taken from the stomach of a haddock in June, 184L Only a single specimen has been found, which is in the cabinet of J. W. Mighels.
CEMORIA PRINCEPSo Plate IV. Fig. 9.
C. testi alba, procerA, costnlalci, punctulatd; rirnaintHs in canalenr] proJucta, fornice obtectus ; fornice lateraliter testae alls adjuncto ; apertura ovata, cren- ulata.
Shell clear white, elevated, conical, with twenty five to thirty slight, obtuse ribs, and intervening small ones, the dividing striae minutely punctured : summit decumbent, with a single minute whorl ; apex visible on the right side ; an- terior slope rectilinear, posterior slope sub-rectilinear ,• from the rima within, a narrow groove with callous sides proceeds anteriorly, covered in part by a flattened arch, which arises
Shells of New England. 43
from the summit of the rima, and is strengthened above by a plate miiting it with the sides of the shell j aperture ovate, ;slightly crenate.
Length, ,46 inch ; width, ,33 inch ; height, ,35 inch.
Cabinets of G. B. Sowerby, J. W. Mighels, and C. B. Adams.
Habitat. This shell was taken from the stomach of a had- dock, by Mr. Newbegin, a fisherman, in July, 1840, seventy- five to one hundred miles off the mouth of Kennebec river, on fishing ground called by the fishermen " Monhegan Falls. ^^ The water at that place is from forty to seventyfive fathoms in depth.
Remarks. This very singular and truly splendid species resembles C. Noachina, Lin., but differs from that shell in the following characters ; in C. Noachina the ribs are more eleva- ted, the corresponding interior sulci are much more obvious ; posterior slope much and regularly curved, shell smaller, pro- portionately longer, not so high, interior arch without wings. Only four specimens have been found.
BULLA PUJNCTO-STRIATA.
Plate IV. Fig. 10.
B. testa alba, solida, eleganter striatEi ; Btriis crebris, inequidistantibus, punc- tatis ; spira occulta ; apertura magna.
Shell white, rather solid, ovate, with crowded, inequidistant, distinctly punctate strice ; spire concealed ; aperture very large, contracted at the upper third by the intrusion of the body whorl ; labrum rising above the apex, very sharp and regularly arcuate ; labium with a very thin lamina extending to the apex.
Length, ,38 inch ; breadth, ,24 inch.
Habitat. Casco Bay ; taken from the stomach of a had- dock, in the summer of 184 L
Remarks. This remarkable and truly beautiful shell, re- sembles an enlarged specimen of B. lineolata, Couth., to which it is allied ; but it is easily distinguished by its larger size, by the elevation of the labrum above the apex, and above
44 Mighels^ and Adams^ Descriptions of
all, by the punctate striae. Only a single specimen has been found. It is in the cabinet of J. W. Mighels.
PHYSA FRAGILIS.
Plate IV. Fig. 12.
P. testa tenuiasim^, oblique ovat& ; §pira brevi ; anfractibus quatuor; f^pei^ tur& subovata, repand^ J labiolumido, lamina obtecto.
Shell very thin and fragile, translucent, horn-color, obliquely ovate ; whorls four ; last whorl canipanulate ; suture deeply impressed at the enlargement of the last whorl ; spire usually less than one, sometimes only one-fourth part of the length of the shell ; labrum very thin, advanced ; labium tumid with a thin, loosely adherent lamina.
Length, ^55 inch ; greatest breadth, ,4 inch ; divergence, 90 degrees.
Animal of a very obscure, light green color ; whole surface of the body covered with oblong dark spots ; foot shorter than the shell, lanceolate ; tentacles nearly white, rather long, very slender ; mouth blood-red. Its motions are exceedingly rapid ; very timid, withdrawing itself on the least alarm. It is very tenacious of life, at least it is not easily starved. Three spe- cimens are now before us in a tumbler of water, November 10th, where they have remained since the first of July. The water has not been changed more than half a dozen times, yet they are as brisk as when first taken ; and, moreover, they have grown at least one quarter ; exuviae white, abundant, vermicular.
Cabinets of Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist,, Amherst and Middlebury Colleges, Mons. Largillier, S. S. Haldeman, J. W. Mighels, and C. B. Adams.
Habitat. Monmouth, Maine ; discovered in a mill-pond after the water was drawn off, by Mr. N. T. True, to whom we are indebted for specimens.
Remarks. This species is distinguished from P. heterbs^ tro'pha by the campanulate aperture, which is constant, shorter spire, tumid labium, and by its remarkable tenuity.
Shells of New England. 45
LIMNiEA DECOLLATA.
Plate IV. Fig. 13. 13, a, b, c.
L. testa ventricosa ; anfraclibus duobus vel tribus, ultimo magno; spira brevi- uscula, plerumque decollata ; sutura impressa; apertura maximi, eub-campa- nulati ; labro porrecto ; columella valide plicata.
Shell very ventricose, rather thick, sub-ovate, or sub-rotund, in outUne an irregular rhomboid ; epidermis of an ohvaceous green color, rather thin, deciduous ; whorls two to three ; spire very short, generally decollated ; whole surface gener- ally rather rough ; striae of growth coarse and fine alter- nately ; transverse striae on the body whorl sparse, interrupted, sometimes obsolete ; body whorl composes almost the whole shell ; aperture very large, sub-campanulate ; its length is very little greater than the breadth, and occupies more than two-thirds the length of the shell ; labrum rather thin, sim- ple ; fold of the columella very prominent.
Length, ,6 inch ; breadth, ,5 inch ; height, ,4 inch.
Animal dingy mouse-color, with a slight tinge of pm'ple, covered with numerous, microscopic, elongated, white spots, on every visible part of the surface, including the mouth and tentacula ; foot of a chocolate-color, rather broad, length rather greater than the aperture ; habits sluggish.
Cabinets of Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Dr. Gould, S. S. Halde- man, J. G. Anthony, J. W. Mighels, and C. B. Adams.
Habitat. Unity, Me., discovered by Dr. Milliken of that town, to whom we are indebted for specimens.
Remarks. This odd, but interesting shell, is easily recog- nized by its rhomboidal aspect, wide aperture, decollated spire and rather rough and distorted appearance. It is allied to L. catascopiuni, Say, but is distinct from that shell by having less whorls by two, and a much shorter spire ; by being wider, and its divergence greater by more than thirty degrees. By some it has been supposed to be identical with L. emarginata, Say. This is impossible. L. emarginata is much more cy- lindrical, the divergence of its spire is scarcely half as great as that of our shell, it is much thinner, and has at least two more volutions. Our shell is also destitute of the '' deep emargination" which distinguishes L. emarginata.
46 Mighels^ and Adams^ Descriptions of
MARGARITA VARICOSA.
Plate IV. Fig. 14.
M. testa parva, tenui, conica ; anfractibus quatuor, convexis ; longitudinaliter costulatia, transverse striatis j sutura sub-canaliculata ; umbilico magno, profando.
Shell small, thin, low, conical, of a dingy white or drab color ; whorls four, convex, covered with numerous longitu- dinal, oblique ribs, intersected by a great number of treuis- verse, revolving striae, which are most conspicuous on the lower part and base of the lower whorl. The striae on the upper part of the whorls can only be seen with a magnifier. Suture distinct, sub-canaliculate ; umbilicus rather large and deep, bounded by two rather rugged varices, intersected by the ribs which are continued to the verge of the umbilicus ; aperture circular ; labrum simple, sharp ; within perlaceous.
Height, ,25 inch ; diameter of base equal to the height ; divergence, 90 degrees.
Habitat. Bay Chaleur ; taken from the stomach of a cod- fish, {Morrhua Americana, Storer,) in the summer of 1841, by our fisherman, Mr. Foster.
Remarks. Only a single specimen of the above dimen- sions has been obtained, and one other, much smaller and somewhat worn. It is easily distinguished from all its con- geners by the longitudinal, oblique ribs, and the two varices at the base. It is in the cabinet of J. W. Mighels.
MARGARITA ACUiMINATA.
Plate IV. Fig. 15.
M. teslA parva, orbicular!, tenui, albicante ; [spir^ acuminata ; anfractibus quatuor, rotundatis, laevibus; sutura valde imprcBsa ; apertura orbiculaii, intus iridescente ; umbilico parvo.
Shell small, orbicular, sub-conical, thin, of a grayish white or russet-color ; spire acuminate ; whorls four, well rounded, smooth, covered with a thin, semi-transparent epidermis,- striae of growth very fine and compact ; suture well impressed ; aperture orbicular, considerably oblique, beautifully iridescent within ; operculum horny, spiral.
Shells of New England. 47
Height, ,25 inch ; diameter, ,26 inch *, divergence, 80 degrees.
Habitat. Gulf of St. Lawrence ; taken from the stomach of a cod-fish, by Mr. Foster, in the summer of 1841. Only a single specimen was found, which is in the cabinet of J. W. Mighels.
Remarks. Identical with a species described by Mr. Sow- erby, Conch. Illustr., fig. 7, under the above name. Although Mr. Sowerby's figure agrees well with our shell, his de- scription does not so in ail respects. For instance, " anfrac- tibus quinque." Our shell has but four turns. Again, ^'Long. 0,55, lat. 0,5 poll." Thus we see that Mr. Sow- erby's shell is not only twice as large as our specimen, but proportionally higher. The breadth of our shell in its longest basal diameter is greater than the height. But as we have only a single specimen, we prefer to publish it with the assumption that it is identical with M. acuminata^ rather than produce confusion by hazarding a new name for an old shell.
TROCHUS OCCIDENTALIS.
PI. IV. Fig. 16.
T. testa, pallida, imperforata, anfractibus septem, convexis; carinis pallide fuscis ; infra laevi; sutura impressa ; columella callosa.
Shell rather small, somewhat solid, sub-translucent, pale horn-color, with light brown revolving carinas, of which there are three on the upper whorls, and four to six on the lower one ; whorls seven, convex : suture distinct ; spire three-fifths of the length of the shell ; apex acute ; last whorl with a smooth space between the carinas and two or three course revolving striae around the umbilical region ; aperture moderately depressed, transversely ovate ; labrum crenulated by the carinas ; columella callous ; umbilical region indented.
Height ,5 inch ; greatest basal diameter ,43 inch ; diver- gence 60 degrees.
Cabinets of Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., G. B. Sowerby, Mons. Largillier, J. W. Mighels and C. B. Adams.
48 MigheW and Adams^ Descriptions of
Habitat. Casco Bay ; taken from stomachs of haddock, in the summer of 1840, and subsequently.
Remarks. This is the only species of true Trochus that has ever been discovered on this Atlantic coast. It is not nearly allied to any species with which we are acquainted, unless we regard Turbo (Margarita) dnereus, Couth. — Tro- chus costalis, Loven, as a true Trochus. A careless observer would be likely to confound them ; but besides several other essential points of difference, our shell is easily distinguished from all the known species of Margarita, by the absence of an umbilicus.
CINGULA LATIOR.
Plate IV. Fig. 22.
C. testa minima, ovato-conica, laevi, pallida; anfractibus quatuor, convexis ; sutura impressa ; spir^ quam apertura longiore ; anfractu postremo magno ; ap- ertura sub-ovata 3 operculo corneo.
Shell minute, ovate-conic, smooth, pale horn -color ; whorls more than four, convex ; suture much impressed ; spire three- fifths of the length of the shell ; last whorl broad, larger than the rest of the shell ; aperture ovate-orbicular, left margin with a lamina ; operculum horny.
Length ,08 inch ; breadth ,05 inch ; divergence 60 degrees.
Habitat. Casco Bay ; taken from the stomach of a haddock in the spring of 1841.
It is in the cabinet of J. W. Mighels.
Remarks. This species has a slight resemblance to O. minuta, Totten, in the absence of sculpture ; but the spire is shorter, more pointed, and its divergence is much greater, giving a very different form to the shell. It is, moreover, a much smaller shell. It appears also to be allied to Turbo reticulatus, Montagu, but is distinct from that species in not having as many turns by one and a half ; it differs, also, in not being " strongly striate, both longitudinally and trans- versely," and in not having the '' aperture thickened by a rib." It has been found very rarely, usually in company with O. semicostatus and C. arenajius, Mont.
Shells of New England. 49
CINGULA ARENARIA.
Plate IV. Fig. 24.
C. teslA minimd, sub-cylindracea, strialula, subplicata; spirA eonic4, elon- gata; anfraclibus sex, convo.xis ; sutura impressu ; apertura sub-orbiculari, dim- idium spirae aequante ; operculo corneo.
Syn. Tm^ho are?iarius, Montagu.
Shell minute, white, sub-cylindrical, sub-plicate longitudi- nally, and minutely striate transversely ; spire elongated, coni- cal ; whorls six, convex ; suture impressed ; aperture sub- orbicular, half the length of the spire ; operculum horny.
Length ,10 inch ; breadth ,05 inch ; divergence 30^.
Habitat. Casco Bay, taken from the stomach of a haddock in the summer of 1841.
But few specimens, have been found, which are in the Cab- inet of J. W. Mighels.
CINGULA SEMICOSTATA.
Plate IV. Fig. 23.
C. testa minima, ovata ; anfractibus quinque, convexis, infra carinatis, suprk plicalis ; spira conica ; sutura valde impressa ; apertura suborbiculari ; operculo corneo.
Syn. Turbo semicostatus ? Montagu.
Shell very small, ovate-conical, of a ferruginous red color, very thin ; whorls for the most part five, convex ; with longi- tudinal ribs on the upper half, and revolving impressed striae on the lower half ; last whorl carinate ; spire conical, obtuse ; suture well impressed ; aperture nearly orbicular ; labrum thin, sharp ; labium smooth ; operculum horny.
Length ,11 inch ; breadth ,7 inch ; divergence 45*^.
Cabinets of Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Dr. Gould, Mons. Lar- gillier, J. G. Anthony, and our own.
Habitat. Casco Bay ; taken from stomachs of haddock in the summer of 1841.
Remarks. We offer this with some hesitation, as identical with T. se?ni-costatus, Mont. If it should finally prove to be distinct, we would propose to call it Cingula carinata.
7
60 Mighels^ and Adams^ Descriptions of
TURRITELLA COSTULATA.
Plate IV. Fig. 20.
T. testa albida ; transverse subtilissirne striatci ; anfractibus decern ; superiori- bus sub-plicatis ; duobus ultimis sub-Iaevibus, ultimo sub-carinato; apertur^ sub- ovata, anterius producta.
Shell whitish, translucent ; whorls nine or ten, nearly flat, or very slightly convex ; suture well impressed ; last two whorls nearly smooth ; the others longitudinally plicate, with microscopic transverse striae ; last whorl sub-carinate ; aper- ture rather less than one-fourth the length of the shell, snb- ovate, produced anteriorly.
Length ,7 inch ; breadth .23 inch ; divergence, 22°.
Habitat. Casco Bay ; taken from the stomach of a had- dock in the summer of 1841.
Remarks. Although only a single specimen has been ob- tained, its characteristics are so obvious that we have not hesitated to describe it. It has no analogue on our coast, to our knowledge ; it, however, resembles a very much enlarged T. interrupta, Totten. It is in the cabinet of J. W. Mighels.
TURRITELLA RETICULATA.
Plate IV. Fig. 19.
T. testcl turrito-subulata; anfractibus duodecim, convexis, longitudinaliter pli- catis, transversim striatis; sutura valde impressa ; apertura sub-orbiculari.
Shell turreted, very slender, of a dingy white or ash color ; whorls eleven to twelve, convex, distinctly, though somewhat irregularly plicate longitudinally, with from three to five del- icate, impressed, revolving striae on the five lower whorls ; from and above the fifth whorl the transverse striae gradually diminish in number, until they wholly disappear on the upper two or three whorls. The whole surface of the shell has a reticulated appearance. Suture well impressed ; aperture sub- orbicular ; labrum thin ; operculum horny.
Length ,7 inch ; breadth ,2 inch ; divergence 20^.
Cabinets of Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Dr. Gould, J. W. Mighels, and C. B. Adams.
Shells of New England. 51
t
Habitat. Bay Chaleiir, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence ; taken from the stomachs of cod fishes {Morrhua Americana , Storer,) by Mr. Foster, fisherman, in the summer of 1841, to whom we are indebted for specimens.
Remarks. This species is alUed to T. erosa, Couth., but is easily recognized by the longitudinal ribs, and by its more slender form.
PLEUROTOMA VIOLACEA.
Plate IV. Fig. 21.
P. testa atro-purpureii, longitudinaliter sub-plicata, transverse striata ; anfrac- tibus sex, ultimo supra carinato, plicis in medio evanescentibus, alteris medio carjnatis; spira acuta; apertura angustata ; cauda brevi.
Shell small, of a blackish purple color, ovate, with a pale brown epidermis, irregularly sub-plicate, with numerous faint revolving striae decussating by the incremental striae ; whorls six ; whorls of the spire carinate in the middle ; last whorl shouldered by a continuation of the same carina, with the plications terminating on its convexity ; spire acute, conic ; suture distinct ; aperture narrow, rather less than half the length of the shell ; labrum simple, sharp, regularly curved, with the sinus at the extremity ; canal short, wide.
Length ,3 inch; breadth ,15 inch; divergence 40'-'.
Cabinets of Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., G. B. Sowerby, J. W. Mighels, and C. B. Adams.
Habitat. Casco Bay ; found without the animal, at low- water mark, in the summer of 1840, and subsequently in the stomachs of haddock.
Remarks. This species is remotely allied to P. deciissata, Couth. ; our shell, however, is always longer, aperture narrower, and the sculpture less regular and distinct ; but it is especially characterized by having the spiral carina far below the suture.
FASCIOLARIA LIGATA.
PI. IV. Fig. 17.
F. testa elongata, fusiformi,cras8a, rubro-fusca, transversim costulata ; anfrac- tibus sex, convexis : spird acuminata ; sutura valde impressa ; aperturii ovato- elongata ; labro crenato : columella plicis duabus.
S/iell elongated, fusiform, rather thick, of a reddish-brown
52 Mighels^ and Adams^ Descriptions of
color, when fresh, covered with a thin and almost perfectly transparent epidermis ; whorls six, well rounded, and covered with six or seven equidistant, revolving, thread-like ribs, with grooves alternating ; suture well impressed ; spire regularly tapering, pointed ; aperture oblong-oval, polished ; within of a bright reddish-brown color ; canal rather narrow, nearly straight ; labrum rather thin, crenulated by the ribs and grooves ; cokmiella arcuated above the middle ; two distinct, oblique, delicate folds above the commencement of the canal.
Length ,7 inch ; breadth ,3 inch ; divergence 45^^.
Cahinets of Dr. Gould, J. G. Anthony, J. W. Mighels, and C. B. Adams.
Habitat. Mingan, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence ; taken from the stomachs of cod-fishes, by Mr. Foster, fisherman, in the summer of 1841.
Remarks. This remarkable and truly beautiful shell is not very nearly allied to any species with which we are acquainted, unless it be to that of F. fnsiformis, Valenc, from New Hol- land. That species, however, is much larger than our shell, is much less regularly and strongly ribbed, and has a tooth- like process on the labium, of which our shell is destitute. We suppose this to be the first and only species of the genus that has ever been found on our coast.
FUSUS CANCELLATUS. PI. IV. Fig. 18.
F. testa subulate, longitudinaliter plicata, transversa striata: anfractibus septem, convexis : suturA ralde impress^ : spira acuminata } apice acuti ; aper- tura sub-ovata } labro crenato.
Shell rather slender, turreted, with about twenty longitu- dinal ribs, running a little obliquely to the left, crossed by numerous transverse, revolving, raised lines, giving the shell a cancellated appearance ; whorls seven, convex ; suture well impressed ; spire gracefully tapering ; apex acute ; columella slightly arched at the upper part ; aperture rather narrow, sub-ovate ; canal short, straight, rather wider at the base ; labrum thin, delicately crenated by the transverse stria?.
Shells of New England. 53
Length i-3 inch ; breadth I inch : divergence 22°.
Cabinets of Dr. Gouldj and J. W. Mighels.
Habitat. Casco Bay ; taken from the stomachs of haddock in the summer of 1840. It must be regarded as very rare.
Remarks. This species is very nearly alhed to Murex pnrpureus, Mont., (Turton Conch. Diet. 95,) but is distinct in having a less number of volutions by three or four, by the direction of the ribs, which are " obliquely to the right," in M. purpureiis ; Montagu's shell is also described as " rugged," '' very rough," (fee, terms which will not apply to our shell ; it is also said to be '^purple," which color is regarded by the author as characteristic : our shell is variously colored, some specimens being tinged with purple, others are white.
The following species of Fossil Shells occur at Westbrook, in the vicinity of Portland, in company with Nucula Port- landica^ Hk., in the post-tertiary formation, described by Prof. Hitchcock in Vol. I. No. 3. of this Journal. Prof. H. found one or two specimens of the Bulla. Dr. Wood, of this city, was the first to discover the Nucula.
NUCULA ANTIQUA.
PJ. IV. Fig. 4.
N. testa parva, sub-trapeziformi, per-obliqua, transversa sulcatd : denlibus posticis sexdecim, anticis sex : margine simplici.
Shell white, small, somewhat trapeziform, very in-equilate- ral, covered with deep transverse sulci ; epidermis dark brown ; teeth, sixteen posterior and six anterior to the beaks ; beaks low, approximate ; anterior margin abrupt, posterior regularly rounded, basal margin slightly curved, simple.
Length -^^ inch ; height |i inch ; breadth -i inch.
Cabinets of Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., J. W. Mighels, and C. B. Adams.
Remarks. This species resembles N. proxima, Say., and N. tenuis, Turton, but differs from both in the number and
54 Hentz's Descriptions of the
arrangement of the teeth, in the deep transverse sulci, and in its length compared with its height and width. It is scarce.
BULLA OCCULTA.
t
PI. IV. Fig. 11.
B. test^ parva, ovato-cylindric^ : spircl occultti: labro suprk elevato, medio recto; apertura sub-angusta, infrti latci, rotundatd.
/S'/ieZ^ small, of a dingy white color, ovate-cylindrical, cover- ed with very minute transverse striae, and with indistinct longi- tudinal striae of growth ; spire concealed ; labrum extends a little below the spire, nearly straight above the centre^ regu- larly rounded below and at the base ; aperture narrow at the upper part, rather broad at the base.
Length i inch ; breadth -^^ inch.
Cabinets of Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Amherst and Middlebury Colleges, J. W. Mighels, and C. B. Adams.
Remarks. If not identical with, this shell is the analogue of, B. triticea, Couth. It however differs from that species in being proportionably wider. It is very scarce.
Art. VL— descriptions AND FIGURES OF THE ARANEIDES OF THE UNITED STATES. Br Nicholas Marcellus Hentz.
(Communicated July, 1841.)
The Publishing Committee think it proper to inform the readers of this Journal, that the following article is the first of a series on the Araneides of the United States, which has been offered for publication, by the author, to the Boston So- ciety of Natural History. These descriptions and figures will be followed hereafter by others, and the whole will form an illustrated monograph of all the Spiders observed by Professor Hentz in various parts of this country, and will supply a want
Araneides of the United States. 55
which has been long felt in this department of our Natural History.
Class. ARACHNIDES. Order. Pulmonaria. Family. Araneides. Section. Tetrapiieumones.
Genus. Mygale. Walckenaer.
Characters. Eyes eighty placed near together ^ on the ante- rior edge of the cephalothorax^ in two roios, variously curved ; fang of the cheliceres articulated doimnuard ; palpi inserted on the extremity of the niaxillce ; feet 4. 1. 2. 3. or 4. 1. 3. 2.
Observation. The distinction between Mygale and Ole- TERA is artificial, as a slight elongation of the maxillae of My- gale would place the palpi at the side ; witness Mygale ^ nnicolor.
1. MYGALE TRUNCATA.
Description. Piceous ; cephalothorax with a curved im- pression behind the middle, cheliceres (mandibulge) terminated by several points above the fang, hairy ; abdomen cylindrical, suddenly truncated at the end, and callous at that place, with concentric grooves and six circular impressions ; thighs more or less rufous at base ; a white membrane between the joints.
Feet 4. 1. 3. 2.
Observations. This spider dwells like other species of this subgenus in cylindrical cavities in the earth. Though many specimens were found, I never saw the lid described by au- thors as closing the aperture of its dwelling. The very sin- gular formation of its abdomen, which is as hard as leather behind, and which forms a perfect circle, induces me to believe that it closes, with that part, its dwelling, instead of with a lid, when in danger.
Habitat. Alabama.
Fig. 1. Mygale Iruncata. a. Arrangement of thn eyeg. b. Trophi. c. Side view of the ipider. d. Hole in which it resides, c. Respective length of the legs.
56 Hentz^s Description of the
2. MYGALE SOLSTITIALIS.
Description. Deep black ; cephalothorax with two inden- tations, cheliceres moderately large ; abdomen with several impressions above, and four yellow spots underneath ; mem- brane between the joints white ; third pair of legs with the third joint short and crooked ; feet hairy, 4. 1. 2. 3. A large species.
Observations. One specimen only (a male,) was found in July, wandering on the ground. The character, derived from the third pair of legs, does not seem to be a mere sexual dis- tinction, as Mygale Carolinensis^ the next species, has the same peculiarity, and the description was taken from a female.
Habitat. Alabama.
Fig. 2. Mygale solstitialis. a. The eyes. b. The Trophi. c. The abdo- men viewed underneath.
3. MYGALE CAROUNENSIS.
Description. Brownish, very glossy ; cephalothorax with two slight impressions near the base ; abdomen blackish, not glossy ; third joint of the third pair of legs very short and
crooked ; feet 4. 1. 3. 2.
Observations. This species was communicated to the au- thor by the late Mr. Levi Andrews, of Chapel Hill, North Carolina, a promising young naturalist, snatched by consump- tion from his numerous friends, and to the memory of whom this tribute is due. The character derived from the third pair of legs is not a sexual one, as this was a female, and the de- scription of Mygale solstitialis was taken from a male, which has the same character.
Habitat. North Carolina.
Fig. 3. Mygale Carolinensis. a. The Eyes.
4. MYGALE GRACILIS.
Description. Rufous; cephalothorax somewhat six-sided, long and narrow ; abdomen plumbeous, two nipples very long ; feet long, hairy, penultimate joint of the anterior pair with a notch ; feet 4. 1.2. 3.
Araneides of the United States. 57
Observations. This spider, hitherto always found in mid- winter, under stones or on the ground, is probably not the male of Mygale Carolinensis ; but the peculiarity of its first pair of legs, is, no doubt, a sexual character. The same joint of the feet of the male of my Dysdera bicolor, is not only bent, but has powerful prongs and bristles, which nature has given him as a defence, or as the means of grasping the female.
Habitat. Alabama.
Fig. 4. Mygale gracilis, a. The eyes. b. The right palpus, with the maxilla.
5. MYGALE ? UNICOLOR.
Description. Deep rufous ; cephalothorax depressed in the middle, with two impressions, cheliceres very large ; abdo- men smooth ; third pair of legs with short, very thick joints ; feet 4 1. 2. 3.
Observations. This species is very distinct from any oth- er, particularly by the manner in which its palpi are inserted. Were the maxillab' extended a little more at their extremity, this spider should be placed in the sub-genus Oletera, which follows. The specimen, from which this description was taken, (a female,) was turned up by the plough, in a field, in the month of May. The manner in which the spi- ders belonging to Mygale and Oletera live, hidden under groi:nd, and probably issuing out only at night, prevents our becc ming acquainted with their habits. I doubt whether the males ever dwell in tubular habitations. Much remains yet to be done to complete the history of this genus and that of the next.
Habitat. Alabama.
Fig. 5. Mygale ? unicolor. a. The eyes. h. The trophi.
8
58 Storer^s Descriptions
Art. VII.— descriptions OF TWO NEW SPECIES OF FISHES. By D. Humphreys Storer, M. D. (Read April 21st, 1841.)
A few weeks since, through the kind attention of Mr. Moses Williams, Jr. of Roxbury, a member of this Society, I received from Lake Winnipissiogee, a beautiful fresh speci- men of Lota, a description of which I beg leave to offer.
Lota Brosmiana. Plate V. Fig. 1.
The specimen, which was a female, was twentyseven inches in length ; the length of the head was five and a half inches. The body is very broad in front of the dorsal fin ; it becomes much compressed on the sides back of the first dorsal, and tapers to the caudal fin. Its general color is yel- lowish; the back, between the back of the head and the origin of the dorsal fin, exhibits a reddish tint : the top of the head and the opercula are fuliginous, the latter exhibiting golden reflections in their centre. The body beneath is I white. The whole body is perfectly smooth, covered by in- numerable cup-shaped depressions, like that of the Zoarchus anguillaris, and like that species is lubricated by a viscid secretion.
The depth of the body at the base of the pectorals, is three and a half inches ; its greatest depth is four and a half inches ; its depth at the vent is three and a half inches.
The greatest breadth of the head, across the opercula, is five inches. Its breadth across the eyes, is three and a quar- ter inches. The snout is blunt. The top of the head is flat. The distance between the eyes, is less than two inches. The eyes are circular, one half inch in diameter ; the nostrils are double — the posterior, half of an inch in front of the eyes ; the anterior, which is tubular, and furnished with a cirrus two lines in length, is less than lialf of an inch in front of this. The opercula are nearly two inches in length.
of two New Fishes. 59
The vertical gape of the mouth, is two inches in extent ; the jaws are equal ; the jaws, palatine bones, and pharynx are armed with numerous fine teeth, placed like those of a card. The tongue is large, smooth and white. Suspended from the chin is a cirrus one and a half inches in length.
The lateral line commences above the operculum, and very gradually curving downwards, does not reach the middle of the body, until beyond the middle of the dorsal fin.
The dorsal, pectoral, anal, and caudal fins are colored, as well as the sides of the fish, with bluish blotches, and are margined with black. The ventral fins are white beneath, and fulisinous above.
The first dorsal fin is situated eleven inches back of the snout ; it is two inches long, one inch high, the posterior por- tion barely higher than the anterior.
The second dorsal fin commences half an inch back of the preceding ; it is less than an inch high at its commence- ment, and is half an inch high at its posterior extremity. This fin is continued nearly to the base of the tail.
The pectoral fins are situated directly behind and beneath the posterior angle of the operculum ; they measure three and a half inches across, when extended, and are rounded at their posterior extremity ; they are an inch deep at their base.
The ventral fins are situated in front of the pectorals ; the rays are fleshy ; the first ray is an inch long, the second ray is continued an inch beyond this ; the remainder of the rays are shorter than the first ray.
The anal fin commences half an inch back of the vent, and terminates on a line with the second dorsal fin ; the rays are of equal height throughout. The vent is large.
The caudal fin is three and a half inches in length ; when expanded, it is three and a half inches high, and rounded at its extremity.
The weight of this specimen was five and a half pounds. B 7; D. 10—71; P. 16; V. 6; A. 68; C. 34.
In the oesophagus of this fish I found a blade of grass, and the stomach contained numerous bones of a fish, too far di- gested to be determined ; a large quantity of viscid mucus
60 Storer^s Descriptions
enveloped these bones. In the intestines were several pellets, apparently of soft mud.
I received a specimen of this species a year since, from a pond in Alexandria, N. H. It was not, however, in a proper state for description. There, as well as in Lake Winnipissi- ogee, it is known by the common name of Cusk. As it might readily be mistaken for that fish, by a cursory observer, I have based my specific name upon that genus.
I learn from Mr. Henry Bryant, of this Society, that the inhabitants around Lake Winnipissiogee affirm that this fish was originally taken from the sea and placed in that sheet of water. I should doubt the correctness of these remarks, from the circumstance, that this species having ever been consider- ed a Cusk, an inhabitant of the sea, and the sea only, they drew the inference that it must have been transferred ; not considering that the Lake had an outlet, and that its waters passed by a river of the same name into the Merrimack, and thence directly to the sea : the dams and various other ob- structions which have been thrown across the Merrimack within a few years, would undoubtedly, at the present time, as perfectly check their progress from the sea, as they are known to have impeded the advance of the salmon ; but at an earlier period, they did not exist — and for centuries, perhaps, this species may have dwelt in the Lake.
Two species only of Lota, the Ling and the Burbot, are found among the Fishes of Great Britain, The latter '^ lives permanently in fresh water, and prefers slow running rivers," but it is found in only a few of the rivers. I know of but two species besides that I have now described, which are found in this country. One of them, the maculosa, first observed by Le Sueur, in Lake Erie, is found, according to Richardson, " in every river and lake from Canada to the western extremity of the continent." Another, which he calls cojnpressa, Le Sueur received from Northampton, on the Connecticut river. A specimen of this latter species, from the Ashuelot river, a branch of the Connecticut, I presented to the Cabinet of this Society, several years since.
There are many points of resemblance between this fish
of two New Fishes. 61
and the species taken by Le Sueur in 1816, and described by him in the first vokime of the " Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences,"' under the name of Gadiis maculosiis in 1817, and in the " Memoires du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, t. y. p. 159," for 1819, and also there figured, under the name of Molva maculosa. It is very evident that that figure was drawn from a preserved specimen, which had lost its original proportions by the process of drying. The difference which exists between the Lota maculosa and the species I have now described, may at once be recognised, by examining the plates of each species contained in this number of our Journal. In the first number of the '' American Monthly Magazine and Critical Review," for 1818, Dr. Mitchill refers to a species which he calls Gadiis lacustris. In the course of his re- marks, he states that this "appears to him to be the same fish" that •' Le Sueur found in Lake Erie, and has figured," &c. He supposes a fish which is found in Sebago Pond, Maine, and called there the Sea-cusk, to be the identical species. Never having seen a Lota from the last locality, I am unable to decide what the fish referred to may be. Dr. MitchilPs Gadus lacustris is evidently the Gadus maculosus of Le Sueur, and he infers, without having ever seen the species, that the Lota from Maine, is the same fish.
Etheostoma Olmstedi. Plate Y. Fig. 2.
The beautiful little species here described, was found at Hartford, by Charles H. Olmsted, Esq. President of the Hart- ford Natural History Society. He is a very accurate observer, and is striving to advance the science which has been so long and so inexcusably neglected among us. I take great pleas- ure in associating his name with this species.
Length of the fish, which is of a cylindrical form, three inches. Color yellowish, marked upon the back and sides witli reddish brown blotches, which, when looked upon from either extremity of the fish, resemble interrupted longitudinal band-,
62 Storer^s Descriptions of two new Fishes.
through the largest of which passes the lateral line ; when the fish is examined from above, these markings present more or less distinct transverse bands upon the back, which are situated at the origin, the middle, and the termination of both the dorsal fins.
Length of the head five lines : flattened back of the eyes. Eyes less than a line in diameter.
Preoperculum golden ; the upper part of the operculum is scaly, and it terminates in a sharp spine. A narrow, deep black band runs from the tip of the upper jaw to the anterior inferior angle of the eye, and a second band passes upwards from the lower anterior angle of the preoperculum to the middle of the lower edge of the eye, and thence to the upper edge of the orbit, interrupted by the globe of the eye.
The teeth in the jaAvs are very minute.
The first dorsal fin commences one line back of the oper- cular spine ; it is almost colorless, half an inch long, three lines high, rounded posteriorly.
The second dorsal fin is seven lines long ; three lines high ; the extremities of the rays are bifurcated ; the rays being crossed by transverse reddish lines, present a very pretty ap- pearance.
The pectoral fin is light colored, and spotted like the dor- sals ; one line long, and five lines high.
The ventral fins are situated directly below the opercular spine ; they are one line long, five lines high, and are variega- ted like the second dorsal fin.
The anal fin, which is of the color of the abdomen, com- mences back of the second dorsal ; it is three lines long and two lines high.
The caudal fin is in color similar to the second dorsal ; it is two lines deep at its base, and is five lines long.
The fins are rayed as follows :
D. 9—13 ; P. 15 ; V. 6 ; A. 11 ; C. 15.
Teschemacher^s New Rafflesia. 63
Art. VIII.— on A NEW SPECIES OF RAFFLESIA, FROM MA- NILLA. By J. E. Teschemacher. (Read 16th June, 1841.)
Plate YL
Having just received from Manilla, preserved in spirit, sev- eral buds of that rare and singular parasite, Rafflesia, which, on examination appeared to difier essentially from the species hitherto described from Java and Sumatra, I beg to offer to the Society the following account, with a drawing.
The specimens were gathered in Basei, a district of the province of Leite, on the same spot visited by Mr Cuming, for the purpose of finding this plant, during his late excursion to the Philippine Islands. Not having seen any description of this plant by him, in the Scientific Journals, I am uncertain of the result of his visit ; and although I propose the specific name of Manilana for this species, I would readily yield it to any other he may wish it to retain.
The only accounts of Rafflesia. to which I have access are, that of R. Arnoldi, from Sumatra, in the 13th volume of the Transactions of the Linnean Society of London, and that given by Sir W. J. Hooker, in the Companion to the Botan- ical Magazine, of R. Patma detected by Dr Blume, in Noussa Kambangan, a small island on the coast of Java, and described and figured by him in the Flora Javce.
The column of one of ray specimens was sent by itself from Manilla, and of two others I have dissected buds ; the larger by a vertical cut, the section shown in the figure, the second, a smaller specimen, by the removal of the whole of the envelopes, exhibiting the naked column with its processes, edge, anthers, &c. The column from Manilla, being dissected when fresh, was considerably dried when placed in spirits. Its form and several parts are therefore not very distinctly retained, but the number of anthers and several other pai'ticulars are clear enough.
The largest bud of those I dissected is two and one-half inches in diameter, and arises from a cup three-fourths of an
64 ^ Tescheinachcr^ s New Rafflesia.
inch in deptli, the outer part of which is formed of the same substance as the external bark of the root on which it is par- asitic, and which is evidently of the same structure as that of the root of Cissus augustifolia on which the R. Arnoldi was found.
It is probable that the smaller size alone would sufficiently distinguish this from the last mentioned species, the buds of which are stated to be one foot in diameter ; because, although the respective age of these buds is not known, yet every part is so perfect in the buds I dissected, even to minute and glan- dular hairs, that it is not probable they would have been long in this state before opening.
There are apparently in this, five series of bracteae ; the mid- dle one, at its origin, about three-eighths of an inch in thick- ness, or three times the thickness of the two outer and the two inner series. These bracteae are imbricated over, and com- pletely envelop the perianth ; they are marked by prominent veins, precisely as in R. Arnoldi ; the tube of the perianth originates on a line with the central row of bracteae below the two interior rows, and although in the bud at its upper part, it is undivided, yet the lines of its divisions, when expanded, are clearly discernable. Tlie interior of these divisions of the perianth is marked by tubercles of various forms, as in the other species.
The column has a convex disc, surrounded by a raised edge ; on the surface of this column are eleven processes, rather more than one-eighth of an inch in height, differing from each other slightly in size and form, the summits of which are entire and hispid, the hairs much resembling pistil- lary projections. One of these processes is in the centre, the other ten arranged around it at about an equal distance be- tween it and the raised edge.
The anthers, which are of the same form, with pores and cells like those of the other species described, are ten in num- ber, and are also suspended from the under side of the upper edge of the column, in open cavities formed in the lower part or base of it ; both edges of the open part of these cavities are covered with hairs resembling those on the tips of the
Teschemacher^ s New Rafflesia. 65
processes on the disc, and that part of the tube of the perianth opposite to these openings is studded with thick, capillary hairs, each terminated by what is apparently a glandular knob.
Down the centre of the column are lines, evidently bundles of vascular tissue, which pass through the substance of the cup into the root of the cissus ; all the rest of the interior is cellular.
I could not perceive any very distinct appearance, in the bud, of an annular process at the mouth of the tube of the perianth, although it is not improbable, from various marks, that such a ring may be developed when the flower is open.
Ther(3 is no appearance, in any of these three specimens, of the cavities exhibited in the figure of R. Patma, which contain the spores ; on this part of the structure of Rafflesia, therefore, these specimens from Manilla do not throw any far- ther light. They are probably male flowers. Of R. Hors- fieldii, which, when expanded, is only three inches diameter, I have not seen any description.
I close this paper with the following comparisons of the two species described, and of that which I call, at present, R. Manillana.
R. Arnoldi. Bud, before expansion, one foot diameter, sessile on root of Cissus angustifoUa^ the under side of its base reticulate ; disc of column convex, processes on surface forty to sixty, close together, divided at the summits, which are hispid ; anthers forty to sixty, with numerous celts, and furnished with pores at summits ; a moniliform cord at base of column ; interior of perianth covered with variously formed tubercles.
R. Patma. When expanded, two feet diameter, arising directly from the root of the Cissus ; disc of column concave, processes on surface of disc numerous, of a pyramidal form, the summits of which are entire and hispid ; lower part of tube of perianth and column glab- rous, interior of perianth covered with variously formed tubercles ; anthers with cells and pores ; number not mentioned ; no moniliform cord at base of column ; antheriferous flower containing cavities filled with spores, hence hermaphrodite.
R. Manillana. Bud, before expansion, two and one half inches diameter, arising from a cup three-fourths of an inch high, formed by the thickened bark of the root of the Cissus ; the bracteoe origi-
9
66 Couthouy on Coral Formations
nating from the inner side of the upper edge of the cup ; no appear- ance of reticulation under the base ; disc of column convex, processes on surface eleven, one of which is in the centre, the rest arranged around it, their summits entire and hispid ; lower part of tube of per- ianth studded with thick glandular hairs ; anthers ten, with cells and pores, as in the other species ; no moniliform cord at base of column ; sporiferous cavities not apparent, flowers examined probably male ; interior of perianth covered with various formed tubercles.
Art. IX.— remarks UPON CORAL FORMATIONS IN THE PACIFIC; WITH SUGGESTIONS AS TO THE CAUSES OF THEIR ABSENCE IN THE SAME PARALLELS OF LATI- TUDE ON THE COAST OF SOUTH AJNIERICA. By Joseph i*. CouTHour. (Read December 15, 1841.)
Among the various geological phenomena which at once bear record of the past changes in the structure, conditions and climate of our planet, and indicate the alterations at this moment slowly and silently, but effectually going forward ; few have given rise to more speculation, than the countless coral isles and reefs, which stud the equatorial seas, especially in the Pacific and Indian Oceans.
It is my intention, in this communication to, throw together a few observations upon this class of rocks, and such correl- ative topics as may present themselves as I proceed. With regard to the latter, no fixed system or order of introduction will be pursued, but they will be taken up at random, as suggested by the main subject.
The vastness of the region over which these singular for- mations are scattered ; the evidence they afford, by analogy, of the existence, in former epochs, of a more uniformly warm temperature of the earth than has pi evailed since its present or- ganization — in the fact that such rocks now form only in the more heated parts of the ocean, while their fossil types and analogues extend even into the arctic regions — the great den- sity of the beds of coral, exhibited in some of the uplifted islands - — the light thrown by an examination of them, on the
in the Pacific y S^c. 67
origin of the wide tracts of chalk and limestone found in vari- ous parts of the globe — the apparent insigniiicance and in- sufficiency of the tiny architects that construct these siiigular edifices when compared with the stupendous results of their labor — all these are points which have long directed to them the researches of the geologist, and given rise to a variety of theories upon the mode in which such innumerable masses of coral have risen from the bottom of -'the vasty deep."
The inaccurate statements of early voyagers, relative to the rapidity with which coral rose to the surface, seemed to be in a measure corroborated by the accounts brought home by almost every vessel trading to these regions, of new reefs springing up as by magic, in the most frequented tracks.
Many were in consequence, induced to regard the coral seas as 3ontaining the rudiments of a new continent, which, silently but rapidly, rearing itself above the waste of waters, xVar. destined, at no very remote period, geologically speaking, to equal in magnitude either of those now existing.
Later, and more systematic examination, however, has shown that such an inference was deduced from very erroneous promises. By observations upon the depths of channels in well known harbors, and the level of reefs in their vicinity ; by the fact that not the slightest increase of the coral is per- ceptible on or around anchors and guns cast upon a reef from a stranded vessel, and known to have remained undisturbed for more than half a century — and by similar means of arriving at an approximation to the truth ; it is now ascertained that the growth of coral is exceedingly slow.* The lapse of many
* I am inclined to believe that llie increment of the branchino; corals, or at leas', of certain species, is much more rapid than that of the sessile or encrusting genera; having observed such shells as Pecten, Lima, Plicatulu nnd Pedum, of. an inch and a half in length, completely overgrown by the Polyparia, while thei • colors and internal polish were scarcely impaired. These were not lodged as ve frequently see Arcae and Mytili, in accidental cavities, but for the most part imbedded at the divergence of the branches. There are specimens exem- plifvino' this, now in my possession, and also in the Society's collection, in which the branches are enlarged, and sometimis deflected by their envelopment of thefce foreign bodies. The rate of increase in such cases, might be approximately ascertained, by experiments upon the time requisite for shells of this kind to attain a size equal to the imbedded specimens, which it is very likely were lodf^ed upon the corals soon after their expulsion from the parent shell.
68 Couthouy on Coral Formations
centuries would be requisite for the construction of a solitary reef, and myriads of ages must pass before the lateral growth of the thousands of scattered islets and shoals could extend itself so widely as to unite them all in one continuous body.
That so many new islands in those seas, were and are still discovered by almost every navigator, need not excite our sur- prise if we consider their small extent, in general rendering them mere specks in the ocean, which, together with their slight elevation, prevents their being visible more than a few miles under the most favorable circumstances. By day they are often concealed by a veil of mist and cloud, and I have myself passed within three miles of one, whose existence, owing to this cause, would never have been suspected had we not previously been well assured of it. During the night es- pecially, in consequence of their being surrounded by deep, blue water, vessels may, and do, frequently pass within a very small distance of such perilous spots without receiving the slightest warning of such proximity.
On this subject the facts stated by intelligent, though un- scientific observers, are entitled to our respect and considera- tion, whatever may be our opinion of the inferences they draw from them.
The Rev. John Williams,* late missionary from England to the South Seas, had bestowed much attention upon the sub- ject of coral formations, among which he spent about sixteen years of his valuable life. In his " Narrative of Missionary Enterprise in the South Seas," p. 49, (1st Am. Ed.) he ob- serves, "the rapidity of the coral growth has been egregi- ously over-rated and over-stated." " You seldom find a piece of branching madrepore, of brain, or of any other coral, how- ever deep in the water, above two or three feet in height."
And again on p. 50, alluding to the formation of new islands, he remarks, " I have traditions of the natives on al- most every subject, especially of their former navigators, where- in every island which has subsequently been discovered within
* Mr W. was barbarously murdered in November, 1839, by the cannibals at Errumanga, one of the New Hebrides, while endeavoring to open a communi- cation with them, for the object of introducing some native teachers from Samoa.
in the Pacijic, c^c. 69
a thousand miles, is named ; but in no one of them is there any mention of, or reference to, a newly formed island. I am familiar with one tradition in which there is a genealogi- cal account of the reigning family for thirty generations, which is equally silent ujxju the subject of new formations."
In conversation with Mr W. at Upoln, one of the Samoan or Navigator Group, but a few days prior to his death, he stated that on the reef bordering that island, there were par- ticular clumps of coral, known to the fishermen by names de- rived from either some particular configuration, or tradition attached to them, and handed down from generation to gene- ration from time immemorial. By careful inquiry among the natives, he had satisfied himself that these had undergone no perceptible alteration since the earliest mention of them. The testimony of the missionaries, and other foreigners, at the Tahitian and Hawaiian Islands, some of whom had resided during nearly forty years within sight of the reefs, confirmed, as far as it went, the remarks of Mr Williams. Did the limits of this communication permit, many other facts might be adduced, corroborative of the evidence given by these persons of the extremely slow increase of the living corals ; but the point is perhaps now too generally conceded, to render farther details necessary in an article like the present. In connection with this subject of growth, a few remarks, however, upon some of the theories respecting recent coral formations, which have found supporters among men of science, may not be misplaced.
It was at one time a very generally received opinion, founded chiefly upon the circumstance that a fathomless ocean laved the very margin of the reefs ; that the coral animals com- menced their labors at an illimitable depth, and, governed by a certain instinct or impulse, toiled upward to the light, giving to their sub-marine structures the peculiar form they exhibit, through the same instinct teaching them that it was the best adapled to afford shelter from the violence of wave and tem- pest.
Thus, the windward portion of the reef was supposed to be that first elevated, presenting a perpendicular face to the
70 Couthouy on Coral Formations
breakers, and shelving away on the opposite side. Protected by this wall, it was thought the polypes next constructed their edifices at some distance to leeward, which at first rose in a series of detached masses arranged in a somewhat circular form. But gradually the intermediate spaces were filled up and a con- tinuous chain was thus formed, enclosing a deep, bowl-shaped lagoon, which, in process of time was also filled up by the stony dwellings of the polypes.
Fragments of coral, heaped up by wind and sea, and cement- ed together, formed a ridge of two or three feet elevation above the level of the surrounding ocean. Multitudes of marine birds frequenting the rock to deposit their eggs — the exuvia of crabs and shell-fish on which they fed, the sedi- ments left in hollows by the heavy and frequent rains ; grad- ually prepared a light soil for the reception of the iev^ seeds wafted thither by favoring currents, or brought by stray land birds — these sprang up, and by their subsequent decay added continually to the depth of soil, — a single cocoa-nut perhaps, cast upon the beach, germinated, and arriving at maturity, its seeds in a few years were scattered over the island, which was then fitted for the abode of man.
That this is the manner in which the once sterile and weather-beaten ledge of rocks has been here gradually cover- ed with the most luxuriant vegetation, there can be no ques- tion.* Perhaps no more striking proof of it can be adduced,
* An instance of the rapidity with which even the largest plants multiply and spread themselves over the soil in these regions, is afforded in Christmas Island, an extensive lagoon island, situated between about 1° 40' and 2° 10' North lat. and 157° 10' and 157° uO' West long. By the statement of Capt. Cook, who discovered it in 1777, ''on the cocoa-nut trees upon the island, (the number of which did not exceed thirty,) very little fruit was found ; and in general, what was found was either not fully grown, or had the juice salt or brackish ; so that a ship touching there must expect nothing but birds, fish and turtle, and of these an abundant supply may be depended upon."
In 1837, the English whale ship Baton was wrecked on this reef, and her Captain, George Benson, with his crew of twentythree persons, remained up- wards of seven months on the island, from which they were finally taken by an American whaler. According to Capt. Benson, there were several large groves of cocoa-nut trees, one of them containing between six and seven hun- dred, and the whole number exceeded two thousand, bearing excellent fruit, although many trees had been cut down by the whalers occasionally touching
in the Pacific, 6^c. " 7
than the fact that the small number of species of plants found on these islands previous to the visits of man, are all those whose seeds would bear this mode of transportation, without injury to the germinating principle, and belong to an almost equal number of orders, and sometimes of classes, whose primeval soils were widely remote from each other.
But there is nothing whatever in the appearance of the reefs, confirmatory of the supposition that the windward por- tion was constructed anteriorly to the opposite one. They have both precisely the same level, present similar inequalities of surface, and an equally perpendicular wall facing the sea. 'The only material difference is, that the elevated fragmentary beach is in general, as might be expected, first formed and highest on the windward side.
But even this is not invariably the case. At Minerva or Clermont Tonnerre Island, which is situated on the southeast- ern skirts of the Dangerous Archipelago, in about 18^ 26' South lat. and 136° 30' West long., and whose greatest extent is from E. S. E. to W. N. W., or nearly in the direction of the S. E. trade wind ; the northern shore is the more elevated one. The southern or windward side of the lagoon is here bounded by a low, naked line of reef rock, and several small, detached islets. At Ocean Island, in lat. 28° 22' North, long. 178° 30' West, near the limits of the N. E. trade wind in the Pacific, the highest points, and the only ones in fact above water, are a ridge some three miles long and no where above ten feet high, at the S. E. extremity of the reef: and two knolls about a mile and a quarter in circuit, on the South skirt of the laa:oon. The reef extends from the S. E. ridse, about eieht and a half miles to the N. W. in form of an oval, whose shorter diameter is six miles from N. E. to S. W.
On no part of this extensive reef, is there any thing to show that one portion of it is of higher antiquity than the rest, and it is on all sides washed by an unfathomable ocean. It can- not surprise us that while so little was known of the habits
there for supplies. Tlie turtles, however, appear to liave been rlriven away by ihe intruders, as he caught but about twenty, of small size, during his long slay ; whereas Capt. Cook procured thnc hundred during his brief visit.
73 Couthouy on Coital Formations
of the saxigenous polypes, reefs of this nature were supposed to be raised by tliem from a depth Uke that found outside. But later and more careful investigations of their habits, have undeniably proved the incorrectness of this opinion. By the concurrent testimony of all recent observers, it is now shown, that instead of inhabiting such profound depths, the reef- building polypes require for their development and support, a certain degree of light and heat, not penetrating lower than one hundred and twenty, or at the utmost, one hundred and thirty feet in any part of the ocean. Some indeed have as- serted less than half that depth to be the limit of growth, but this can only be true of particular tracts, as I shall have oc- casion to show in another place.
Another theory, and one obtaining the sanction of some distinguished names among the geologists of Europe, was suggested by the circumstance of nearly all the coral islands having a lagoon of variable depth in their centre. From this peculiarity it was conjectured that the reefs rested upon the summit of extinct sub -marine volcanoes, whose craters were represented by the lagoon.
It cannot be denied that this hypothesis presents many plausible features, but still there are some knotty and stubborn facts for which it fails satisfactorily to account. It is true, that a knowledge of such enormous craters as those on the summit of Mauna Loa in Hawaii, and Haleakala in Maui,* which are estimated at twentyfour and twenty seven miles in circuit, might in a measure quiet the doubts of those to whom the great extent of some of these lagoons, appeared the chief obstacle in the way of assuming their crateric basis. Yet although it may be possible that some of the lagoon islands
* Hawaii and iMaul are the two principal islands of the Hawaiian Group. The great f rater on Mauna Loa, here epoken of, is on the very summit of the moun- tain, which is little less than fourteen thousand feet high. Jt must not be con- founded with that of Ka lua Pele, (.r Kilauea. spoken of by Lord Byron, Ellis, t^lewart, and others. This latter is on the S. E. flank of the mountain, about four thousand feet above sea level, and is at present in full activity. No signs of action, other than a faint smoke, have been perceived in the terminal crater for about fifteen years. The great crater of Haleakala, or " The House of the Sun," also a terminal one, at an elevation of nearly eleven thousand feet, has been extinct from a period beyond that reached by the traditious of the islanders.
in the Pacific, (^c. 73
having a circuit of twenty, forty, or even eighty miles, are thus based ; it is rather startling to assert that such a multitude of submarine craters, and of such varied and anomalous con- figuration, were grouped together in so small a space as the coral archipelago of Polynesia ; not to mention the still great- er number that, if this theory is correct, must have existed in other parts of the Pacific, and in the Indian Ocean, where similar formations prevail to a great extent. There is, I be- lieve, nothing analogous to this hypothetical huddling togeth- er of craters in any of the present volcanic regions of the globe. It is true, that the Galapagos have been estimated to contain from fifteen to eighteen hundred craters, of various magnitude, but nine-tenths perhaps of these, are rather to be regarded as funnels, or chimnies, composed of scoria, or gravel and ashes, which are constantly crumbling in and becoming obliterated merely through the action of the weather ; and could not have been formed under water at all. It is indeed very probable that at some remote period of the past, the agency of internal fires may have been much more powerfully manifested than at a later day, and the vents therefore much more numerous then than since the earth received its present form. But admitting that submarine volcanoes once existed in the number and limited space required by this theory ; there are still one or two points that would seem to be fatal to it, though they appear to have been overlooked by its advocates.
From the peculiar adaptation of structure in every other class of animated beings to certain habits and conditions, analogy would certainly lead us to the conclusion, that the organization of creatures flourishing so luxuriantly near the surface, could hardly be capable of supporting the great pres- sure resulting from ^such a column of water as would rest upon them at profound depths. But besides this objection, there was the improbability that beings so frail could exist equally well, amid temjjeratures so widely ditferent as those of the surface of the ocean and its bed or any considerable depth. In the parallel of 16° South, where the surface tem- perature was 82° Fahr., that of six hundred feet below it
10
74 Couthouy on Coral Formations
was shown by a registering thermometer to be but 56°, and at nine hundred feet but 48°. This experiment was made by myself, in the open ocean. At the same depths upon soundings, the difference would, I doubt not, have been still greater, but not having actually ascertained this by experi- ment, I cannot speak positively on this point.
According to the statements of those zealous naturalists, MM. Quoy and Gaimarcl, the result of their observations during the first voyage of the Astrolabe, was, that the growth of the more solid corals was limited to a depth of five or six fathoms.* In fixing this limit, however, 1 think they have not suffi- ciently taken into consideration the variations of temperature at small depths, produced by accidental causes, and that in the tropics, where the sea is warmed to a considerable depth by the presence of large bodies of land, these corals may flourish considerably lower.
In approaching the island of Tutuila, one of the Samoan group, I remember suddenly coming from deep water upon a shelf, upon which there were but thirteen fathoms. This ledge, distant about two and a half miles from the coast, which was very steep, was profusely covered with coral. The surface temperature was here 81°, and that of the bottom 76°,
* The work of Q,, and G. not being accessible here, I trust of necessity to memory, in quoting the depth assigned hy them, as the lowest limit for the growth of the coral in any considerable quantity.
It is well perhaps to notice here, that wherever, in this communication, cer- tain depths and temperatures are spoken of, as essential to the growth of the polypes, I refer only to the reef-constructing genera, and more particularly to those whose Polyparia form hemispheral masses, broad, lamellar incrustations, or solid palmate clusters. Some of the arborescent corals have been found in extra-tropical seas, in very low temperatures, and depths far exceeding those here assigned as the limits of the saxigenous polypes. There is now, or should be, in the collection at Washington, a small species of Madrepora, dredored on the coast of Patagonia, from a depth of eighty fathoms; and Dr. Gould has lately received specimens of another from our coast, in the vicinity of Portland, M;iine. I have also picked up specimens on the New Jersey shore. But these have all a shrunken, dull, and if I may so call it, starved appearance, and are of insignificant size. Such species may, and I doubt not do, exist at depths of corresponding temperature, in the tropics, but they bear the same aflRnity to those constituting the coral reefs, that our humble bracken does to the magnificent and stately palm-tree-like Ferns of Polynesia.
in the Pacific, S^c. 75
Fahr. Throughout the coral archipelago to the eastward of Tahiti, the surface temperature ranges from 78 to 81°. The same may be said of that in the neighborhood of the detached islets, between Tahiti and Samoa to the west. Throughout this region, I observed all kinds of coral flourishing in perfec- tion on the outer plateau of the reefs, at a depth of seven, eight, and in some cases, as that just cited, twelve or thirteen fathoms.
In our own hemisphere, in the vicinity of Eleuthera and Abaco, and also of the Stirrup Keys on the N. E. edge of the great Bahama Bank ; I have dredged up considerable masses of Meandrina from a depth of sixteen fathoms, and in sailing over Salt Key Bank, have seen them, on a calm day, in twenty fathoms. This is probably attributable to the increased tem- perature caused by the proximity of the Gulf Stream which has here a heat of 85° Fahr. The most compact and vigor- ous growth, may, I think, however, be considered as prevail- ing, in general, at a depth of from three to eight fathoms.
To assume, therefore, that the lagoon islands are based upon extinct submarine volcanoes, we must also suppose that these all had their summits raised to nearly an uniform level, and that, the one best adapted to the habits and development of the coral animal, an arrangement scarcely within the bounds of probability. It is difficult to believe that some two hun- drea or more craters, if they ever existed in so narrow a space as that occupied by some groups containing that number of lagcon islands, nowhere presented more than one hundred or one hundred and twenty feet difierence of level.
But granting that all these requisites for the establishment of this theory existed ; it ofiers no explanation of the circum- stance that some of the reefs have, as ascertained by sound- ing, a thickness of several hundred feet, and of their fossil representatives in the chalk and marine limestone being found in sTata of still greater density. Neither does it in any way account for the existence of extensive shore reefs like those of Samoa, Hawaii and Tahiti ; or of encircling reefs with la- goo IS between them and the shore, as at Vanikoro and several of the New Hebrides and Friendly Islands ;^ or for the im-
76 Couthouy on Coral Formations
mense barrier reefs of New Caledonia and Australia, the latter of which, at a distance of thirty or forty miles from the coast, extends in an unbroken chain nearly one thousand miles from north to south. It affords at best, but a very questionable explanation, of a single variety of structure in these wonder- ful edifices, than which nothing more forcibly illustrates the immense results that may ensue from the operation of appa- rently trifling causes, when continued unremittingly through- out a long series of ages.
It is my belief that, to a certain extent, the corals are limited in their range of growth by temperature rather than depth, and that wherever this is not below 76^ Fahr. there, ccBteris paribus, they will be found to flourish as in the Polynesian seas ; accordingly we find that their principal for- mations are placed within the tropics, and though I have no means of ascertaining at this moment the fact, I apprehend that in the Indian Ocean, as in the Pacific, the saxigenous polypes will be found most abundant and at their greatest depths, in a belt comprising about twenty degrees on each side of the equator.
But even allowing that they invariably commenced their structures at the extreme depth of twenty fathoms, it is obvi- ous that no reef would attain a thickness of much more than a hundred feet, before the labors of the polypes must cease and themselves perish, in consequence of their exposure to the sun's rays. The question then naturally arises, how are we to account for the existence of coral banks, so greatly exceed- ing this thickness as some are known to do ; if it is thus dis- proved that their polypes build at corresponding depths?
Mr. Charles Darwin, who accompanied King and Fitzroy, as Naturalist, in their late survey of the southern extremity of our continent, was led by his examination of a lagoon island, (the only one I believe on which he landed,) and a compari- son of the observations of his predecessors on this subject, to frame an hypothesis, which appears to offer us a solution of this problem, at once satisfactory, simple and rational.
According to the statements lately given by Prof. Lyell, in his lectures before the Lowell Institute, Mr. D supposes the
in the Pacific, ^c. 77
great thickness of the reefs, to have been formed by a gradual and long continued subsidence of the original shelf of coral, while the surface was maintained at the same level as at first, by the unceasing additions made by the polypes. Carrying out this principle, he attributes the peculiar conformation of lagoon islands to the operation of similar causes. That is to say, he considers that the site of those islands of such a char- acter, now sprinkled over the whole vast coralliferous belt of ocean, was once occupied by islands of various elevation, sur- rounded as many of the same class now are, by a fringing or shore reef ; that as these have slowly sunk, the reef has grad- ually receded from the shore, and on their total disappearance left the lagoon only to mark the place of their existence. Thus the coral islands instead of being looked upon as the germs of a new continent, should be contemplated as the wrecks, or rather as beacons, pointing out where lie the wrecks of one, long since
"In the deep bosom of the ocean buried.''
Having personally examined a large number of these islands, and also resided eight months among the volcanic class having shore and partially encircling reefs, I may be per- mitted to state that my own observations have impressed a conviction of the correctness of the theory here advanced by Mr. Darwin. Indeed without being aware at the time that such views were entertained by any one else, but failing to discover in any author a satisfactory elucidation of the apparent anomalies they exhibited, I was led, more than two years ago, by a comparison of the features presented by the reefs of Tahiti with those of the Dangerous Archipelago and Paumotu Group, (of which I had just enjoyed an opportunity of examining a very considerable number,) to similar conclu- sions as to their origin, with those recently published by that gentleman ; though not to entertain his opinions respecting limited and definite areas of subsidence and elevation.
My observations in MS. on this subject are now in the pos- session of the Navy Department at Washington ; but not being permitted to have access to them, I am compelled, in
78 Couthouy on Coral Formations
all the statements made in this communication, to rely upon memory alone. I shall in another place, briefly give my rea- sons for believing that the whole of Polynesia is at present slowly rising, and proceed, here, with a few remarks suggest- ing themselves at the moment, relative to its former subsi- dence.
It is not denied that some portions of this region may ex- hibit certain peculiarities of structure, which, in the present state of our information we may find some difficulty in recon- ciling with this theory.
But I feel persuaded, that as this is enlarged, as a greater number of facts bearing on the question are brought together, and we are enabled to fix with more certainty than can now be done, the causes of such variations from a general charac- ter, these will nearly if not quite all be found consistent with the admission of a principle, which holds out a rational ex- planation of phenomena, inexplicable upon any previous hy- pothesis.
The immensity of the tract, throughout which it is assumed this subsidence or submergence of land has prevailed, will appear less astonishing, when we reflect that nearly the whole of that now elevated above the level of the ocean bears upon its surface incontestable evidence of having been slowly up- lifted from its depths, and that in some regions, as on the Baltic coast, the process is still going on under our own obser- vation. On the loftiest heights to which man has ascended, as in the lowest vallies, the presence of beds of marine shells and other fossils, attest that there once were the " foundations of the great deep." Even in New Holland, whose animal and vegetable productions difler so singularly from those of all the world beside, as to leave conjecture itself at fault, in attempt- ing to account for the fact ; and which a learned German author, once gravely endeavored to show was the nucleus of some comet that had come in collision with our planet — even there, beds of marine limestone, and marine fossils of the same genera, and evidently belonging to the same era as those found in some of the Silurian rocks of Great Britain, have lately been found in large numbers far inland and on the
in the Pacific, 6^c. 79
highest mountains. On the lower grounds of the coast, in the vicinity of Newcastle, New South Wales, there are strata of clay from sixty to one hundred feet thick, abounding in ma- rine shells, many of them analogous to, and some of them identical with, species at this moment living in the adjacent seas.
It is not unreasonable to conjecture, that when the existing lands constituted the bed of an ocean, teeming, as evinced by their fossil remains, even in regions now condemned to the regions of perpetual winter, with forms of animal life peculiar to our tropical seas ; then the balance of land and water was preserved by the existence of a broad equatorial continent, or it may have been a number of large islands, whose structure was chiefly, if not entirely volcanic. We can then conceive, how by one of those stupendous oscillations, which an exam- ination of its various strata, shows the earth's crust to have experienced at different epochs ; as the Alps, the Andes, and the Himalayas uprose from the abyss, and age after age con- tinued to raise their aspiring summits to the skies ; the pre- existing lands gradually sank and finally disappeared ; even the elder mountain ranges, hiding " their diminished heads" beneath the waters ; a few only of the loftiest remaining, like scattered monuments, in those ancient
" Titan peaks that overtop the wave's, Beaconing a sunken world." *
• It is a curious coincidence, if nothing more, and even to those who are not in the habit of attaching much importance to the signification of names, may seem worthy of this passing notice, that the appellation of " Paumotu," bestow- ed by the natives upon the extensive group of lagoon islands to the eastward of Tahiti, is compounded of " Fan,' lost or passed away, and " Motu," an island. They have also an ancient tradition that all this region was once high land ; but the gods being angered by the inhabitants, caused the sea to rise up and overflow it, when all perished but one chief and iiis family, who were saved by escaping to the top of Raiatea, an island a few leagues to the northwest of Ta- hiti. From these, when the waters partially subsided, the i.«ilands were re- peopled. Similar traditions are extant in Samoa and Hawaii. In one of these the story is precisely that of Deucalion and Pyrrha, excepting that the rescued pair raised up a new race by scattering cocoa-nuts instead of stones behind them. I mention this only as one more instance, in addition to those already well known, of the widely spread if not universal belief, in the occurrence of a del- uge by which nearly the whole of inankind were once destroyed.
80 Couthouy on Coral Formations
Such we may consider the Tahiiian, Samoan and other groups of elevated volcanic islands in Southern Polynesia, in- terspersed among which are occasionally found lagoon islands also. The rocks of the former class, from New Zealand to Tahiti, (and I might include most of the Hawaiian islands, two thousand four hundred miles farther north,) are so near- ly alike in all respects, that on seeing a series of specimens from each group placed together, any mineralogist ignorant of the fact would in all probability decide that the whole were collected within a short distance of each other. Indeed, it was necessary in packing specimens collected by myself of the deeper seated rocks of South New Zealand, Tahiti and Kauai, for me to use great precaution in keeping them sepa- rate : as if once mingled it would have been impossible from any difference of character to identify their several localities again.* May we not be justified then, in assuming this com- mon character to be some proof of a common age as well as origin for those islands, and an indication at least, that though now so widely separated, there was a period when they were connected together in a grand whole ?
It may perhaps be asked, if this theory of subsidence be well founded ; why is it that the original shore reef does not, instead of forming a lagoon, present aflat surface, on the total submergence of the land, extending over the whole area once occupied by this latter ? But this could not possibly occur unless the submerged island had been of very small extent, and rose almost perpendicularly from the sea. In all the shore reefs that I have seen, there is a narrow interval of shallow water between them and the shore, which the wash of the beach renders too impure and turbid for the growth of the coral in any quantity. This space would be continually widening during the subsidence, (even were the lateral in- crease of the coral equal to that upwards, which is doubtful,) by reason of the recession of the mountain side from the reef being greater than its perpendicular descent. Thus if we
* These specimens are now deposited in the new Patent Office at Washington, and, as I learn, are open to public inspection ; so that any one maj there easily convince himself of the truth of these remarks.
in the Pacific, ^c. 81
suppose the face of the mountain to have presented an angle with the horizon of say SO*^, it is evident that for every foot of subsidence there would have happened three feet of recession from the reef's original Hmit. By the time it had sunk two thousand feet, allowing as above, the lateral and upward growth of the reef to be equal in rate, and that rate sufficient to maintain it at its primary level, a channel would thus be formed four thousand feet in width, between reef and shore. The steeper the mountain, the narrower would be the lagoon formed by the same amount of subsi- dence ; and the reverse.
Now this difference is precisely that which is really exhib- ited by the encircling and barrier reefs, according to the na- ture of their coasts. In the abrupt and lofty volcanic islands of Polynesia, the lagoons seldom exceed three fourths of a mile or a mile in breadth, while on the gently ascending coast of New Holland, the reef is in some places fifty miles from shore.
I shall notice at present but one more feature in these lagoons, which is their small depth, in comparison with what the assumed subsidence would at the first glance lead us to expect. But the wash from the beach, which in every in- stance under my observation, spite of the protection aiforded by an outlying reef, was very considerable ; and the detritrus of the reef itself, together with the alluvium deposited by streams, would be sufficient to raise the bed of the lagoon very materially. If in addition to this we suppose, what may well have been the case, that there were intervals of time during which the land was stationary, while these causes con- tinued in full operation, or that any considerable time has elapsed since a cessation of the subsidence, there is no longer any difficulty in accounting for this comparative shallowness of the lagoons.
As the general character and aspect of the low coral islands is not very clearly understood by some of our number, I may be pardoned for venturing to occupy a few moments in a hasty sketch of their structure. This seems the more called for, because in the recent course of Lectures delivered for the
11
82 Couthouy on Coral Formations.
Lowell Institute, in this city, by that eminent Geologist, Prof. Charles Lyell, a part of his language, while describing these Paiimotus or Attols, was calculated to mislead many of his au- dience as to their general configuration. He invariably spoke of them as ''circular," "annular," or ''ring-shaped," and they were so represented in the drawings illustrative of his re- marks. Indeed, the question has since been more than once put to me, how was this uniformity of outline to be accounted for, unless the reefs really were based on submarine craters ?
But so far from this particular shape being the constant or even most frequent one, it is of comparatively rare occurrence, at least in the Polynesian seas. The most ordinary form is that of a short bow, crescent, or horseshoe ; the convex side facing different points of the compass in different islands. In those of the Dangerous Archipelago, a very common figure is a long, narrow, sinuous ellipsis. This, indeed, is the config- uration one might expect a group of these Paumotus to assume, following that of the pre-exi stent ridges whose site they occupy.
Unassisted by plans or sections, it is not easy for the mind to follow out the appearances that would be presented by a mountainous tract surrounded by a shore reef, during its transition to the lagoon formation. Nevertheless some notion of this may be formed, if we imagine to ourselves an island like Tahiti or Eimeo, or some of those in Samoa, consisting of a number of central conical peaks, (some of them crater- iferous,) from which diverge in all directions, sharp ridges having upon them, here and there, hills sometimes several hundred feet high — these ridges intersected by profound ravines, whose walls frequently present a precipice of fifteen hundred or two thousand feet elevation — and the ravines sometimes barred by a transverse ridge, perhaps a portion of the mountain, which has fallen down, so as to give the space between the barrier and the head of the chasm the ap- pearance of a long, narrow, and deep pit or trench.
The stupendous ravines which separate the lateral ridges of the central chains, form such a remarkable feature in all the volcanic islands of Polynesia, that they seem to me entitled
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84 Couthouy on Coral Formations
to something more than a mere passing notice of their exist- ence. They may be divided into three classes. The most common and extensive is that descending from the base of the central ridge, where it is often so narrow that a person may spring across with ease, to the sea shore, where it gradu- ally widens into a plain of a mile or more in breadth, and constitutes the most fertile and valuable portion of the soil. The ravines of this character are in general the bed of streams, fed by mountain torrents and cascades, of which I have counted eleven from one point of view, having a fall of from two hundred to twelve hundred feet, and glittering like so many veins of burnished silver, on the black face of the volcanic rock. They are bounded on each side by steep and frequently inaccessible walls, every crevice and ledge of which is clothed with the most luxuriant vegetation, and are generally terminated at their upper extremity by the central mountain, which rises in a perpendicular barrier of occasion- ally two thousand feet elevation. The only way in which these central peaks can be reached, is by following up the securiform lateral ridges, and even this method is not always practicable, on account of the steep and lofty cliffs that rise from their summits, and frown a stern denial to all further progress.
It is on the plains at the termination of these ravines, that tlie villages of the natives are usually situated, and the voyager Avho has coasted the shores of Tahiti, can never for- get the Eden beauty of some of these spots. The groves of orange, whose golden fruitage and snowy blossoms gleam star-like from a mass of dark verdure ; the intermingling of the tall cocoa's graceful, plumelike crest of drooping foliage ; the lofty and wide spreading Yi, [Spondias dulcis,) and Bar- ringtonia, {B. speciosa,) the rich hues of the bread fruit tree ; the deep shining green of the broad, bannery leaves of the plantain ; the Hibiscus, with its large, gay blossoms of orange and crimson; the coral tree, [Erythrina corallode7idro7i,) one dazzling mass of scarlet flowers ; with a little wilderness of limes, guavas, and other trees peculiar to these climes — the picturesque cabins, peering out here and there from the dense
in the Pacific, 6fc. 85
vegetation — the wild and gloomy ravines in the rear, lighted up in spots by sparkUng waterfalls ; and in the remote back- ground, the fantastic pinnacles of the grandly broken moun- tains, towering up in clear relief against the soft blue tropical sky — all these combine to form a picture of such transcendant loveliness as can be scarcely equalled in any other part of the world.
The second class of ravines is often not to be distinguished from the first, where it opens on the coast, but at some dis- tance inland it contracts to a very narrow gorge, of varying extent, which again opens suddenly into a sort of circus, oc- casionally eight or ten miles in compass, but usually from an eighth to three-fourths of a mile in diameter, surrounded, except at the outlet, by a lofty and precipitous escarpment, so as to present exactly the aspect of a crater whose walls have been riven asunder by some violent convulsion. This structure of the ravines is of more common occurrence in the Samoan and Hawaiian Islands, than at Tahiti. They are sometimes dry at bottom, but more frequently form the basins of streams, which, flowing through a tract of table land above, throw themselves over a precipice of from one to five hundred feet in height, and pass out through the narrow gorge to the sea. At Upolu there is a fine instance of this, in the cataract of Yainafa, or '• the broken water." The river, about seventy feet wide, and four deep just above the pitch, falls in three sheets about two hundred feet, into an oval basin, about three- fourths of a mile in circuit, from which it escapes between two high cliffs, not above twenty yards asunder.
In the following cut it is attempted by different lines, to exh.bit at one view four distinct sections of this class of ravine, to show the character of its terminating circus.
a. Natural section presented at tlie falls.
h. h. Imaginary transverse section at forty yards below them. The dotted curvo line crossing h near the bottom, represents a large excavation, worn by the s jray at the foot of the falls.
c. r. Similar section at widest part of circus, about one hundred and fifty yard.' below the falls.
d. d. d. d. Do. at the gorge where the river enters it from the basin.
86
Couthouy on Coral Formations
The gorge, which in this instance may possibly have been formed by the recession of the falls, extends almost three-fourlhs of a mile, and then gradu- ally widens into a common valley, terminating seaward in a broad plain.
SECTIONS OF THE RAVINE AT THE FALL OF VAINAFA.
At Hilo, on the Island of Hawaii, there is a very beautiful miniature ravine of this class, at the cascade of Waianuenue, (" the water of the rainbow,") and there are grand examples of it in the falls of Wailua and Hanapepe in the island of Kauai, especially in the latter, which pitch down full five hundred feet, into a circular basin about one thousand feet round, hemmed in by walls of alternately columnar and strati- fied lava, the only break in which is the narrow outlet for the stream. If we imagine the rapids of Lake Erie to be a plain, girt with lofty mountains, with the Niagara flowing through it, and this latter narrowed below the falls to one-fourth its pres- ent width, we shall have a very good idea of the ravine under consideration. Of those similar in form, but having no stream of water, there is a fine exemplification in the great amphi- theatre at the head of the Nuuanu valley, in Oahu. They are also to be seen in full perfection, on the north side of the ridge of Konahuanui, between the Pali, or precipice of Nuuanu, and Kualoa. There is one near Waiahole, described by the late Meredith Gairdner, M. D. (in a " Sketch of Oahu,"
in the Pacific, $fc, 87
published in the Hawaiian Spectator,) as '' very remarkable for its great depth and narrowness ; resembling exactly the section of an immense chimney, rising from the heart of the mountain : an effect which is heightened by the black color of the rocks."
If we picture in our minds a ravine of this description, having a barrier across the narrow gorge or outlet, we shall then have an accurate conception of the structure of the third class. Although this doubtless exists in the other islands, I only met with it at Tahiti. There is one example of it in the mountain lake of Waihiria, at the head of the Waihara valley, North of Mairapehi. This lake is about fifteen hun- dred feet above sea level, three-fourths of a mile in cirjait, and ninety feet deep, bounded on all sides except the south- ern b}?" a wall of rock from one thousand to fifteen hundred feet high. To the South it is dammed up by a barrier of inconsiderable height on the lake side, but on the other de- scending several hundred feet to the valley, and apparently formed by the crumbling down of a large body of rock from the Western ridge. This is the same lake referred to by Beechy, Tyerman and Bennet, and others, and prior to our visit was believed by the natives to be unfathomable. There is a similar pit, except that it has only a small stream at the bottom, discharging itself by some crevice, between two of the lateral ridges of Waritiva. With great difficulty and some risk, I descended perhaps twelve hundred feet into this ravine, near its commencement, thinking to find an easier path to the shore ; but after scrambling and wading, for near- ly a couple of miles, was to my vexation arrested by a naked wall of lava, several hundred feet high, which nothing but a bird or a lizard could scale. I was thus compelled to retrace my steps, and toil up once more to the crest of the ridge. My guide informed me that in the upper portion of the valley of Atehuru, leading from Matavai to the foot of Orohena, there were several of these barred ravines of less extent.
88
Couthouy on Coral Formations
SECTION OF A RAVINE CLOSED AT BOTH EXTREMITIES, IN ONE OF THE VALLIES RUNNING FROM THE COAST TO THE BASE OF WARITIVA, IN TAHITI.
Co
a. a. a. Lonejitudinal section of the ravine.
b. b. Steep lateral ridge, rising to a height of two thousand feet.
The mountains in outline, are from five lo eight thousand feet high.
It is difficult, satisfactorily, to account for these singular chasms. That at Waihiria may indeed have been produced by a landslip blocking up the valley, but the one last men- tioned would rather appear, were it not for the perpendicular- ity of its terminal walls, to have arisen from a confluence of the two great lava streams forming the lateral ridges, as the rocks are on all sides in a normal position and of uniform structure. Or they may be owing to a sudden sinking in of the crust at the time when the subterranean fires were in ac- tivity. Pits, very similar to them, but of less extent, are of quite frequent occurrence on the black ledge of lava surround- ing the crater of Kilauea. The second class of ravines may, I think, generally be referred to ancient craters, one side of which has been rent apart by earthquakes. In their situa- tions and outline, in the uniform perpendicularity of their parietesj and the sub-columnar structure of the lava compo- sing them, they correspond exactly to the craters of the table land of Mauna Loa. In fact, not many years ago, during a sharp earthquake, a similar outlet, since fiUtjd up near its com- mencement by subsequent overflowings of the lava, was produced on the S. W. side of the great crater of Kilauea or
in the Pacific^ 6fc. 89
Ka lua Pele, and extended if I remember aright, some seven or eight leagues to the coast.
But to return from this long digression, to the subject more immediately under consideration.
It is obvious that as the land sinks, and the water reaches the base of any ridge, barrier, or mount, a shore reef may be formed upon or around it, which, if the subsidence continues, will, from the operation of causes already explained, be gradually converted into an encircling or outlying one. There will naturally be intervening channels, in place of some of the ravines, while on those of a trench-like character and upon the ruins of ancient craters, will form lagoon reefs, and on the whole being overflown, there will thus be formed a group of lagoons varying in size and configuration, according as they rest upon a sunken crater, a ridge, or one of the trench-like ravines, and surrounded by a common reef, which is traversed at intervals, as in its primary state, by passages of various breadth and depth. And such, on a large scale, as I have be- fore observed, is the appearance presented by the Paumotu groups and dangerous archipelagos of Polynesia.
Although the seaward side of the reefs encircling these, has been described as rising in a perpendicular wall, yet it must not be understood, that by this it is meant, that we lit- erally step from an unfathomable ocean, upon the upper sur- face of a reef. They present a succession of terraces or plateaus, the outer having sometimes twelve or fifteen fathoms ; and in one instance, that of Bellinghausen's Island, twentyeight fathoms of water was found upon it. This low- est plateau is of variable breadth, but I think seldom exceeds one hundred and fifty feet ; declines somewhat rapidly sea- ward, and apparently projects beyond the wall like a shelf, as I have known the lead to fall from twelve fathoms on it, to two hundred and no bottom, within a distance of about ten yards.
These terraces become, as they recede from the sea, nar- rower and shoaler, presenting a like declination with the low- est, and having at their extremity an abrupt descent of several feet. The highest, or last formed, differs in its margin forming
12
90 Couthouy on Coral Formations
a sort of steep talus extending to the next below it ; and al- lowing for inequalities in the growth of the corals, offers a dead level of from twenty to one hundred and fifty yards broad, terminating for the most part at the fragmentary beach, and often having less than a foot of water upon it at low tide, except in the numerous hollows and gullies.
It has been suggested that this succession of terraces was owing to the action of the surf, which breaks heaviest, and of course tears off the largest masses, upon the extreme edge of the plateau ; that when this has proceeded so far as to weaken in a measure the force of the rollers, a less powerful surf breaking against the inner wall thus formed, will in time form a second terrace, and then a third, or even a fourth, though this is perhaps rare, before it spreads harmlessly over the broad upper shelf. Yet although the sea acts with great force in abrading the reef, I doubt much whether it can have produced such results as these. It would be more likely to cause a long uniform slope, from the farthest limit of the breakers, to their origin at the margin of the reef.
It is more in accordance with appearances to suppose that such a slope once really existed, and that the reef subsequent- ly sunk so low as to prevent the growth of the coral on this inclined plane beyond a certain line. There may then have ensued an interval during which the reef was stationary, when the polypes would naturally build upwards from the depth suited to their habits, and in time raise it to its former level, thus forming the lowest wall, while the dead reef be- yond constituted the lowest terrace. A second inclined plane would be produced by the abrasive action of the surf, and a second or third period of sinking, followed by one of rest and re-elevation, would give the outer portion of the reefs that peculiar conformation which they at present exhibit.
It is upon the lower terraces and margin of the upper one, that the corals are found in their greatest variety, and exhibit the richest hues. Clusters of orange, v?^let, crimson, green of every shade, purple, blue and yellow, -are intermingled in gay confusion, and with a brilliance yet softness of coloratian of which pen or pencil can give but a faint idea. When first
in the Pacific, <^c. 91
passing over them, I could compare their appearance to noth- ing but a pavement thickly strewn with bouquets of beautiful flowers.
At a depth of three or four fathoms, the forms were as man- ifold as their coloration, some branching like beautiful shrub- bery, others spreading out like the most delicate mosses, and others again resembling beds of saffron, or daisies and ama- ranths, while in and out of, above and between the thickets of these Neptunian gardens, sported thousands of splendidly colored fishes, from not more than an inch to two or three feet in length. A large bright scarlet Diacope (D. Tiea, Les- son) a Julis about a foot long, of a rich bluish green, marked with blood red bands crossing the back to the lateral line, and intersected by others extending from the opercles to the tail, (/. quadricolor, Less.) Serrani, Scari, Glyphisodons, Chasto- dons, Balistes and Holocentri, all richly adorned, were some of the most conspicuous in the bright array. The water was so transparent that the smallest object on the bottom could be seen as distinctly as if it were not throe feet from the surface ; and gazing down upon the beautiful creatures that tenanted these coral groves, like Coleridge's "Ancient Marinere," '-'I blessed them unawares" — althou2:h the next moment I could not avoid wishing to coax them into my net. As a drawback however, upon all this beauty, silently but swiftly, near the surface, glided in shoals, the spectral and malignant, -'raven- ing salt sea shark," reminding one of satan's intrusion of his hiteful presence amid the bowers of Paradise. So fierce were these tigers of the deep, that they repeatedly seized hold of the oars as we pulled toward the reef ; rendering the attempt to reach by swimming (often the only chance) a coast thus sentinelled, rather a hazardous afiair.
The solid, massive and encrusting genera of corals which enter most largely into the composition of the reefs, appear to flourish best in exposed situations and violently agitated wa- ters. On the upper plateau the coral has generally a stunted, dwarfish appearance, and the branching genera predominate over the more showy Astraeas. Near its edge, and lining the crevices, certain Goniopores, Porites and Pavonias, spread
92 Couthouy on Coral Formations
themselves in thin lamellse ; but these gradually disappear as we recede from the surf, and finally abandon the field almost entirely to the Madrepores. Ill calculated, however, by rea- son of their fragility, to withstand the force of the breakers that occasionally roll over the whole ledge, even these latter are oaly found in small detached clusters, principally in the little sandy pools and cavities which are scattered over the surface, their greatest luxuriance being displayed in the clear, tranquil waters of the lagoon, where they form submarine thickets of great beauty, many yards in extent.
The major portion of the plateau is encrusted by Niiliiporas and a laminar deposition of carbonate of lime. In this are imbedded multitudes of Tridacna3, the edges of whose man- tles, as shown by the gaping of the shell, are so gorgeously colored, that a correct representation of them would certainly be thought exaggerated by one who had not seen the originals. The varieties in this respect are very numerous, but the most common are a deep vivid ultramarine blue or green, with dark orange, purple or golden ocellations and wavy lines inter- spersed. The marginal papillae are similarly ornamented.
The Tridacnas appear like the Pholades, Lithodomi, &c., to secrete a peculiar acid, enabling them to perforate calcareous rocks, since, differing altogether in this from the shells imbed- ded in branching corals, the situation in which they were gen- erally found, was not caused by the growth around them of the polyparia, nor by the deposition of calcareous matter. This was evident at once, from their being in some cases im- bedded in small clusters or masses of coral, which were cut through by them in such a maimer that the parietes of the cavity exhibited sections of the polyparia, transverse, vertical or oblique, just as the Tridacna chanced to have worn its hole. I have seen the base of large Madrepores, cut in this way, at the origin of the branches, so that the upper portion of a branch was on one side of the shell and the lower on the other. The cavity is usually worn quite smooth, and fits closely to the shell, there being often but just space left at the surface for the valves to open about half an inch. They bury themselves, beaks downward, and the basal margins of the
in the Pacific, (S^c. 93
valves parallel with the surface — adhering very strongly by a coarse corneo-fibrous prolongation of muscle. It differs somewhat from the byssus, properly so called, of the Mytil- acea, which is produced at pleasure by the animal, may be torn away without injury to it, and terminates in a sort of receptacle at the base of the foot. Here the fibres proceed from a thick, conical, tendinous mass, and though I have rea- son to believe the animal has the power of detaching itself, yet when it was attempted to pull one away from the rock, in almost every case, the whole muscle was torn from the body, inflicting a fatal wound. I have often pulled them off in this way and left them on the reef, to see if they would re-produce the byssus, but always found them dead the next day. It is a little singular that the Tridacna, when im- moveably imbedded, should continue to moor by as strong a cable, as when free upon the surface it is exposed to the rude assaults of the breakers. The manner in which they become thus buried, seemed to require a word of explanation, because this condition has been considered a proof of the rapid in- crease of the coral, which it was imagined had thus covered the shell subsequent to its attainment of full size, yet during the animal's life.
On all parts of the reef. Crustacea and Echinodermata are met with in astonishing numbers and variety. The MoUusca generally speaking, are less abundant as a whole. The pools and gullies literally seem alive with beautifully painted fishes. a bare enumeration of whose genera would almost fill a page. Among these a large spotted Murasna was conspicuous for its fierceness not less than size. It lurked under stones or in crevices, and when molested, instead of retreating, darted directly at the intruder, and unless promptly avoided, inflicted a most formidable bite. It moved with exceeding rapidity, sometimes scuttling over the coral, sometimes making a suc- cession of horizontal leaps from the water, of a couple of yards' length. I have seen, at the attack of one, a whole boat's crew flying in terror, who would fearlessly chase the numer- ous sharks infesting the edges of the reefs and lagoons, till up to their breast in the water.
94 Couthouy on Coral Formations
Scattered along the plateau are fragments of greatly vary- ing size, thrown up by the surf, some loose, and affording shelter to a multitude of small fish, Crustacea, &c. ; others forming tabular masses of such magnitude as to render it al- most incredible that any wave could be sufficiently powerful to tear them off and transport them to their present locality. They constitute one of the most remarkable features of the surface reef at several islands. I have seen it for miles lined with these nuclei of future ridges, from a yard square, to thirty or forty feet long by four or five broad, and averaging three and a half in height. Their lower portion is worn by the water so as to cause the smaller blocks to assume a variety of fantastic shapes. By the percolation and infiltration of water charged with carbonate of lime, these masses are in general firmly cemented to the subjacent coral, and converted into a very solid limestone, called by seamen, '' reef-rock," in which the original cellular structure is sometimes almost obliterated. This reef-rock appeared to be the basis of the elevated belt between the lagoon and sea, in almost every Paumotu that I examined. T shall refer to these erratic blocks again, under the head of re-elevation.
It sometimes occurs that the plateau or surface reef, instead of extending quite to the beach of coral sand, is separated from it by a strip of smooth coralline limestone, apparently formed by cementation of the finer detritus, dipping from 5° to 7^ seaward, and from ten to fifty or sixty yards wide. A peculiar character in these belts, is the fissures, which from one-eighth to three-fourths of an inch wide, run nearly paral- lel with the beach for one hundred rods together, and some- times cross them at very large angles with it. There are similar formations along the North coast of Tutuila, one of the Samoan Group, and in its harbor, Pangopango. They also occur, but of coarser texture, on the East coast of Kauai, near Wailua, where they are from eight inches to two feet in thickness, and are frequently quarried for building materials, such as foundations, door-stones, &c.
To this limestone shelf, or the surface reef, as the case may be, succeeds a naiTOw and rather steep coral sand beach, be-
in the Pacific, (^c. "95
yond which rises the fragmentary ridge, composed of large blocks of reef-rock, having their interstices filled with a rub- ble consisting of small fragments of coral, shells, and Echini, cemented together so firmly as to require a smart hammer- stroke for their separation. It has an elevation of from three to ten feet, and varies in width, even on the same island, from one hundred and twenty feet to one thousand yards. It is highest on its seaward side, where it rises somev/hat abruptly, but shelves very gradually towards the low, sandy shores of the lagoon. There is rarely much vegetation till the summit is crossed, but thence inland it frequently flourishes luxuri- antly to the very brink of the water. This elevated tract seldom if ever entirely surrounds the lagoon. I do not re- member having seen a single Paumotu, which had not, on one side, a considerable space of low, naked reef, or detached masses of rock, over and between which, the sea at high water broke into the lagoon. At Raraka, on the southern side, to the westward of the passage between this and the sea, where the upper plateau is rather narrower than common, the ridge was of a character entirely diiferent from what was observed at any other island, being mostly a heap of loose rubble, eight or ten feet high, and perhaps a hundred yards in breadth at the base, nearly as sleep on the inland as on the seaward side, and destitute of any trace of vegetation. Just inside of this ridge, were numerous shallow pools of salt water, ebbing and flowing with the tide, and abounding in Ophiuroe, Cidarites, Fistularias and Actinias. A large species of Melampus was so plentiful among the fragments at the base of the ridge, that it could be collected by handfuls. Be- yond the pools was a plain of coral, which I estimated to be a large mile across to the lagoon, but had no opportunity of ascertaining it by actual measurement. It appeared to have a very slight ascent from the sea, and was tolerably well cloth- ed with trees and shrubs, though the species were few in number. A few cocoa-trees only were seen, and those had, as the inhabitants (about thirty Chain Islanders, engaged in collecting pearl shells,) stated, been introduced recently by themselves.
96 Couthouy on Coral Formations
Crossing the plain, which is overrun with a variety of bur- rowing Crustacea, terrestrial Paguri, and on some islands a species of Birgus, as often found on trees as among stones j we emerge from a tangled thicket upon the light green waters of the tranquil lagoon. This of course, varies greatly in extent and depth, and not less in the character of its bed. Some have the appearance of being very shallow throughout, the water being, except where darkened by occasional gullies, of an uniform pale, yet brilliant green hue. In others, there are large strips and patches toward the centre, where it is nearly as blue as the surrounding ocean. At Aitoho, one of the Disappointment Islands, the whole central portion of the lagoon is of this latter color, as if it were very deep, although less in circuit than many others. From the beach of some, I have waded out for a couple of hundred yards, with the Avater deepening almost imperceptibly, over a bottom of fine sand, with only a few scattered bunches of coral ; while in others, their bed is very unequal, full of large and deep pits, and traversed by gullies several fathoms deep and from ten to three hundred yards wide, occasioned probably by like irreg- ularities in the submerged land.
At Serle Island, and several other Paumotus, I observed at a couple of miles or so from shore, several small islets and clumps of rock, rising above the surface of the lagoon, nearly as much as its bordering ridge, and apparently encircled by water much deeper than the average.
It would have been exceedingly interesting, and was cer- tainly of importance in arriving at a correct idea of the struc- ture of these islands, to have ascertained the composition of such islets ; but the circumstances in which I was placed, entirely dependent on the pleasure of those in whose opinion such objects were of merely secondary consequence, and by whom my every movement was limited and controlled, ren- dered it impossible for me to make an examination so desira- ble. Should they hereafter be found to consist of volcanic rock, they would establish beyond all question the theory of subsidence first advanced by Mr. Darwin. Should they, on the contrary, be as I suspect, of coralline formation, this would
in the Pacific^ ^c. 97
not by any means, as I conceive, disprove it, but rather afford us the means of determining with some degree of exactitude the amount of re-elevation that has taken place at such islands.
I was informed by Mr. Samuel Wilson, of Tahiti, who had long resided among the Hervey Islands, that at Mangaia, which is an ancient reef elevated nearly three hundred feet, there are in the central hollow formerly the bed of the lagoon, many scattered patches of coral rock, some of them raised to a height of forty feet. At a certain stage of the elevatory process, it is evident that these patches must have presented an appearance very similar to the lagoon islets to which I have referred.
So far from the beach as examined, the bottom in some lagoons I have found to be a clean coral sand, composed of a detritus of coral and shells, but in most instances this was covered to the depth of a foot by an exceedingly fine white sedimentary paste or ooze, which on desiccation had every character of common chalk, except in being much more friable. I think it is principally formed by the decom- position of flexible corallines and alcyonia, and the softer Echinodermata, such as Fistularia and its congeners, all of which abound in the lagoons, rather than from that of corals proper. It may also partly arise from the excretions of certain fishes, which feed occasionally on the tender extremities of Madrepores, as readily as on Crustacea, Echini, 6oc. I once collected a quantity of these corallines and kept them in a jar of water till the muscular and fibrous portions were entire- ly decomposed, when an impalpable sediment was deposited, in all particulai's answering to that obtained from the lagoons.
Not le£LSt among the phenomena attracting our attention in these Paumotus, are the channels which in the majority of them afford a passage from the sea into the lagoon. There is usually but one of any consequence at each island, though there are rare instances of the occurrence of three or even four at different points of the reef. They are almost invaria- bly situated in the leeward reef, but there are occasional ex- ceptions and deviations from this general rule, some of which will be specified presently.
13
98 Couthouy on Coral Formations
These outlets are by some persons supposed to designate fissures in the walls of submerged craters, represented by the lagoons. If we admit, however, that these islands have been formed by the process which it