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“CALCUTTA JOURNAL
NATURAL HISTORY:
Miscellany
OF THE
ARTS AND SCIENCES Tit Indta,
CONDUCTED
BY JOHN M‘CLELLAND, F. L. S.
Bengal Medical Service,
JUNIOR MEMBER AND SFCRETARY OF A comMMI
MINERAL RESOURCES OF INDIA—FELLOW OF THE ROYAL TISBON; AND OF THE WN
MEMBER OF THE ZOO
SOCIETY OF BELPas? ; ‘OF THE BOSTON so- CIeTY OF NATURAL HISTORY oF THE JUNITED STATES, ETC. ETC, r
VOLUME ifk.
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CALCUTTA JOURNAL
OF
NATURAL HISTORY:
AND
Miscellany
OF THE
ARTS AND SCIENCES in indta.
CONDUCTED
BY JOHN M‘CLELLAND, F. L. S.
Bengal Medical Service.
JUNIOR MEMBER AND SFCRETARY OF A COMMITTEE FOR THE INVESTIGATION OF THF MINERAL RESOURCES OF INDIA—FELLOW OF THE ROYAL BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF RA-, TISBON; AND OF THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF FRANKFORT—CORRESPON DING MEMBER OF THE ZOOLOGICAL, AND OF THE ree accep ta eh or LON- DON; OF THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF nIThg be ¥ THE BOSTON so-
CIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY OF THE UNITAO STATES, ETC. ETC.
VOLUME
CALCUTTA. W. RIDSDALE, BISHOP’S COLLEGE PRESS
M.DCCC,XLIII,
Third Volume of the Calcutta Journal of Natural History.
RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED TO.
THE MERCANTILE COMMUNITY OF CALCUTTA.
Contributors.
_W.H. BENSON, ESQ. C. S., Bengal.
J. CAMPBELL, ESQ. Captain in the Madras Army, and Assistant Surveyor General.
G. J. GORDON, ESQ: Vice Pres. Med. Soc. Cal.
W. GRIFFITH, ESQ. F.L.S., Soc. Acad. Reg. Nat. Cur. Bonn. ;—Offg. Superintendent Bot. Gard. Calcutta.
J. M‘CLELLAND, F.L.S., Soc. Sc. Reg. Bot. Ratish.
A. ROBERTSON, ESQ., Assist. Chem. Lecturer Mei. Coll. Calcutta.
R. B. SMITH, ESQ., Lieut. Bengal Engineers.
_ G. B. TREMENHERE, Captain Bengal Engineers.
S. R. TICKELL, ESQ. Lieut. Bengal Army.
W. M. WESTERMANN, ESQ.
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Contents.
_—-_
Art. I.—On East Indian Isinglass, its introduction to, and manufacture for, the shan Mar- ket. By the Editor,
Extracts of Correspondence on the same; ht Re-
marks of Baron Cuvier and M. Valenciennes on Po- lynemus plebeius, Brouss. ; Polynemus Lineatus, Lacep. ; Polynemus Sélé, Buch. ; from the Histoire Naturelle des Poissons,—Ep. ... Gas
II.—Europe :—a popular Physical Sketch. By Professor Schouw, communicated to the Calcutta Journal of Natural History, 2 Dr. T. E. Cantor,
1{I.—Concluding Observations of M. Déslinyeu'e on the completion of his great work on the Fossil Shells of the Paris Basin,—Eb. ...
IV.—The Silurian System. By R. I Murchison, Esgq., F.R.S., F.L.S., &c. &c. &c.—Eb....
V.—Experiments on the Magnetic Influence of Solar Light. By Lieut. R. Baird Smith, Bengal Engineers,
VI.—A Catalogue of the Maniiadlia of Nisei. By H. Walker, Assistant Surgeon, agi Medical Service, 2
VII.—Notice of the Ursus sak thistia. Horsfield,
VUI.—Muscologia Intineris Assamici; or a Des- cription of Mosses collected during the Journey of the Assam Deputation, in the years 1835 and 1836. By W. Griffith, Esq. F.L.S., Imp. Acad. Nat. Cur. Assistant Surgeon, Madras Establishment....
Page.
157
270
ii IX.—Memorandum regarding Salmo Orientalis, or Bamean Trout.—Eb. =A : X.—Memorandum regarding the predaceous bie bits of certain Indian Frogs, in an instance observed by T. siege Ri: at Suha- runpoor, Ss XI.—India Review, aes mes XII.—Notes on Camphor, ; Ep. and Isinglass. }Ep
XIII.—Correspondence, __ . - Extract of a Letter from E. O'Reiley, Esq. dated jai
herst, 6th March, 1842, to J. M‘Clelland, Assistant —
Surgeon, Calcutta, *
Extract of a Letter from T. Wilkinson, Esq. Resident at Nagpore, to J. M‘Clelland, Esq. Secretary to the Coal Committee, Calcutta, one ene
Extract of a Letter from Dr. Boase, late Seccsiece to the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall. Pre- sented by Capt. Campbell of Madras,
XIV.—Miscellaneous,...
On the Principles of Electro-Magnetical Wichines,
_ by Professor Jacobi, of St. Petersburgh,... ove
Third Meeting of the Men of Science of Italy, ves
Dr. Lush on the Madi, or Chili Oil-seed, Madia sativa,
XV.—Meteorological Tables,
283
Tontents.
_ Pages. Art. I.—Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles. Par
Louis Agassiz, Professeur d’Historie Na- turelle 4 Neuchatel. Neuchatel, (Suisse,) 1833.—Eb., a as she .. 3813 I].—Faraday’s Experimental Researches in Elec- tricity. By Lieut. R. B. Smith, Bengal Engineers, “8 345, IIJ.—Remarks on a few Plants from Central India. —By W. Griffith, Esq., F.L.S., Imp. Acad. Nat. Cur., ... ae Ws a aa IV.—Experiments on the Magnetic indocnes of Solar Light. By Lieut. R. Baird Smith, Bengal Engineers,—(Continued.) ..._ ... 368 V.—On the Manufacture of Bar Iron in Southern India. By Captain J. Campbell, Assistant Surveyor General, Madras Establishment, 386 VI.—Description of the Sungnai, Cervus (Rusa) frontalis, a new spécies of Deer inhabiting the valley of Moneypore, and brought to notice by Capt. C. S. Guthrie, Bengal Engineers. By J. M‘Clelland, . 401 VII.—The Benturong, or Ictides Ater. De Blain, 410 VIII.—The Baraiya, or Cervus elaphoides, Hodgson, 411
i Pages. 1X.—Correspondence :— ... + eas Vegetable Physiology.—Action of Metallic Poison- ous Substances upon Vegetation. Communicated by E. T. Downes, Esq., dis a avs occ I Extract of a Letter from T. A. Henley, Esq., dated Port Louis, Mauritius, 3rd April 1842, to George James Gordon, Esq., Calcutta, oii abe 416 Extract of a Letter from S. H. Robinson, Esq. dated Dhobah, August 22d, 1842, on the Dhobah Coal
Mines on the Adji., ... oes ove ee 418 Letter to the Editor of the Calcutta Fount: of Na- — tural History,... eee ose vo 419
Barren Island in the Bay of Beil _fp. np. 6e oe = 422
X.—Miscellaneous :— - The Annals of Electricity, Maphetiod. pa iat oy try; and Guardian of Experimental Science. On the Chemical Relations now subsisting between Plants and Animals, with reference to those which have subsisted in former ages. In a Lecture deli- vered at the Conversazione, on Wednesday, March 9th, 1842. By Dr. Lyon Playfair, Royal Victoria Gallery, Manchester, oa eee os oo. 424 A General View of the Environs of Pekin. By M. Kovanko, Major in the Corps of Engineers of Mines; translated by Lieutenant-General Lord Greenock, F. R. S. E., from the Annuarie du Journal des Mines de Russie, année 1838. Published at St.’ Petersburg, 1840.,__... eee ove oes s» 448 Agri-Horticultural Society’s Journal and India Review, oe vee ane ose ens «+» 460 Notice of Books, bes cole ous 90h) ie ‘aon = Qe
XI.—Meteorological Tables, ips un ... 463
Contents.
Pages.
Art. I.—Description of Camptoceras, a new genus of the Lymnezade, allied to Ancylus; and of Tricula, a new type of form allied to Me- lania. By W. H. Benson, Esq., Bengal Civil Service. sph ;
II.—Rough Notes on the controversy et Geologists, carried on by those who adopt the meaning which was formerly assigned to the first chapter of Genesis. By An- drew Robertson, Medical sag Cal- cutta,
III.—Notes on Rajmehal Coal, : IV.—Extract from the Memoir of M. Peliyot'o on the analysis of Sugar cane, and other Do- cuments relative to the manufacture of Su- gar. Communicated by G. J. Gordon, Esq., eety Report of the Dumliciaige: of the ‘aca by M. Thenard, on the Memoir of M. Peligot, of which the foregoing is an extract, evs wen). iees Extract of a Letter of M. Guibourt, ... ... ove Extract of a Letter from M. Peligot, * Result of the Researches of M. Plagne, on the com-
position of Vesou,... Extract from Ure’s Dictionary of ‘Reta Avtidle Buia.
V.—Extract of a Letter from Dr. Lund, on the Brazilian Ant,
VI.—M. E. De Beaumont’s Views of the ralative Age of the European Mountains, an abstract by Professor Schow. Communicated by W. M. Westermann, Esq.
468 501
ii
VII.—Observations on the Genus Spathium, By M. P. Edgeworth, Esq.
VITI.—Extract of a Letter from Father ‘Joseph
Gury, S. J., to his brother, Extract of a Letter from Father Smet, Jesuit Mission- ary, to the Reverend Father General of the Society, The Assam Tea Plant,...
IX.—Twelfth Meeting of the British Asnictation:
for the .advancement of Science, Man-
chester, 22nd June, 1842, ay X.—Abstract of M. Fourier’s Theory of Heat: ae From “ The Revolutions of the Globe Fa- miliarly Described,” by Alexander Bert- rand, M.D., ... General Report of the Council of Public fenimantinns of Bengal for 1841 and 1842, oie Agri-Horticultural Society's Journal, ad India Review, eos ste par one eon see XI.—Indian Coal, Extract of a letter from the Editor of the Calcutta Journal of Natural History to Charles Lyell, aie F.R.S., dated 10th February, — “ XII.—Collections, ’ XIII.—Meteorological Tables,
531
’ 539
New Subscribers.
S. Andrews, Esq.
Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.
E. A. Blundell, Esq. Commissioner Tenasserim Provinces. G. C. Ranken, Esq. Assistant Surgeon General Hospital. W. Cameron, Esq. Apothecary to the E. I. C.
Qf. Skexidan; Arrakan.
PREFACE TO VOL. III.
The utility of a Journal of Natural History in Calcutta, can hardly be considered any longer a doubtful question, since we find at the end of the third year of the experiment, sufficient encouragement on the part of the public for its continuance, without any effort to enlist new supporters, further than the regular appearance of each number as it becomes due. ,
The events, political and mercantile of ‘the past year, have been, it is true, calculated to divert attentifn from scientific enquiry, and we believe our Journal is the only one of its kind in India, depending on the voluntary, labours of corres- pondents, that has not suffered from the circumstances ad- verted to. Retirements from India, and other changes in Society, have deprived us of the support of above forty of the original subscribers, yet an almost equal number of new subscribers enable us to continue the work, under the advantage not only of increased experience, but also, we: trust, of increased editorial strength.
From this period, we may hope to be assisted in the Editorship of the Journal by Mr. Griffith.
It is hoped, that the increased interest which this arrange- ment will secure to the work, may also be attended with a proportionate increase to the number of subscribers, which would enable the Editors either to reduce the expense of the work, or to enlarge it materially. It is needless for the Editor to say, that it never was ‘intended that any profit should accrue to himself as remuneration for his trouble.
It is not intended to introduce any change in the form of the Journal; but its pages, we trust, will gradually be made to embrace a wider range of subjects than heretofore.
THE CALCUTTA JOURNAL
OF
NATURAL HISTORY.
Faraday’s Experimental Researches in Electricity. First and Second Series.*
The marked analogies that subsist between the leading phenomena of Electricity and Magnetism, early suggested the idea of these two powers being intimately connected, and led to many oft-repeated and varied, though long fruitless, efforts to detect the nature and relations of this connection. Numerous distinguished names occur in the records of these unsuccessful attempts, and it is sufficiently remarkable that at least in one instance, that of the celebrated Beccarria, the very verge of that brilliant discovery, on which has been reared the new science of Electro-magnetism, was uncunsei- ously attained. During the progress of his researches, un- dertaken with the specific intention of investigating the re- lations of electricity to magnetism, Beccarria observed, that a needle through which he had transmitted an electric shock,
* We are indebted to Lieut. R. Baird Smith, of the Bengal Engineers, for this interesting analysis of the three first Series of Faraday’s Ex- perimental Researches, as we have been to the same accomplished officer for former papers, also on Electricity, which excited consider- able interest at the time they were published.—Ep.
VOU. Ill. NO. TX. APRIL 1842, B
‘ . \
2 Experimental Researches in Electricity.
acquired a remarkable species of polarity, since instead of placing itself as usual in the magnetic meridian, it exhibited a decided tendency to assume a position transverse to this; so that instead of pointing north and south, it pointed east and west. That he did not follow out this singular fact, proves that he was ignorant of its true value; since its re- discovery, nearly half a century afterwards, by Professor Oersted of Copenhagen, was the first step in that career of discovery, which has conferred immortal honour on that philosopher’s name, and has secured for him one of the most honourable niches in the temple of scientific fame. None | who had endeavoured to solve the seductive problem we have above alluded to, laboured more assiduously, and. perseveringly to this end, than M. Oersted; and although the fundamental fact was originally discovered by him, in a man- ner almost accidental, it was an accident of which he alone was capable of availing himself, and for the due appreciation of the value of which, his mind had been prepared by a long train of thought and experiment; so that there was in reality no more chance in the discovery, than there is in the process by which, in a happy moment of inspiration, a man solves a difficulty upon which his mind has long been intently fixed. In the year 1820, Oersted announced that the conducting wire, connecting the poles of a galvanic battery, while being traversed by an electric current, acts upon the magnetic needle, and gives origin to a force so acting upon it as to dispose it to take a position at right angles to the wire. Intense excitement was created among scientific men by this announcement; verification of Oersted’s experiments was made in several countries ; and the range of his facts widely extended among the most distinguished of the cultivators of the infant science, to which the name of Electro-magnetism had ben assigned were Ampere and Arago in France, and Davy and Faraday in England ; and by their united efforts much important and valuable information was elicited. Tio
f
q
Experimental Researches in Electricity. 3
enter into any of the details of this, forms no part of our pre- sent design, save in so far as it may be necessary to ensure a clear apprehension of the views we shall subsequently ex- press ; and we may therefore only briefly state at present, that on analysing the experiments of Oersted into their sim- _plest conditions, it appeared as if the conducting wire exert- . ed on the pole of the magnet a kind of force, neither attrac- tive nor repulsive, but transverse ; and by numerous experi- ments it was clearly established that the force was really of this perfectly novel and singular nature, a remarkable ex- ample of it being exhibited by Mr. Faraday in 1821, wherein the force actually sustained either the wire or the magnet, in a state of constant and rapid revolution about each other. Two theories were proposed in explanation of - these phenomena, the one by Oersted, in which the conduet- : ing wire was supposed to be made up of an infinite number of minute transverse magnets, having their opposite poles facing each other; and the other devised by M. Ampere, in which the magnet is supposed to be made up of a series of conducting wires in transverse positions. At first sight it seemed a matter of indifference which of the two theories was selected, as both appeared capable of application to the facts : but it was ere long found that the first could not, with- out certain arbitrary and improbable additions, afford any explanation of continued motion in electro-magnetic experi- ments, while the second explained this, and also the mutual action of magnets on each other, and of conducting wires on eath other, cases not contemplated by Ampere in originally | devising his theory, and therefore telling strongly itt its favour, in the most complete and satisfactory manner. Re- markable experimental evidence for the Amperian theory was farther obtained from the perfect identity of effects’ produced by spiral conducting wires, or electro-dynamic cylinders as they were called, and common magnets. In com- mon they are influenced by the magnetism of the earth; the —
4 Experimental Researches in Electricity.
same phenomena of attraction, repulsion, and revolution are exhibited by each; the extremities of the cylinder corres- pond to the poles of the magnet ;-and two cylinders act upon each other precisely as two magnets do. Hence then the most hypothetical part of the theory of Ampere, the exist- ence within the magnet of spiral currents of electricity, re- ceives the strongest confirmation from actual experiment ; and taking into account with this, the profound mathemati- eal evidence in its favour, there cannot be a doubt of its representing truly the constitution of bodies on which their magnetic properties depend, and thus demonstrating that magnetism is nothing more than a peculiar modification of electricity.
While however the genius of Ampere, as displayed both in his consummate skill in analysis, and fertility in expe- rimental resources, successfully proved that magnetism is only a peculiar form of electro-motive action, and that all its phenomena may, by means of this, be imitated correctly, all efforts to shew that the converse of this discovery, or the production of electricity from magnetism was possible, were for a long time fruitless ; and it was not till in 1831, when Faraday commenced his masterly course of experimental research on the subject, that any important information was obtained.
These researches present to us one of those remarkable and rare epochs to the history of science, when the disco- very of certain grand and novel principles involves an en- tire remodelling of our ideas on that branch of inductive truth, to which they refer. Viewed as a whole, their most important relation is undoubtedly to the science of chemistry, since the results they exhibit, by proving the entire identity of the forces of affinity and of decomposition on the surest of all evidence, that of the balance and measure, have led to the firm establishment of the electro-chemical theory of the constitution of water. But there are interspersed -
Experimental Researches in Electricity. 5
throughout them, several related, yet at the same time dis- tinct, trains of investigation, that have an interest and a beauty peculiarly their own. These we shall not fail to no- tice as we progress in our review; and we may remark that the general principles which Faraday has so successfully established, are not merely extensions of pre-existing know- ledge, but they are essentially new laws of nature—new pro- vinces added to the domains of science, inviting to extended enguiry, and promising rich returns.
The first and second series of the experimental research- es, to which we purpose confining the present article, are devoted to the investigation of certain new and important points in the science of electro-magnetism. They presup- pose, on the part of their readers, 2 somewhat extensive ac- quaintance with the doctrines of this science; but still there is nothing in them that may not readily be understood, and we shall endeavour, as far as we can, to make an exposition of them clear and explicit. | This object is materially facilita- ted by the lucid style in which the researches are narrated, since that vividness of conception, and steadiness of thought, at all times so characteristic of truly original minds, are, in Faraday’s case, accompanied by a corresponding facility of exposition, and command of language, so that his results are invariably presented to the reader in the simplest and most appropriate terms, and illustrated in the most effective, and often engaging manner. He appears to repudiate entirely that mystic style in which many love so suspiciously to clothe their thoughts, and in the purest spirit of philosophy, his sole aim seems to be first to discover, then to expound, the simple and unadorned truth.
So early as the year 1825 Faraday had experimented, but without success, on the induction of electrical currents: from that time forward his mind appears to have been keenly alive to the detection of phenomena relating to this branch of the subject, and a conviction seems to have been ever pre-
6 Experimental Researches in Electricity.
sent with him, that could the key to the discovery but be © found, a rich treasure would reward the discoverer. “It ap- peared very extraordinary,” he remarks, “ that as every elec- tric current was accompanied by a corresponding intensity of magnetic action at right angles to the current, good conductors of electricity, when placed within the sphere of this action, should not have any current induced through them, or some sensible effect produced, equivalent in force to such a current.” These considerations, with their consequence, the hope of obtaining electricity from common magnetism, have stimulated me at various times to investigate experi- mentally the inductive effect of electric current: the power of induction herein alluded to, may be defined as that pro- perty by which electrical currents induced any particular state upon matter in their immediate neighbourhood, and in this general sense it is employed by Faraday throughout his masterly researches.
After several experiments equally unsuccessful with his former efforts, Faraday at length, in 1831, obtained decisive proof of the power of a current of galvanic electricity to induce upon a wire in its vicinity, a certain electrical state, and in a manner very different indeed to his previous expectations. It then appeared that induction took place momentarily, when the contact of the conducting wire with the battery was made, and again when it was broken. But to render this more clear, we shall briefly detail that ex- periment by which this result, and through it the large train that follows it, were obtained. Two hundred and three feet of copper wire in one length were coiled round a block of wood; other two hundred and three feet of similar wire were interposed as a spiral between the turns of the first coil, and metallic contact everywhere prevented by twine. One of these helices was connected with a gal- vanometer, and the other with a battery of one hundred pairs of plates, four inches square, with double coppers,
a
Experimental Researches in Electricity. 7
and well charged. When the contact was made, there was a sudden and very slight effect at the galvanometer, and also a similar slight: effect when the contact with the battery — was broken. But whilst the voltaic current was continuing to pass through the one helix, no galvanometrical appearances nor any effect like induction upon the other helix could be perceived, although the active power of the battery was proved to be great, by its heating the whole of its own helix, and by the brilliancy of the discharge when made through charcoal.” ‘The results caused by this experiment proved in Faraday’s hands the clue to the electrical laba- rynth in which he had been wandering so long in com- parative darkness; and he rapidly traversed the field of discovery now opening around him. He found by varying the form of the preceding experiment that it was sufficient to ex- hibit proofs. of induction, if he merely moved the induci- ble in front of the inducing wire, since as the former was made to approach to, or recede from the latter, so-the galvanometer was affected, indicating on the approximation of the wires an induced current in a contrary direction to the inducing current, while on their recession the two currents had the same direction. Efforts were then made to exhibit in it like effects to the preceding, with wires convey- ing charges of common electricity, but without any satisfac-— tory result, in consequence of the instantaneous discharge of the current rendering it impossible to separate the effects due to its commencement from the equal and contrary effects due to its close. Time enters as a necessary element with the induction of voltaic currents; but in discharges of common electricity, this element cannot be commanded. The peculiar action to which we have now alluded, has been termed by Faraday volta:electric induction.
We formerly, in briefly adverting to the Amperian theory of magnetism, stated that a voltaic current, circulating in a wire of a peculiar form, namely that of a vertical, spiral, or
i$ Experimental Researches in Electricity.
\helix, was, to all intents and purposes, a magnet; and hence the step from volta-electric to magneto-electric induction ‘was an immediate and necessary one. As introductory how- ever to the use of the magnet itself, Faraday experi- \mented on the effects of adding an irow core to his helices ; and when this was done, it was found that, using the same strength of battery, the influence of the current, as indicated by the galvanometer, was tenfold greater than when no ‘iron was present. So powerful indeed was the impetus communicated to the galvanometer needle, that when the battery of one hundred pairs of plates was used, it spun — round three or four times before the action of the air, and terrestrial magnetism could reduce its motion to simple oscillation: a minute spark was also exhibited by using charcoal terminations to the inducible wire, invaria- bly on making, but rarely on breaking contact at the bat- tery.
A pair of common bar magnets was then substituted for the galvanic battery, and it was then found that by simply making, and breaking magnetic contact, powerful electrical currents were induced in the helices employed. The de- tails of the first experiment by which this discovery was estab- lished are so short and simple, that we shall transcribe them here. “ A combination of helices, like those above described, was constructed upon a hollow cylinder of pasteboard ; there were eight lengths of copper wire, containing altogether 220 feet : all of these helices were connected end to end, and then with the galvanometer, by means of two copper wires, each five feet in length. A soft iron cylinder, seven-eighths of an inch thick, and twelve inches long, was introduced into the pasteboard tube; a couple of bar magnets were arranged with their opposite poles at one end in contact, so as to resem- ble a horse-shoe magnet, and then contact made between the other poles, .and the ends of the iron cylinder, so as to convert it for a time into a magnet. Upon making mag-
Experimental Researches in Electricity. 9
netic contact, the needle was deflected ; continuing the con- tact it became indifferent ; on breaking the contact it was again deflected, but in the opposite direction to the first effect; and then it again became indifferent.” By other experiments it was proved that the electrical currents induced in the copper helices were due solely to the mere approxi- mation of the inducing magnet, and by employing a very powerful compound magnet, it appeared that the mere motion of a single copper wire in front of, but without making contact with, the magnet, was sufficient to induce in it currents of electricity. At first no chemical, calorific, nor physiological effects could be produced by the induced electrical current, but on repeating his experiments more at leisure,with a natural magnet or loadstone, capable of lifting thirty pounds, Faraday found that a frog was powerfully convulsed, and he thought at the same time he could perceive the sensation upon the tongue, and the flash before the eyes, although he still failed in producing chemical decomposition. The various ex- periments however which he made, appears to furnish the _ fullest warrant for the conclusion that electricity may be préduced from common magnetism. ‘That its intensity, ” he remarks, “should be very feeble, and its quantity very small, cannot be considered wonderful, when it is remembered that, like thermo-electricity, it is evolved entirely within the sub- stance of metals retaining all their conducting power.. But an agent which is conducted along metallic wires in the manner described ; which, while so passing, possesses the peculiar magnetic actions and force of an electric current ; which can agitate and convulse the limbs of a frog, and which finally can produce a spark by its discharge through charcoal, can only be electricity.”
Faraday proceeds, in the third section of his first series, to communicate his views as to the state into which the in- ducible wire is thrown during the continuance of the induc tive action upon it; but as he subsequently abandons the
c
10 Experimental Researches in Electricity.
idea of the electro-tonic condition as he calls it, we conceive it unnecessary to take up our time and space in dwelling upon it, and therefore proceed at once to the fourth section, which is occupied by explanations of certain extraordinary magnetic phenomena, discovered by M. Arago, and which had long defied the efforts of the most able philosophers to account . for them.
In the year 1824, M. Arago shewed, that if a plate of copper, or indeed of any other substance, be placed immedi-
ately under a. magnetic needle, it diminishes sensibly the extent of its oscillations, without however affecting their
duration; and the needle is brought to rest in a shorter time
than if no such substance were placed near it. The converse
of this experiment however exhibited much more remark-
able results ; for if a plate of copper be revolved close to a
magnetic needle, so suspended that the latter may rotate in
a plane parallel to that of the former, the magnet tends to. follow the motion of the plate; or if the magnet be revolved,
the plate tends to follow its motion even although both
nay be of several pounds weight. M. Arago asserts that
the phenomena alluded to may be produced with all sub-
stances, although this assertion has not been found capable
of verification by other experimenters. The subject was
investigated in England by Mr. Babbage and Sir John
Herschell ; but their efforts proved completely unsuccessful,
and to Faraday belongs the undivided merit of having re-
moved all that obscurity which, up to the date of his re-
searches, had enveloped it. .
Employing the large compound magnet previously alluded to, he found that by rotating between its poles a copper disc, a permanent deflection of the galvanometer needle, to the extent of 45° could be maintained, thus demonstrating the production of a permanent, whereas before he could only obtain a momentary, current of electricity by common magnetism. Motion of the plate was found to be ‘essential
”
Experimental Researches in Electricity. Il
to the development of this current, since while it remained at rest, no deflection of the needle occurred ; and with refer- ence to the relation of the current of electricity produced to the magnetic pole, and to the direction of rotation of the plate Mr. Faraday remarks that “ it may be expressed by saying that when the unmarked pole (or that pointing to the south pole of the earth) is beneath the edge of the plate, and the latter revolves horizontally, screw-fashion, the elec- tricity that can be collected at the edge of the plate nearest the pole is positive ;” while that collected at the centre and neighbouring parts is negative. The currents in the plate are therefore from the centre by the magnetic pole to the circumference. Hence then it appears that the case of the copper disc is only an extension of that formerly noticed, wherein a single piece of metal had currents of electricity
‘ developed in it, at right angles as to the direction of the
motion, and crossing it at the place of the magnetic pole, or poles between which it was made to move. For if we con- ceive this wire to be moved in front of the magnet, like the spoke of a wheel, a current of electricity tends to flow through it from one end to the other; and as a solid disc is made up of an infinite number of such spokes or radii in contact, the currents will tend to flow in the direction of these permanently, if a channel be open for their return, which, in a continuous plate, is afforded by the lateral portions on each side of the particular radius near the magnetic pole. The existence of electrical currents being thus the sole cause of the magnetism of rotation, it is at once apparent why all effects cease when motion ceases, since the currents have then no existence; and it will be found that, on applying the same principle of explanation to the various results obtained by Messrs. Arago, Ampere, Babbage, Herschell, and Harrjs, the most harmonious and explicit results are obtained.
The rapidity and facility with which Faraday appears to
12 Experimental Researches in Electricity.
have apprehended the law of magneto-electric induction is very remarkable, and indicates forcibly the clearness of- his conceptions of the relations of forces in space ; since by com- mon consent of all who have turned their attention to the subject, the law in question is exceedingly difficult to seize at once, from the complicated manner in which electrical and magnetic forces are related, the one set being at right an- gles to the other. No such difficulty however seems to have impeded Faraday’s course; for he remarks, “ the relation | which holds between the magnetic pole, the moving wire or metal, and the direction of the current evolved, i. e. the law which governs the evolution of electricity by magneto-electri¢ induction is very simple, although rather difficult to express. He then represents it by referring position and motion to the curves that pass from one magnetic pole to another, as indi- cated by the manner in which small iron filings arrange themselves, when strewed upon a sheet of paper placed over a magnet. “ Thecurrent of electricity,” he states, “which is excited in a metal, when moving in the neigh- bourhood of a magnet, depends for its direction alto- gether upon the relations of the metal to the resultant of magnetic action, or to the magnetic curves, and may be expressed in a popular way thus: Let A B (see figure) represent a cylinder magnet, WW
A being the marked pole, and B the Are unmarked pole. Let PN be a sil- ver knife-blade, resting across the magnet with its edge upwards, and with its marked or notched side towards the pole A; then in what- ever direction or position this knife be moved, edge-fore-most, either about the marked or the unmarked pole, the current of electricity produced will be from P to N, provided the intersected curves proceeding from A abut upon the notched surface of
Experimental Researches in Electricity. 1%
the knife, and those from B upon the unnotched side. Or, if the knife be moved with its back foremost, the current will be from N to P in every possible position and direction, provided the intersected curves abut on the same surfaces as before. A little model is easily construct- ed, by using a cylinder of wood for the magnet, a flat piece for the blade, and a piece of thread, connecting one end of the cylinder with the other, and passing through a hole in the blade, for the magnetic curves; this readily gives the result of any possible direction.” :
The results detailed in the section on magneto-electric induction were obtained with equal facility by the employ- ment of electro-dynamic cylinders instead of magnets, thus affording additional experimental evidence in favour of Ampere’s beautiful and comprehensive theory, and al] tend- ing to prove “ that the power of inducing electric currents is circumferentially exerted by a magnetic resultant or axis of power just as circumferential magnetism is dependent upon, and is exhibited by, an electric current.”
Having discovered the law relative to direction according to which magneto-electric induction took place, it became immediately apparent that the earth itself might be substi- tuted for the magnets employed in all the previous experi- ments ; and accordingly in his second series of Experimental Researches, Faraday investigates the subject of terrestrial magneto-electric induction, and furnishes the most striking instances of the production of electrical current, by the in- fluence of the magnetism of the above. Having taken a hollow copper helix, into which a cylinder of iron, first heat- ed red hot, and then slowly cooled, to deprive it of all mag- netism, was inserted; he attached the wires of the helix to those of a galvanometer, and holding the combined bar and helix in the magnetic direction or line of dip, he merely inverted them, so that the lower extremity became the upper, the whole being still in the magnetic direction, and immedi-
14 Experimental Researches in Electricity.
ately the needle was deflected, so as ultimately to describe arcs of no less than 150° or 160°! This, and other results, led Faraday to hope that the direct inductive effect of the earth’s magnetism might be exhibited without the aid of iron, and he accordingly found that by using merely the cop- per helix above alluded to, and inverting it several times in the line of dip, the galvanometer needle could be made to vibrate through arcs of 80° or 90°. “ Here, therefore,” he infers, “ currents of electricity were produced by the direct inductive power of the earth’s magnetism, and without the use of any ferruginous matter, and upon a metal not capable of exhibiting any of the ordinary magnetic phe- nomena.”
Passing now to the subject of the magnetism of rotation, it was found that all the phenomena of the revolving copper plate could be exhibited without the use of any other magnet, than the earth. Upon rotating this plate in a horizontal plane, which in the latitude of London, where the experiments were made, would be inclined about 7° to the line of dip, the needle was immediately deflect- ed, while, in perfect accordance with the law of mag- neto-electric induction, if this rotation took place in the plane of dip, then no effects were produced upon the gal- - vanometer, since the magnetic curves were not in this case intersected, and without such intersection electrical currents could not be developed.” The moment however the in- clination of even a few degrees to the plane of dip was given to the plane of the plate’s rotation, then electricity. made its appearance, and became more and more powerful, till the inclination reached 90°, when for a given velocity it was amaximum. “It is astriking thing,” says Faraday, ‘to observe the revolving copper plate become thus a new elec- trical machine; and curious results arise on comparing it with the common machine. In the one, the plate is the best — non-conducting substance that can be applied; in the other,
Experimental Researches in Electricity. 15
it is the most perfect conductor; in the one insulation is essential; in the other it is fatal. In comparison of the quantities of electricity produced, the metal machine does not at all fall below the glass one, for it can produce a current capable of deflecting the galvanometer needle, whereas the latter cannot. It is quite true that the force of the current thus evolved has not as yet been increased so as to render it available in any of our ordinary applications of this power; but there appears every reasonable expectation that this may hereafter be effected: and probably by several arrangements. Weak as the current may seem to be, it is as strong, if not stronger, than any thermo-electric current: for it can pass fluids, agitate the animal system, and, in the case of an electro-magnet, has produced sparks.” From the rotation of a plate transition was made to that of a metallic globe, and as in this the currents are nowhere inter- rupted, it was natural to anticipate powerful effects. Nor did disappointment ensue, for although the brass ball employed was only four inches in diameter, and turned merely by the hand, the needle became immediately affected, and by vary- ing the form of experiments, the deflections caused were in all cases such as to prove that the needle was influenced solely by electrical currents in the substance of the ball. These results suggested an experiment of extreme simplicity, of which Faraday remarks : “ The exclusion of all extraneous circumstances and complexity of arrangement, and the dis- tinct character of the indications afforded, under this single experiment, are an epitome of nearly all the facts of magneto- electric induction.” We cannot therefore do better, since its details are very brief, than give it at length. “A piece of common copper wire about eight feet long, one-twentieth of an inch in thickness, had one of its ends fastened to one of the terminations of the galvanometer wire, and the other end to the other termination ; thus it formed an endless continu- ation of the galvanometer wire; it was then roughly adjusted
16 Experimental Researches in Electricity.
into the shape of a rectangle, or rather of a loop, the upper part of which could be carried to and fro over the galvanome- ter, whilst the lower part, and the galvanometer attached to it, remained steady. Upon moving this loop over the galvan- ometer from right to left, the magnetic needle was immedi- ately deflected : upon passing the loop back again, the needle passed in the contrary direction to what it did be- fore ; upon repeating these motions in accordance with the vibrations of the needle, the latter soon swung through 90° or more. The relation of the current of electricity pro- duced in the wire to its motion may be understood by sup- posing the convolutions of the galvanometer away, and the wire arranged as a rectangle with its lower edge horizontal, and in the plane of the magnetic meridian, and a magnetic needle suspended over and above the middle part of this edge, and directed by the earth. On passing the upper part of the rectangle from west to east, the marked (or north) pole of the needle went west; the electric current was therefore from north to south in the part of the wire passing under the needle, and from south to north in the moving or upper part of the parallelogram. On pass- ing the upper part of the rectangle from east to west, the marked pole of the needle went east, and the current of electricity was therefore the reverse of the former.” This experiment proves with what remarkable facility currents of electricity are produced in metals moving under the influ- ence of magnets; and when we reflect upon the universal influence of the magnetism of the earth, the startling inference follows, that scarcely a single piece of metal can be without an electric current existing within it. “ It is probable,” Faraday adds, “ that amongst arrangements of — steam-engines and metal machinery, some curious accidental magneto-electric combinations may be found, producing ef- fects that have never been observed, or if noticed, have never as yet been understood: what, for instance, may not be the
Experimental Researches in Electricity. 17
magneto-electric combinations producing their daily effects unseen, amid the beautiful and complex mechanism of the Calcutta Mint, or during the extensive and varied operations in metals, in constant progress in the Foundry at Cossipore! A farther consideration of the effects of terrestrial mag- neto-electricited action, appeared to Faraday to lead irresis- tibly to the conviction that inductive action must be produced by the earth on its own mass, in consequence of its diurnal rotation, and a curious and interesting series of experiments were undertaken, with the view of verifying this impression. Conceiving it not impossible that certain natural differences — “might exist between bodies as to the intensity of the cur- rent produced in them by terrestrial induction, especially as Messrs. Babbage, Herschell, and Harris had found great differences between metals and other substances, as well as between metals and each other, he inferred these differences might be rendered sensible by opposing the bodies to each other. ‘This view was however not confirmed by experi- ment, for although he opposed copper to iron, and copper to a large mass of pure still water, being the lake in the gardens of Kensington Palace, he could procure no decisive galvanometrical effects; and it appeared that when cutting the magnetic curves with equal velocity, even such dissimilar bodies as copper and water exactly neutralised each other’s effects. He then examined the curious and interesting results obtained by Mr. Fox of Falmouth, relative to the electricity of metalliferous veins, with the view of discovering whether any of these were due to magneto-electric induc- tion, but believes, although not able to speak strongly, that they are not. As increased length of the substance acted upon increases the intensity of the current, Faraday hoped to obtain, with large masses of moving water, sensible effects, although quiescent water gave none. He therefore experimented on the Thames at Waterloo Bridge, by stretch- ing a copper wire nine hundred and sixty feet in length along D
18 Experimental Researches in Electricity.
the parapet of the bridge, and dropping from its extremities other wires, having extensive plates of metal attached to them, to complete contact with the water. With this arrangement constant deflections of the galvanometer.were procured, but with great irregularity, and they were in succession referred. to other causes than that sought for. The different con- dition of the water as to purity on the two sides of the river ; the difference in temperature; slight differences in the plates and in the holder used; all produced effects in turn, and nothing satisfactory could be observed. Still,
however, although in these experiments sensible effects could not be obtained, it is nevertheless theoretically true that, whenever masses of water are flowing, then electrical currents are formed, and hence it may be inferred that the great oceanic currents, the flow of tidal waves, and of the vast rivers of the old and new continents will, by influencing the intensity of terrestrial magnetism, exercise a perceptible effect on the directions of the iso-dynamic lines, or lines of equal variation on the earth’s surface in their imme- diate vicinity. Before leaving this branch of the enquiry, Faraday remarks: ‘‘ I hardly dare venture, even in the most hypothetical form, to ask whether the Aurora Borealis and Australis may not be the discharge of electricity thus urged towards the poles of the earth, from whence it is endeavour- ing to return by natural and appointed means above the earth to the equatorial regions. The non-occurrence of it in very high latitudes is not at all against the supposition ; and it is remarkable that Mr. Fox, who observed the deflec- tions of the magnetic needle at Falmouth, by the Aurora Borealis, gives that direction of it, which perfectly agrees with the present view. He states that all the variations at night were towards the east, and this is what would happen, if electric currents were setting from south to north in the earth, under the needle, or from north to south in space above it.”
Experimental Researches in Electricity. 19
Proceeding to compare the magneto-electric effect pro- duced upon different metals by the magnetism of the earth, it was found to be in direct proportion to their conducting powers, .and the order in which the different metals expcri- mented uponis placed, is as follows, copper, zinc, tin iron, and lead. That the electric currents produced are exactly pro- portional to, and dependent upon, the conducting powers, Faraday conceives to be established, by the perfect ventrali- ty displayed when two metals, or other substances, as acid, water, &c. are opposed to each other, for then the feeble cur- rent, which tends to be produced in the worse conductor, has its transmission favoured in the better conductor, and the stronger current, tending to form in the latter, has its inten- sity diminished by the obstruction of the former; and the forces of generation and obstruction are so perfectly balanc- ed as to neutralise each other exactly : therefore as the obstruction is inversely as the conducting powers, the ten- dency to generate a current must be directly as that power to produce this perfect equilibrium.
in endeavouring to explain the phenomena of the mag- netism of rotation, Messrs. Babbage and Herschell had attributed them to the production, during the period, of rotation in the rotating plate, of a feeble polarity, similar in kind to that existing in iron. When by the adjustment of the attractive and repulsive forces exerted in different positions between the magnet and plate, the singular results it was | _ considered might be explained. This view, as we formerly remarked, proved utterly inadequate to the explanation of the phenomena, save in the single case of iron; and Faraday now thought he had devised a decisive apeeiniaial test, by which it would be shewn whether the polarity developed during rotation was of the same, or of an entirely different nature to that present in ferruginous bodies: “ no other known power,” he reasoned, “ has like direction with that ex- erted between an electric current and a magnetic pole; it is
20 Experimental Researches in Electricity.
tangential, while all other forces acting at a distance are di- rect. Hence, if a magnetic pale on one side of a revolving plate, followed its course by reason of its obedience to the tangential force exerted upon it by the very current of elec- tricity; which it hasitself caused, a similar pole on the oppo- site side of the plate would immediately set it free from this force; for the currents which tend to be formed by the ac- tion. of the two poles are in opposite directions ; or rather no current tends to be formed, or no magnetic curves are in- tersected, and therefore the magnet should remain at rest. On the contrary, if the action of a north magnetic pole were to produce a southness in the nearest part of the copper plate, and a diffuse northness elsewhere, as is really the case
with iron; then the use of a north pole on the opposite side
_ of the same part of-the plate should double the effect, instead of destroying it, and double the tendency of the first
magnet to move with the plate. On submitting these views to the test of experiment, the fullest evidence was ob- tained that with iron, and other bodies admitting of ordina-
ry magnetic induction, opposite poles on opposite sides of .
the edge of the plate neutralise each other’s. effect, whilst similar poles exalt the action. But with copper and sub- stances not sensible to ordinary magnetic impression, similar poles on opposite sides of the plate neutralise each other ; opposite poles exalt the action, and a single pole at the edge or end does nothing.” ‘ Nothing,” Faraday concludes, “ can more completely shew the thorough independence of the ef- fects obtained with metals -by Arago, and those due to ordi- nary magnet force; and henceforth therefore the applicati- on of two poles to various moving substances will, if they appear at all magnetically affected, afford a proof of the na- . ture of that affection. If opposite poles produce a greater effect than one pole, the result will be due to electric cur- rent. If similar poles produce more effect than one, then the power is not electrical ; it is not like that active in the
Experimental Researches in Electricity. 21
- metals and carbon when they are moving, and in most cases will probably be found to be not even magnetical, but the re- sult of irregular causes not anticipated, and consequently not guarded against.” It therefore appears that there are in reality very few bodies magnetic in the same manner as iron; and as warranted by the result of his investigations, Faraday divides all substances into three classes with reference to their relation to magnets; first, those which are affected _ when at rest, like iron, nickel, &c. being such as. possess ordinary magnetic properties ; then those which are affected when in motion, being conductors: of electricity in which currents are produced by the ‘inductive force of the magnet ; and, lastly, those which are perfectly indifferent to the mag- net, whether at-rest or in motion.
Extended research will still be necessary to afford a foundation for a theory including all these differences; but we may remark, that it-appears as if iron and its associ- - ate bodies were constantly in that state into which copper and other conductors are thrown temporarily, while by their rotation they are intersecting magnetic curves, and hence, since it is evident that electricity in motion is the ~ source of this state in the latter case, it follows that it must be ‘so likewise in the former : and from the researches on magneto- electric induction of Faraday, the magnetic theory of Ampére receivés additional and powerful: confirmation.
We have now terminated our notice of the first and second series of the researches, and we would fain hope that - in presenting, although it has necessarily been in general terms, a view of their varied and important results, our la- bour has not been in vain: we have still an extensive field before us in the remaining researches, which- increase in- _ terest and. value as they progress: to these we will return on another occasion, and méanwhile would only in conclu- sion state, that general law, to which the wonderful assem- blage of new phenomena discovered by Faraday has been-re-
22 Fictitious Vegetable Impressions in Sandstone Rocks.
naling a
duced. This law is, that if a wire cut the magnetic ciirves, a power is called into action that tends to excite in it an electric current; and if a mass move across the same curves, its parts being in different directions, and with vary- ing angular velocities, there also are electric currents called into eals.ence. |
Fictitious Vegetable Impressions in Sandstone Rocks. By Lieut. R. Batrp Suitn, Bengal Engineers.
An observation recently made on the effects produced by very minute currents of water on the surface of newly depo- sited beds of sand, has led me to conjecture, that possibly some of those vegetable-like impressions so constantly found - in sandstone rocks, may owe their origin to the action of similar causes, instead of being the casts of decayed organic structures. The circumstances under which the observa- tion alluded to was made, were these : to facilitate certain repairs to a masonry dam across the Nowgong river, which intersects the line of the Doab canal, about sixteen miles to the northward of Saharanpore, a temporary “ bund,” or breastwork of sand, protected from the action of the water by means of piles and fascines of straw, was thrown. across the river. The water, however, percolating the sand in minute streams, carried with it a considerable quantity of fine sand, very similar in appearance to that, by the aggrega- tion of which, the sandstone of the Siwalik Hills is formed, and deposited it on the masonry flooring of the dam, to the thickness of about an inch at the thickest part. On examin- ing the surface of this deposit, I was much struck by the vegetable-like appearance exhibited by the small channels cut in it by the running streams, since they presented a per- fect assemblage of the stems, main, and lateral branches of shrubs. I annex a rough outline of a portion of the surface
Fictitious Vegetable Impressions in Sandstone Rocks. 23
of the bed, shewing very distinctly the nature of the effects to which I refer; A B being the revels breastwork of sand, C, D, E, shew- an DTG ing the regular disposition of the
minute channels on the surface of
the deposit: these are invariably
broadest at the point where they
issue from the mass of sand, and
gradually diminishing as they pro-
gress, divide themselves alternately
into a fine network. Since it may with confidence be inferred, that the cause to which these effects are due, would be in fre- quent and extensive operation during those periods required for the formation of our numerous sandstone rocks, it appears _ to follow, that it may occasionally be necessary to distinguish between these surface impressions due to the action of very small streams of running water, and those due to actual im- _ bedding of vegetable remains. It will readily be admitted, that could an impression equally regular i in its outlines, be - transferred to a mass of sandstone, it would be difficult to resist the conviction of its organic origin, and as I have not before seen any reference made to the production of such impressions by the cause herein adverted to, I trust the few observations I have made, as they may tend to eliminate error, will not prove uninteresting. It is easy to conceive a geological catastrophe, which would lead to the immediate enclosing of impressions made by running water in the mass of a sandstone formation; as for example, the covering of a tract of country by volcanic mud or sand, or by the sudden disruption of a lake, the waters of which were heavily charg- ed with sediment or the "deposit on the surface of the ground of the sand held in suspension by rivers after heavy floods.*
* Some sandstones derive a slaty structure from these arborescent, or as Professor Jameson calls them, dendritic delineations, which, however
24 Fictitious Vegetable Impressions in Sandstone Rocks.
Before concluding, I may advert to another peculiarity I have observed in the action of water when falling as rain upon masses of earth exposed to it. This is the division of the surface into a series of regular prismatic columns, occa- sionally so perfect, as to represent a mimic Giant’s Causeway, and shewing a curious analogy between the action of fire and water, the two great antagonist, but co-operative forces in the dynamics of Geology. This prismatic arrangement I have observed only on a very small scale, in different spots in the neighbourhood of Mussoorie} and in some of the sec- tions in the nullah’s beds in the plains, and attribute its ex- istence to the varying tenacity of the surface soil, parts of which yielding sooner than others to the action of the rain, afford greater facilities for its erosive power to operate. An impression exists om my mind, that I have seen the same sort of structure, but on a much larger scale in the district around Bangalore, in the Mysore country, but having made , no written record of the circumstance, I cannot speak posi- tively. Perhaps, Captain Campbell, whose observations on these localities are as minute and careful in detail, as they are interesting and important in general results, may be able to supply some information on the point to which I have alluded.
have always been regarded as mineral rather than organic characters. The eause of these singular and beautiful characters in rocks is still, however, an unsettled point in which the observations of Lieut. Smith must have considerable influence.—Ep.
25
Suggestions regarding the probable origin of some kinds of Kunkur, and the influence of deliquescent Salts on Vegeta- tion. By Captain J. CAMPBELL, Assistant Surveyor Ge-
neral, Madras Establishment.
The information which Mr.. Liston has obligingly given us at page 125 of this volume, refers to some remarks by me published in the India Review, written in consequence of reading the paper by that gentleman, page 236, vol. i. of this work.
In the soils of Mysore and of the Barramahal, I have found that muriate of lime and of magnesia are very common ; in some spots in such profusion, that I have obtained two or three ounces of these salts by lixivating about a peck of the earth. Both the above salts are very deliquescent, and there- fore such spots are remarkable by being quite damp, while all the surrounding soil was quite dry in the hot weather. The surface of the red marle formation of Mysore is gener- ally bare and arid, but at Burrah Ballapoor, 14 miles S. W. of Nundidroog, the spot is particularly fertile, and the above deliquescent salts are found on lixivating the soil of the hollows.—Similar soils to those which yield the salts in the ' greatest profusion are scraped up, and applied by the native gardeners to the surface of the soils of brinjal gardens, by which the fruit becomes of very large size, and at Bullapoor, where the salts are common, the brinjals are commonly full _ five inches in diameter.
Lieutenant Newbold remarks (Madras Journal, vol. x. page 117): “ It is a curious fact that many gardens, particu- larly at Bellary, formerly extremely productive, now yield comparatively speaking, little or nothing ; this I have found to arise from the practice of irrigating them with water drawn from brackish springs, the water evaporating leaves its saline contents disseminated in the soil, which by con- stant progressive accumulation, first diminishes, and after- wards destroys the power of vegetation.” As Lieutenant
E
26 Origin of some kinds of Kunkur.
Newbold does not appear to have examined either the saline - contents of either the water or the soil, a latitude for spe- culation may be assumed, and I am inclined to think it pro- bable that the garden may have owed its fertility to the deliquescent salts in question, and-that these being decom- posed by the possibly alkaline water of the well, have made the soil unproductive, in consequence of its being deprived of a supply of moisture absorbed from the air; or from no longer being able to retain the moisture supplied to it. From the facts above stated, I am inclined to think that deliquescent salts in soils may produce considerable effect upon the fertility of land in tropical climates, and as I am not aware that the remark has ever been made before, it may be as well that experiments should be made upon this sub- ject. For this I have myself neither leisure nor. opportunity, but to any person who will take up the enquiry, I would — suggest, in the first place, to try if muriate of lime produces any deleterious action upon the roots of a plant, This might be easily done by setting a plant growing in a flower pot \in a saucer filled with a strong solution of the salt, which has been exposed for several days to the atmosphere, and in the next place, the effect of weak solution should be tried. The muriate of lime for the purpose may be readily made’ by adding quick lime to a solution of the sal-ammoniac of the — bazars, and boiling it until no more ammonia is given off. Mr. Liston in his remarks at page 236, vol. i. of this work, alludes to a kind of soils which he terms “ danjar,” and men- tions that they require to be irrigated. If they are incapable of producing crop without being irrigated, there must be a very remarkable difference between the soils of Bengal and of the South of India, for every kind of soil in this part of the country is productive, except when it is too sandy or too stony. Our soils therefore resemble more what Mr. Liston calls “‘ bhat,” which possibly derive the power of retaining moisture from the deliquescent salts they may contain. This
_——.
Se
a
Origin of some kinds of enkur. at
might be easily proved by lixivating portions of the different soils.
I do not find that we have any information regarding the geology of Goruckpore, but, supposing that most of the soils of Bengal are alluvial, (in South India very few soils are so,) it would seem extraordinary how they should contain a salt.
Many of the wells of the Barramahal contain muriate of lime in considerable quantity, yet it does not appear that the _ people and cattle who use the water suffer any ill effects from it. Iam informed by a medical authority that many wells and springs in South India are known to contain salts which produce bad effects upon the health of persons not accus- tomed to the use of them.
In consequence of the prevalence of muriate of lime in the soils of South India, it may naturally be supposed that some kinds of Kunkur, such as the branched ramified kind, (which some writers have supposed to be formed by deposition upon the roots of plants,) may have been produced by the decom- position of the muriate of lime by the carbonate of soda, which appears to be common in many parts of India; and accordingly the red marle formation of Mysore, where the carbonate of soda is scarce, so also kunkur-is almost un- known, while in the Barramahal, soda and kunkur generally occur together. This would be a famous subject to theorise upon, but I shall pursue it in detail no more at present.
The accounts which Mr. Liston has given us of the action of tests on the waters he had examined, are much the same as upon the waters of the saline wells in the South of India. The precipitate by boiling is most probably sulphate of lime, which being only slightly soluble, the water may have been saturated with it, and a portion was deposited as the water was driven off in vapour. The effects of tests for lime or for muriatic acid are not given, but we must hope that Mr. Liston will not let the subject drop.
28 Origin of some kinds of Kunkur.
The water may be tested first with a little solution of soap in alcohol, which will shew if it contains any earthy salt ; that it contains no metallic salt, has been shewn by prussiate of potash producing no effect.
Oxalic acid, phosphoric acid, or their alkaline salts will shew if the water contains any lime, and a little lime water will shew if it contains any free carbonic acid, which might cause the precipitate on boiling. Nitrate of silver will shew the presence of muriatic acid, and an alkalic prosphate with excess of ammonia will shew the presence of magnesia.
Mr. Liston of course will be perfectly aware of what the action of the above tests indicate, but I make the remark to point out which will be most satisfactory if the subject is followed up.
This subject leads me to what may be called “ improvis- ing,’’ tests, for want of a better word. Gentlemen travelling with only a small test chest may often provide themselves with tests by a little ingenuity. For instance, as the princi- pal acids will be always at hand, a test for lime may be provided on an emergency by burning a bone, pounding it, pouring a little sulphuric acid on it, adding a little water, letting it stand ten minutes, filtering, supersaturating the solution with ammonia and filtering again ; a little phosphate of ammonia containing only a very small portion of sulphate, will be thus provided fit to be used as a test in five minutes. Or a little sugar-candy may be boiled with some nitric acid for five minutes, and the filtered solution saturated with ammonia will be a mixture of oxalate and nitrate of ammonia, which will be a capital test at once. It is unnecessary to pursue the subject farther in this place, but it will easily be seen that a traveller well acquainted with the processes of operative chemistry may very often supply his wants on an emergency with very slender means at command, and may thus render it unnecessary to lumber himself with a multi- tude of tests.
29
Remarks on Pteropus Edulis, Geoffroy. By Lieut. Ticket. Plate. III.
Order, 3d Carnassier—Family, Cheiroptera— Genus, Ves- pertilio—Subgenus, Pteropus (of Brisson)—Species, Edulis ? (of Geoffroy.)
“ Black Roussette’—Flying Fox—Kalong of Java—Ba- door of Hindoostan—Malanon Bourou of the Malays.
_ Dimensions of a mature Male.
Jeet. inch. From tip to tip of wings,...... 4 2 Snout to rump,.......... 112 ORR eet ree ie 33 Humerus, ayes: ee 5 WN ov ao aks ees 63 Thumb, (without claw,) .. 2 Claw ofthumb, (chord toare,) iz Little finger, ............ 87 Of which 1st Phalanx, 0 42 ee ee ot Second finger, ....... 0 10 2
3d Ph.,.... 2. Middle finger,........ 1 1 Ist Phalanx, 0 4% 5 20 Ph...) Be Sd Ph.,..:. 42 Index finger,.......... 0 5 (with little claw.) Ist Phalanx, 3 4 2a°FPh.,....
30 Remarks on Pteropus Edulis Geoffroy.
feet. inch. PONG 2 Sic OC eae a y iaeBtes erat aden, 35 FRG DAW. Sends cata te 2 Its claw (cord to arc), = Length of ear,.......... 1s Between ears, .......... 1s Between shoulders. across : “back, .... 2... 2} , Breadth of interfemoral dene membrane, .. .. 1} 8 e ; incisors. canines. molars. s § 3 3 Ai mis OL eel 4—~ i ate She% Teeth, | a la 0
Incisors, square, blunt, separate. Canines large, quadrangular (being flattened on all four sides), the lower canines flat posteally, anteriorly round. Upper Molars, trenchant, conical, triangular, longitudinally bifid, two nezt flat, oblong, longitudinally bifid, i. e. a groove runs along upper surface, dividing each tooth into two blunt tubercles.. Last Molar flat, rudimentary. Behind lower canine, a small rudimentary flat tooth. Next to which molar long, conical. Four next oblong flattened. Last one small. All of them fur- rowed by a longitudinal hollow into two blunt lateral tubercles.* All the teeth are peparate, and when the jaws are closed pertially in- terlock.
Tongue.—Long, narrow, with aiouths tip; thick strong papille on upper surface.
Nose. —Septum deeply bifid, betel: nostrils .semi- circular; muz- zle almost bare, leathery, with small vibrisse.
Ear.—Conical, sharp-pointed, plain, no developed tragus ; trans- verse lamina.
Eye.—Pupil round, contracted to a point in day-light.
* These tubercles become obsolete by age, and the surface of molars
flattens. ‘\
Remarks on Pteropus Edulis, Geoffroy. 31
Colour.—Male. Muzzle almost smooth, blacker sooty, which colour extends half way up head, and along the cheeks, but with a browner tinge on latter ; fur of chin black, fading through smoky red brown into colour of throat and breast. Head, to as far as line between ears reddish tawny, with smoky red hairs intermixed. Round roots of ears smoky chesnut; from thence to shoulders and top of back clear golden tawny, parted from black of back by an edging of chesnut. Below the cheeks, breast, and belly tawny, red- dest on throat and chest, pale in centre of belly, and fading into . “smoky brown about pubis and on flanks. All the limbs covered with smoky black fur. Back and along humerus, plain black with grey © hairs mixed, thighs the same. Flying membrane pale, plain black- ish inside, ears black, claws ditto : eyes smoky reddish chesnut : nose black: fur near humerus below wings smoky reddish. Genitals black leather.
The female is smaller and obscurer in colour. Head smoky brown, blackish on muzzle. Dark smoky chesnut on throat—under parts dark brownish tawny. Pubis and inside thighs smoky reddish brown. Upper part of back and neck duller than male, and back of thighs dashed dusky red. Czetera pares.
Fur.—Rough below like mohair, lying flatter and smoother on back, but harsh.
Wing.—Humerus and radius very muscular, phalanges of fingers similar to those of other bats, but index ended by a small hooked nail bending upwards, or outwards from the plane of wing. Wing near arm clothed with scanty woolly fur. And from radius to edge of the membrane extend interrupted parallel muscular strips, fifteen
in number : these are crossed here and there by veins, and one very large strip runs along interfemoral membrane, up its centre. Carti- laginous appendage from near root of inner toe running through (across) interfemoral membrane, weak and small. No vestige of tail. The wing membrane ‘attaches to the root of the index finger of the hind paw, spreading across front of foot or instep. _ Paws.—As in all bats—claws subequal.
Genitals —Male. Testes large, oval, placed on each side of penis. Penis pendant, with flat denuded glans, having a lateral opening to urethra, becomes erect as in monkey or man,—Female.
32 Remarks ~ Pteropus Edulis, Geoffroy.
Oval, latera™: iain orifice immediately between the bones of the pelvis, which approximate. In both sexes the parts are placed so forward, that it is probable they copulate’ face to face. Urethra, or Wola Gf Talis, “Sepates te. ee ee with an ovarium at — either extremity.
Mansi. is patio venyitie bait, remote, immediately un- der axillz, very large in female. oor
Sternum keel-shaped as in birds, “Hic inlinchnwba ofthe. nicdag pectoral muscles. Liver largé, deeply divided into four ‘lobes. In- testines very much as in human subject, but apparently no colon or ccecum. Spleen lérze and long, ribs 12, clavicles distinct. Con- dyles of jaw transverse oblong preventing lateral motion, Nasal bones prolonged 40 ‘aiid ‘of -Sanatale, so as to leave but a trifling quan-
tity of cartilage: Habitat. —Throughout Continental India, but not beyond the
Cis-Himalayan range -(I believe). In Java, Sumatra, Malacca, and . - most probably. throughout the Eastern Archipelago and Southern China. Frequent’ large trees in groves, open mene or forest, but always near cultivation. :
Remarks.—The “ Flying fox” is one. of eat Cominonest animals of India, and one of.the most characteristic features — of a tropical night. Every evening these animals may be — seen flying heavily along in one particular direction, singly © or in parties of 5 or 6. As they seldom alight until the dusk has deepened, their manners and method of procuring their food on the trees they frequent is seldom noticed, at Jeast by the casual observer, however familiar their demon-like forms may be to him, as they flag heavily through the night air.
The Pteropi rest during -day-light on some large tree, preferring for this purpose the tamarind, which they never _ quit when once selected, although équally inviting trees may be in the immediate vicinity, Generation after generation | resort to this one tree, until excess of numbers forces a part — - to select another, but the transfer is not effected without difficulty, the oldest bats ejecting the weaker and younger. It must have been a familiar sight to many, to see some-
Remarks on Pteropus Edulis,..Geoffroy. 33
huge tree, in the centre of a village, on the skt : of-a: forest or in.the midst of a wide plain, garnished by hundreds of the dangling bodies of these animals. A person stationed near. such a spot at the first break of dawn might see the " Pteropi come stealing: back. to their retreat from all quar- ters. From the arrival of the first comer, until the sun is high above the horizon, a scene of incessant wrangling and contention is enacted amongst them, as each endeavours to - secure a higher and better place, or to eject a neighbour from too close vicinage. _In these struggles the bats hook them- selves along the branches, scrambling ‘about hand over hand” with some speed, biting’ each other severely, striking out with the long claw of the thumb, and shrieking and cackling without intermission. Each new arrival is compel- led to fly several times round the tree, being threatened from _ all: points, and when he eventually hooks on, has to go ' through a series of combats, and be probably ejected two or three times before he makes good his ‘tenure’. The ‘¢ alarums—excursions,” continue till 8, 9, or 10 a. m. when _ they get sleepy, and hang side by side in peace, fan-
ning themselves with .their wings, which in repose they : wrap round the head, slumbering with the chin on the breast and the muzzle covered by the membrane of the last ‘pha- ~ langes. The usual noises of a village, in the centre of which they often select their roosting place, do not appear to disturb them, or to cause further stir than a production . of two or three heads from within. their mantles, which after a logk on the houses and people: below, and‘a few rapid - tremulous movements of the ears, are again popped into | their envelopes. The report of a gun causes dreadful com- motion; they rise in clouds from: the tree, and continue cir- cling round and round, having to fight their battles over ° again when left to resettle, and to go through the whole scene, shrieking, cackling, and contention of the morning.’
- Their departure for their nightly rambles is unattended by
F
34 Remarks on Pteropus Edulis, Geoffroy.
any of this uproar. As the sun sinks below the horizon, the Pteropi drop silently from the branches, one by one, — and sail away into the coming gloom. They first shape their course to a tank or river, and sweeping down to the water’s surface, lap as they fly along, until their thirst is sated, when they wend their course to the trees, the fruit vi which may happen to be in season.
This animal is entirely frugiverous, devouring almost any fruit, either wild or of the garden, in which at times he makes great havoc, especially among plantains. Among wild fruits, they prefer the mowhooa berries, and the figs of the bar, peepul, and goolar.
They eat, when alighted, in silence, hanging heel down- wards by one hind foot, the other being employed in hold- ing the food,* which is devoured slowly, in large mouthfulls at a time, both cheeks being crammed full, and the tongue . protruded. Its jaws being incapable of lateral motion, the animal is compelled to open and shut them solemnly up and down, munching, so to say, all the while with great deliber- ation. Those I have now in captivity (five in number) are fed on goolars, (Ficus glomerata), which they chew in the manner above mentioned, until they have extracted all the juice, when the remaining pulp is ejected out of the mouth. Glutinous and farinaceous food, such as plantains, they do not serve in this manner.
Many classes of Hindoos, sitiotiabep in Bengal’eat these animals, and in Java (if our subject be the same as the “ Kalong” of Dr. Horsfield,) they are thought a delicacy. The flesh looks well enough, but the animal has a strong penetrating odour, which one would suppose would affect the taste ; this smell is as bad in the female as in the male; it pervades the body, and does not exude from any secreting gland—at least, I can find none.
* It does not hold the fruit by grasping, but by sticking its claws in, in the fashion of a prong or fork.
Remarks on Pteropus Edulis, Geoffroy. 35
. The Flying Fox, or ‘ Badoor” is very easily tamed. It will eat or drink from the hand a day or two after capture, even when wounded. It drinks eagerly at all hours, lapping milk or water with its long pointed tongue, and it readily ‘ learns to eat in the day time as well as at night. I have kept one now, the wing of which was broken by shot, many weeks. ‘Hookey,’ as he has been named, has become per- fectly familiar, rather fearless than tame, for he attacks ' the approaching hand, tooth and nail, (literally,) although he will eat and drink from it. He is accommodated with a high narrow box, having a projecting grating, to which he hangs suspended, endeavouring to grapple all passers with sound hook or thumb claw, to see whether they have any eatables upon them. When angry, he opens the mouth, growling or . cackling in the fashion of a monkey, and striking out forcibly with the afore-mentioned claw or hook. If the contest wax yoo warm for him, he swings round, and strides. back into his box, head downwards all the time, of course.
. The modus copulandi must be, I imagine, vis-a-vis. _ Thé female generally brings forth one young one, which ad- lieres firmly to-the breast by means of its claws, retaining its position whether the dam be flying or at rest. They may bring forth two, but I have seen several old females fly- ing about with a single young one sticking on to:them, never _ with more. The young are born about the end of March _ and April; they are I believe blind when exuded, and they continue a ‘fixture’ on the mother till the end of May or early in June, when they are nearly as big as herself.
I should be glad to know whether the present subject is the Pteropus Edulis or Javanicus of Dr. Horsfield. Geof- froy's Cuvier merely describes the animal as black, with top of neck and back 'tawny. No mention is made of the whole of the under-parts being tawny or brown. ‘The expanse of wings is also given as above 5 feet. The specimen | have here described was the largest of 8 or 9, and not above 4
36 Methods of estimating accurately
_ feet 2 inches across the wings. It is an old one too, for the teeth are well mumbled or worn down.
Seeing that bats are condemned to hang ever head down- wards, it is not an impertinent question to ask how they void their excrement, without interfering with their own persons. This is minutely explained in Geoffroy’s Cuvier, Mammalia, vol. ii. page 95. The Pteropus goes through the same ceremonies precisely as the bats described in that publication; viz. when urged by the call of nature, it adroitly reverses its position by hanging on with the thumb claws and letting go its feet, when of course, with reference to its own head there is no further occasion for the precau- tion. me Since commencing this paper, of five I had in captivity, and from which most of these remarks are taken, but one re- mains, two died of their wounds; one of decline, (although it ate ravenously to the hour of its death ;) one flew away. The remaining one is in good condition and perfectly tame. They were very quarrelsome when together, and frequently bit and wounded each other severely. The animals are cruelly infested by a tough nimble spider-shaped tick (Oribata Ves- pertilionum,) which the most incessant scratching fails in getting rid of.
Methods of estimating accurately the Substances usually present in Water. By Mn. A. Roserrson, Calcutta.
Before describing these processes, it may be of service to mention. something about the vessels to be used, and the manipulation, ye quantity of water ought to be determined by weight, as being much - more accurate than measurement, and 10,000 grs. is a very conveni- ent portion for the purpose. To concentrate this by evaporation, a _ wedgewood-ware basin, usually recommended, is rather improper, on . account of the difficulty of excluding dust from it, and the porosity of
.
A Substances usually present in W ner, ST
the ware now generally sold under that name. A glass flask is pre- ferable, and much more convenient, the water in it being made to boil briskly on a sand-bath, or over a lamp or chauffer of charcoal, A Florence oil flask is better than a flint glass one, being of a harder glass, less easily attacked by the boiling water, and though it can be filled little more than half full at the outset, as the water is boiled off, it may be filled up by pouring in the remainder of the water through a funnel so as not to touch the empty part of the flask, and doing this smartly before the issuing steam has time to heat the neck of the funnel. In this case there is no risk of breakage.
Should it be required to evaporate to complete dryness, this is best done by using the flask until about 300 grs. of liquid’ only (unless the water be very saline) remain. This is poured out into a platina vessel, a capsule of German porcelain, or the lower part of a flask cut off, washing out any sediment from the flask by distilled water, and adding it to this fluid remainder. From such a vessel it can be easily removed after all the moisture is dissipated.
In precipitating _ the different substances, wine glasses do not. answer, as the matter thrown down adheres to their conical sides. Test tubes for small portions, and tall vials with flat bottoms for . larger, answer much better. It is also much more accurate for small quantities to dispense with filters in collecting precipitates, provid- ed the experimenter be not pressed in point of time. To manage without these, the precipitate should be allowed to subside com- pletely, the clear liquid above it be run off by a small syphon, dis- tilled water put in its place, agitated, allowed to become clear, again run off; and this be repeated till the washing from soluble saline - matter be judged completé. The sediment is then transferred into a small procelain capsule or platina crucible, carefully washing the last — portions out of the glass, allowed to repose a sufficient time, the clear liquid above removed by a pipette, the moisture evaporated, the precipitate heated to faint redness and weighed, deducting the tare of the little vessel containing it.
Should a speedy result be desired, filtering may be employed, washing the precipitate on the filter with distilled water by a © pipette. The thick spongy paper with a rough surface, usually sold as filtering paper, is unsuitable for this, because a very appreciable
38 Methods of estimating accurately
quantity of the fine precipitate either adheres to its surface inse- parably, or even sinks into its substance. ‘The best is a sort of thinish blotting paper, with one of its surfaces apparently glazed, from which the dried precipitate easily scales off, leaving but a very small trace upon it. Weighing the precipitate, on a previously weighed filter, is inadmissible, as the paper will vary in weight according to its degree of exsiccation, and it is scarcely possible to hit the precise stage of dryness in which it was when first weighed. Burning the filter and adding the ashes to the precipitate will give an excess of weight, unless a corresponding portion of the paper be burnt, and the weight of its ashes subtracted. Even in this case, there is a source of error in the obstinate retention, in spite of all washing, of some saline matter in the very edge of the filter, a source of error which also holds in regard to the estimation of substances upon a filter previously weighed.
- All precipitates to be weighed should, immediately previous, be exposed to a heat visibly red, with the exception of such as would be volatilized or decomposed by it. These are usually dried, for an hour or two, at the heat of boiling water. The ignition of small quantities is best performed on platina over a spirit lamp.
The first step in the process is to ascertain the substances pre-
sent in the water, by testing. All natural waters contain a little -
atmospheric air, sometimes with an excess, sometimes with a deficiency of oxygen. Unless the analysis be a scientific one, this may be neglected. Carbonic acid gas is a usual ingredi-nt. This is most certainly detected, when free, by boiling the water in a retort or flask fitted with a bent tube, and receiving the evolved gas in lime or barytes water, when white carbonate of these earths will be preci- pitated. Some of the usual methods of preventing error from the absorption of the carbonic acid gas in the atmosphere should be adopted. Carbonates are precipitated by boiling, and recognised by effervescing with acids. Sulphuretted hydrogen is known by its smell, or when in minute quantity, by the blackening of the recent water by salts of lead, bismuth, or copper. It is soon decomposed on exposure to the air. Sulphuric acid is indicated when a white precipitate falls on adding to the water first nitric acid to prevent the precipitation of a carbonate, and then nitrate of barytes. The liquid
a
the Substances usually present in Water. 39
separated from this precipitate will shew muriatic acid on adding nitrate of silver. Nitric acid, which may be looked for in all surface water in India, is indicated by concentrating the water by evapora- tion, and adding gold leaf, muriatic acid, and boiling it, or better, by adding a little pure sulphuric acid, free in particular from nitric oxide gas, which almost all ordinary sulphuric acid contains, and putting into it a small crystal or two of pure green proto-sulphate of iron, and applying heat, upon which, if that acid:be present, a dark greenish hue will soon pervade the liquid in the neighbourhood of the crystal. Vegetable acids or other matters, such as crenic acid in springs, and vegetable infusory matters in surface waters, will blacken on exposing to heat the residuum of the evaporation of the water; and if animal matter be also present, ammonia will be evolved, shewn by the cloud formed beside a rod dipped in muriatic acid and held over it, or more delicately, by reddening the yellow of moist turmeric paper also held above it. Some of these substances © when in solution also give a brown precipitate with nitrate of silver.
The residuum of evaporation, if boracic acid, met with in some waters, be in it, when mixed with a little sulphuric acid will tinge. burning alcohol of a beautiful green, not the bluish green given in the fire by common salt. Iodine, though in minute quantity, will, on making thin solution of starch with the water nearly boiling, and cooling it, give with a little chlorine water, or even with nitric acid, a blue film where the two different liquids touch each other. Bromine, to be looked for in salt waters, is best detected by heating in a test tube with pure sulphuric acid the precipitate from the wa- ter by nitrate of silver, when reddish or yellowish-brown vapours of bromine, like those of nitrous acid, will be evolved.
The bases of the salts usually present in water may be detected as follows :—Lime by oxalate of ammonia, a white precipitate in a somewhat diluted solution. Magnesia, in the water from which the lime has been thus separated, by a white precipitate on the addition of carbonate of ammonia and phosphate of soda or ammonia, Alu- mina, provided no peroxide of iron be present, by acidulating the water, and adding carbonate of ammonia with cons.ant stirring, so that the liquid may be strongly charged with free carbonic acid, on
40 Methods of estimating accurately
which there is a white precipitate soluble in potass water, and this, if the quantity of iron be not great, may even bé a good test if the iron be previously partially de-oxidized by a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen gas. In general, however, alumina and iron in a solution fall together. Iron gives an ultimately rusty precipitate with an al-
__ kaline carbonate, a black with tannin, and if peroxidized, a blood red
colour with sulpho-cyanate of potass. Ferro-cyanate of potass is not a good test, as it often gives a blue with an acid solution, owing to a - partial decomposition of its own acid. Potass, in a concentrated ‘so- lution of the water, gives a bright yellow crystalline precipitate with chloride of platina, but no ammoniacal salts must be present, as these yield one exactly similar. Soda is recognised when a little of the residuum of the evaporation is exposed to the blow-pipe flame on a loop of platina wire, by an orange-coloured bright cone of flame proceeding from it. A great excess of potass imparts to this « viclet' tinge.
If it be desired to ascertain the quantities of the different com- pound salts contained in any water, the analytical chemist must . determine those of their acids and bases, and then by calculation according to equivalents, and the best lights afforded by some che- mical facts known regarding the play of elective affinities in such mixtures, proceed to state the compositions in which they exist. Here, though in regard to the most common substances, he has some pretty sure guides, a good deal must be mere probability. One chemist, for instance, supposes that they are in a state of mutual com- bination, forming only one chemical body, not a mixture of different compounds, but this appears rather unlikely. Another thinks, that they exist in the state of such salts as hayg.the greatest affinity for water, i. e. are most soluble, not according to what others imagine, that the strongest acids are united with the strongest bases. This jas qoninn to tik pvetty gunctaieed prabehie eptelan.Sahiteariee a good many facts tending to subvert it. ©
So Ser on ta ‘Tilia :whein: 0) wilak liebemndualina: taaanaeyal concentrated by evaporation a play. of affinities takes place, by which, at the new degree of concentration, old substances are decom- posed and new combinations formed. Thus, in evaporating sea water, muriate of lime and sulphate of soda, seem to give sulphate of
_ the Substances usually present in Water. 41
“ime and chloride of sodium; and thus also a solution of bi-car- bonate of magnesia and sulphate of lime yields carbonate of lime and - sulphate of magnesia. These changes seem to be determined by the. relative solubilities of these salts in a certain proportion of the liquid. In like manner, alcohol may often precipitate from a mix- ture of acids and bases, not the existing compounds, but such new compounds as are insoluble in it. Temperature too has a great effect ; for instance, sulphuric and muriatic acids, soda and magnesia, at the freezing point of water, give rise to muriate of magnesia and sulphate ,of soda, which crystallizes; but at the boiling point, to ‘chloride of ‘sodium, which crystallizes, and a solution of sulphate of magnesia. It is evident then that the complicated methods of separating the different salts in waters, copied by many chemical system writers downwards. from the time of their contriver Mr Kirwan, are, to say the least, useless ; even if the practicability and’ correctness of many of them were not more than questionable. _ In proceeding with the analysis after the substances contained in the water have been discovered by testing, the gaseous substances may be first estimated. For the atmospheric air, if it be thought necessary to measure it, take a small/tubulated retort, cork the end of the neck, fillit completely with aXnown quantity of the water, and then stop the tubuture with a cor\#pierced with a small tube to con- duct away the water displaced Sy the evolved gas. This will be collected in the neck on heating the water to the boiling point. Transfer it into a measure tube. Absorb any carbonic acid by lime or potass, then remove the oxygen by phosphorus. Thus the bulk .of the oxygen and nitrogen emitted by a given weight of water, may be readily known. The free carbonic acid is usually directed to be ascertained by expelling it from the water by boiling, and collecting it over mercury. This, however, gives no good or uniform result in many instances, owing to the long boiling required, and the quantity of water vapo- rised, before the whole of the excess of carbonic acid is driven off from the bi-carbonates present in the solution. A better process seems to be the following. Pour 10,000 grains of the water into.a stoppered flask, add to it an excess of lime water, allow the precipi- tate to subside, pour off by a syphon the liquid above) wash. The G
42 Methods of estimating accurately
result is a mixture of carbonates with magnesia, alumina, and iron,
if present. For strict accuracy, this must be wrapt up in thin paper
in one or more pellets, and transmitted to the top of a measure tube . full of mercury, where it is decomposed by a little muriatic acid, and the gas given out measured. This is the whole of the carbonic: acid
contained in the water, whether free or combined. The quantity of ~ the combined is afterwards ascertained in a different manner, and being subtracted from this, the remainder is that which was free.
Should lime alone be in the water, the carbonate of lime precipitated
may be heated and weighed at once as carbonate, and from it the
equivalent of carbonic acid derived. . This process is correct only
when thé carbonic acid in the atmosphere is excluded from the free
lime in the flask.
The walphuiretted hpdrtigen ix: lencrwii!loy “adding hchation “olan ate of copper in excess, filtering the precipitate from the liquid, and -washing it quickly, that it may not be oxidized by the air into sul- phate of copper; then putting it moist into nitro-muriatic acid, and boiling till both the copper and sulphur present are dissolved. Muriate or nitrate of barytes will after this give a precipitate of sul- “phate of barytes, from which the quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen may be easily inferred.
Ten thousand grains of the water should now be evaporated to dryness, the residue heated to slight redness, and weighed to give _ the whole saline contents of the water, as a check upon the amount of the substances found individually, Thus also the silica, often pre- sent, is separated. It will appear like bits of jelly towards the end of the evaporation, and on moistening the dry mass with muriatic acid, allowing it to stand for some time, and then boiling it in water, , the silica will remain insoluble. The solution separated, from this might serve subsequently for ascertaining the quantity of bases, but as there is always a little loss in each operation, it is better, if there is plenty of the water, to take a fresh portion. Some guess of the quantity of animal or vegetable matters in the water may alsd be — now formed from that of the carbon which will probably be mixed with the silica, and which ‘will be burnt away in i it. To de- termine these exactly, would require difficult and i pro- _ cesses, which are not pretended to be here given.
the Substances usually present in Water. 43
~'To discover the amount of combined carbonic acid, the greater part of a portion of the water is boiled off; the earthy carbonates and iron are thus precipitated. This precipitate is treated as above, over
" mercury in a tube, to give the carbonic acid combined with the
earths or oxide of iron; or, should it be unmixed carbonate of lime, it may be ignited, and the carbonic acid estimated directly *from
its weight.
Should the water contain carbonic acid in urion with potass
ie or soda, it may be then separated by pouring in solution of pure
nitrate of lime. The precipitate is carbonate of lime, from which - the carbonic acid may be easily calculated.
To the ‘solution | now freed from carbonates, nitrate of barytes is added. From the weight of the precipitate is got that of the ‘sulphuric. acid. Should boracic acid be present, the precipitate will contain borate of barytes,. which, ‘previous to weighing it, must
- be dissolved out by digestion in diluted nitric acid.
Into the solution thus freed from sulphates, nitrate of silver is poured, to separate the muriatic acid. Chloride of silver precipitates, which must: be fused into a horn-like substance, before it is weighed to estimate the chlorine in it. As, in case of boracic acid in the water, it may be contaminated with borate of silver, it must also be previously purified by the action of diluted nitric acid.
The only good method of separating nitric acid is the following : Concentrate the water highly by evaporation. . Remove the muriatic
acid in it by the action of sulphate of silver. Then add to it in a
small retort pure sulphuric acid. Distil to dryness into a receiver in which is water containing pure carbonate of barytes diffused in it. Nitrate of barytes is formed, sulphuric acid is added to this in solution, and from the weight of the precipitated sulphate of barytes, the equivalent weight of the nitric acid is inferred.
The boracic acid may be obtained by evaporation of the water to dryness, adding sulphuric acid in quantity sufficient to decompose the saline matter present, dissolving out the boracic acid by alcohol, adding ammonia to prevent any of it from passing off with the alcoholic vapours, evaporating to dryness and ignition, by which pure boracic acid alone remains. 3
The bromine will be found associated with the chlorine precipitated
44 Methods of estimating accurately
by silver, to ascertain the muriatic acid. The quantity of it will most
likely be imponderable, and there is‘ no method known by. wick ,
its separation from the chlorine can be well effected.
lodine, if present in appreciable quantity, may be precipitated as protiodide of copper by adding a solution of 1 part of sulphate of coppér, mixed with 2}-parts of proto-sulphate of iron.
To estimate the bases of the salts contained in the water, a portion of it is concentrated by evaporation, a little nitric acid having
been previously added with the.double view of retaining in solution . the earthy carbonates, and of peroxidizing the iron. Should its | saline contents be great, it must not, however, be much concentrated?
It is now rendered acidulous by muriatie acid in proportion to
the quantity of lime and magnesia it is supposed to contain, and an
excess of carbonate of ammonia added with constant stirring. The free carbonic acid evolved keeps in solution the lime and magnesia, provided the solution be not too concentrated, while the alumina and peroxide of iron are precipitated and allowed to subside in a closed vial or flask. Or, instead of this, muriate of ammonia is added to retain in solution the magnesia, then aqua ammonie in a flask or vial which the liquid’completely fills, and which is closed to prevent the absorption of carbonic acid from the atmosphere. The - alumina and peroxide of iron will thus be separated and subside, while the lime and magnesia are retained. In an open glass carbonate of lime would also precipitate.
These mixed precipitates may be separated by boiling them in - solution of potass, which dissolves the alumina, and leaves the per- oxide of iron. From the potass solution the alumina may be preci-
pitated by adding muriate of ammonia, and boiling it for some time.
The liquid from which the precipitate has been removed is neutra-
~ tised exactly with muriatic acid, and considerably concentrated by |
boiling. Oxalate of ammonia will now throw down all the lime as
oxalate. This is mixed with sulphuric acid and heated to redness, _ and from the resulting sulphate of lime the quantity of lime is.
deduced.
A mixture of carbonate and phosphate of ammonia is now added to the residual fluid. After 24 hours’ repose, a precipitation of minute crystalline grains, containing the whole of the magnesia, will be com-
the Substances usually present in Water. 45
plete. ‘After these have been heated to redness, neutral phosphate of magnesia remains, from which is known the quantity of magnesiat.
Any sulphuric acid in the remaining fluid, together with the ex- cess of phosphoric, is now removed by acetate of lead, and, after this precipitate is separated, the excess of lead is thrown down by car- bonate of ammonia. There is now left in solution only chlorides of potassium and sodium, and easily volatilizable salts of ammonia. This solution is evaporated to yee ignited, and these chlorides weighed.
They are re-dissolved, and any charcoal from organic matters is separated, and its weight deducted from theirs. A solution of chlo- . ride of platinum is added; the whole is evaporated to dryness, and _ as much is re-dissolved as will dissolve in a little cold water ; chloride
of potassium and platinum remains, from which is gained a know- ~ ledge of the quantity of potass. The quantity of chloride of potassi- um in it is also calculated, and this, deducted from that of the mixed chlorides, gives that. of: the chloride of sodium ; hence that of the soda is derived. If it be wished to exhibit the chloride of sodium apart, it may be done by separating the excess of platinum in the "last solution by carbonate of ammonia, evaporation to : ee and
ignition. q The chemical examination of waters is of immense con- sequence, not so much in reference to what are properly called mineral ‘springs, as in regard to that water employed in the ordinary purposes of life. The presence of a little . animal or vegetable matter, of nitrates, or of a minute portion of some other ingredient, may, by the continued use of such water for months or years, give rise to diseases in a great measure constituting the difference between a healthy and un- healthy locality.. It is also of great consequence in the arts - and manufactures, such as brewing, distilling, sugar refining, bleaching, and particularly in dyeing. A celebrated dyer of a beautiful red’ in France, could not succeed on removing his residence to another place. He investigated the cause, it lay in the water, and, on imitating artificially the water at his former residence, his colour became as bright as before.
46 Methods of estimating accurately
Chemistry is certainly one of the sciences conducing most to the prosperity of a manufacturing and mercantile nation. What was the iron and coal trade of Britain a century ago, before chemistry taught the proper processes for pro- curing that iron economically, and rendering it of good qua- lity. What was-her eotton manufacture till Watt developed some of the chemical properties of steam, and so set her cotton mills in motion. How limited were her resources in dyeing and calico printing till of late years. To what does she owe the economical artificial light of gas, and her now beautiful porcelain. Seventy years ago, what was the beginning of her sulphuric acid manufactories, which are now estimated to produce for her beneficial consumption eighty thousand tons a year. Thirty years ago, where’ was the immense production of soda from sea-salt, through which the price of that article, so necessary in many manufactures, has been lowered to at most a fourth of its then cost. What an immense benefit has resulted to sugar refining from the application to it of late of a single chemical principle; and how much has not a rationally applied chemistry done in increasing the fertility of the soil, and the agricultural pro- duce of Great Britain. Chemistry also lends great aid in developing the vegetable, as well as the mineral treasures of a country. It can turn to valuable purposes vegetable sub- stances of once unknown properties; and linked with geo- logy, the offspring of it, a science, \which, though now ad- vancing rapidly to maturity, had a few years ago no existence. It can traverse a land, and say, here you will find nothing, because in such a configuration of deposit nothing has yet been found ; but here you are likely to find coal, here lime- stone, here ores of iron, copper, tin or lead, silver or gold, because in such situations these have been hitherto found ; and it can determine the composition of these bodies, ascer- tain their value, and the best means of turning them to ac- . count. Such is the rapid progress, that all these wonders
the Substances usually present in Water. . 47
have been effected within the memory of many still alive:
‘Chemistry is one of the most fascinating, as well as one of the most useful of the sciences. ~ Its brilliant experiments, well arranged and dextrously conducted, produce effects far surpassing those recorded in tales of eastern magic, aré often indelibly impressed on the youthful mind, and excite a curio- sity to know their causes, and an ardour in the pursuit of the science, which no privations can damp, no obstacles re- press. ; .
On the Tin of the Province of Mergui. By Capt. G. B. Truwznuzene, Executive Engineer. With a Map, Pl. ii,
(Communicated by the Coal and Mineral Cominittee.}
1. The tin of this province has not been sought fdr since the Bur- mese took possession of the’country from their Siamese neighbours. Under the rule of the latter, or during the period at which Tenasserim was an independent state, extensive works for tin were carried on. It occurs chiefly in the beds and banks of streams issuing from the primitive mountains, which form the principal feature of this ee sula. Portions of the banks of streams in which it is found are, in some instances, rivetted with rough stone work to confine the water for washing operations; and the ground on either side for many miles along their course is penetrated by innumerable pits, from eight to ten and twelve feet deep. Traces of the work of many thousands of men are evident in several places. These pits are not connected with one another, but seem to have been sunk by separate small parties of men, to whom probably definite tasks were assigned, with a view of tracing the tin ground, and of extracting the gravel with which the tin is mixed.
Their variable depth, and the amount of labour expended on them, is a tolerable indication of the success with which this has been pursued, and of the places in which ground might be again perhaps opened © with advantage.
48 On the Tin of the Province of Mergui.
. 2, The streams themselves are rich in tin, which may be collected from their beds in considerable quantities.’ The process by which it” has been deposited for long periods, and for many miles along the _ line of valleys through which they flow, appears to be in active operation at the present day. Crystals of the peroxide of tin washed dowti by the rivers and deposited with sand and gravel in their: beds may, by changes of the river’s course during the freshes, be quickly covered with a few feet of gravel and soil. The older deposits have, as far as my observation extends at present, the same alluvial character, and it would be well in future operations to have regard to the levels in which the streams may have formerly run. The first of these loca- lities which attracted my attention was the Thongdan river, issuing . from the primitive mountains in the immediate neighbourhood of the coal mine on the Great Tenasserim river. 1 visited this river in the eourse of my survey of the coal basin, and found pits in great num- ber along its banks, of the existence of which I had been previously informed, though the object for which they had been dug was not" known to my informant. On washing some of the gravel from the bottom of one of the pits, a small quantity of tin’ was found.
3. A Shan was subsequently sent there, and collected 11,889 grains of tin, of the native peroxide, in the course of an hour and half, Specimen No. 1, which is equivalent.to 19 ounces and 198 grains of pure tin.
4. After leaving the vicinity of the coal mine, I proceeded down the river, and was accompanied by the Shan, who had been employ- ed in tin works in the Straits, and to whom several tin streams in the Mergui province were known. These are situated chiefly on the Little Tenasserim river, into which they empty themselves. The first and most accessible is the Thabawlick, which unites with the Thakiet, four miles above the junction of the latter with the Little . Tenasserim. The mouth of the Thakiet is eleven miles from the town of Tenasserim.
5. The access to this: tin ground: is 1by-Jand to ‘the dey:anemek. Landing at the village of Thakiet, I proceeded on foot eight miles, and reached the Thabawlick at the point indicated in the accompanying sketch. - .
6. ‘The intervening ground is for the most part flat. After
On the Tin of the Province of Mergui. ee lle
passing a marsh of some extent, there is a low ridge of hills, which presents, however, no obstacle to land carriage of any description: The face of the country is as usual, except in marshy places, thickly covered with jungle trees, but the wild elephant’s track is open and convenient. During the monsoon, boats carrying 100 bags of rice can ascend the Thabawlick to the place alluded to, in one day. The tide is felt about six miles from its mouth.
7. Havingsarrived at the spot at a point known to my guide, and at which he had the previous year stationed himself for a few months for the purpose of collecting tin, I found numerous pits and old cuttings from which tin had been formerly obtained ; it is found in layers of gravel immediately beneath the soil. The surface is undulating, and during the wet season, streams of water could have been conveniently conducted near the excavations, for the purpose of | washing the gravel. ee
8. The guide stated, that crystals of tin could be in this manner separated by the hand, without the usual aid of the washing-trough. The rains not being at that time sufficiently advanced for that pur- pose, I did not succeed in obtaining any tin from the pits. The line of deposit of the richest stanniferous gravel has been probably influ- enced by many causes, and the chances of finding it are much the same as those to which other undertakings of this nature are sub- - ject. A few trials, however, across the low ground, through which the hill streams pass, would enable the speculator to follow its: course.
9. The time of the tin washer was, I found, much better occupi- ed in seeking for tin in the bed of the river. He was assisted by one man, who disturbed the.sand and gravel with his feet to as great a | depth as he could thus accomplish ; when a conical and shallow trough about two feet in diameter and ten inches deep was filled with the same, and washed in the stream by a circular motion so as to get rid of the gravel and lighter particles, leaving the crystals of tin to collect by their gravity on the apex of the hollow trough: Each filling and washing occupied on an average, six minutes. |
One washing produced 1041 grains of native peroxide of tin in six minutes, Specimen, No. 2, equivalent to 1 oz. and 335 grains of pure tin.
H
50 On the Tin of the Province of Mergui.
One ditto ditto, 1265 grains of ditto ditto, Specimen No. 3, equi- valent to 2 oz. and 31 grains of pure tin.
. One ditto ditto, Lge Bovine ot ier Bee een ome oe valent to 2 oz. and 430 grains of pure tin. -
_ One hour’s work. apart ° dict: thew, 8166 grains of ditto. Specimen No. 5; equivalent to 13 oz. and 160 grains of pure tin.
Total of half a day’s work including the above, 25,406 grains, equi- valent to 2 Ibs. 9 oz. and 232 grains of pure tin.
_ Specimen No. 6, contains of the latter 13,149 grains,
The price of labour in this province is six annas per day.
0. The'ptoduce of a day’s labour of two men would be, according to the above trial, equivalent to 5 Ibs. 2 oz. and 464 grains of pure tin, at the cost of 12 annas, exclusive of the expenses of reduction to’the . metallic state.- This process, from the pure’ state of the mineral,.is extremely simple and inexpensive. The tin collected in the trough: would, require one more washing to remove particles of sand, &c. and. charcoal is the only fuel required for its reduction.. The pieces. or ingots of tin, in the shape of the frustrum of a cone, Specimens Nos. 7 and 8, which are manufactured at the Rehgnon "mines on the Pak Chaw river to the southward, and exchanged there for goods at 4 annas each, weigh 1 Ib. 2 oz. and 383 grs.; and their value at Mergui, where the average price of tin is 85 rupees per 100 viss of 364 Ib. is 4 annas 4 pie. The value therefore of 5 lbs. 2 oz. and. 464 grains or the day’s work of two men would be one rupee eight annas four pie. The cost of collecting being 12 annas, leaves 12 annas and 4 pie for the cost of the reducing process, and for profit on the labour of two men.
11. On the morning after reaching the Thabawliek, I traced the tin ground for a mile in a N. N. E, direction. The pits are in some parts more abundant than in others; and I was informed that they occurred and were thickly scattered throughout the entire course of the river, between that point and ‘the hills’ from which it issued, at the Gintencs of anentive Say's journey Se sine reeee are followed.
12. The pits-have not been worked since the Burmese took pos- session of the country. At the head of the stream, there are said to be the remains of bunds constructed for distributing water for wash-
On the Tin of the Province of Mergui. . 51
_ing the tin, and the posts of a house still standing, which is supposed to have been occupied by a Siamese Superintendent of the work there carried on.
The season was too far advanced to enable me to prosecute my enquiries towards the hills on this occasicn, and my attention was therefore confined to the spot from which I obtained the results de- tailed above.
13. Four other rivers emptying themselves into the Lesser Tenas- serim, are said to produce tin, but none are so accessible as the Thabawliek.
The following are the names of these streams, with their distances from the Thakiet river :—
The Khamoungting river, one day by the Little Tenasserim, and one march in‘land.
Engdaw river, no road through the jungle.
Kyeng ditto, two days by the river, and two days in land.
Thapyn ditto, three days by the river, and one march in land.
From the Khamoungting, Specimen No. 9, weighing 2890 grains was collected in ten washings, but I did not visit the place myself.
14. After returning to Tenasserim, I visited Loundoungin river, where tin was said to exist, but it turned out to be wolfram sand, which had been washed down from the adjoining slate mountains, and was lying on the surface of the sandy bed of the stream.
15. In proceeding down the Great Tenasserim river toward: Mergui, I halted at Moetong, for the purpose of visiting a tin ground, which was said to exist near the range of hills to the N. E.
. skirting the open plain in which this place is situated. On pene-
trating to the hill itself, I found it to consist exclusively of granite,
with not a trace of another rock of any description. The dry beds of the water-courses consisted of granitic sand alone.
There were many excavations for tin on the face of the hill; several loads of gravel from the bottom of the pits and from the beds of the water-courses were carried to the river and washed, but the out-turn of tin was very small. There is no water within convenient reach.
16. The next spot visited was Kahan, a small hill. near the Zedavoun Pagodah, on the right bank of the Great Tenasserim river,
52 On the Tin of the Province of Mergui.
ll tiles from. Mengui. The tin occurs hereunder conditions differ ing much from that of the localities above mentioned. ;
17. Kahan itself is the highest portion of « lowe tidge of hile not
more than 200 feet above the level of the river: it is composed of a soft friable white sandstone rock, the upper portions of which are de- composed and irregular. The surface gravel does not contain tin. It is found in the crystallized “form interspersed in decomposed granite, forming a vein about 3 feet wide, which is enclosed by the’ white sandstone rock, and dips down at a high angle with the horizon. Specimen No: 10, if its form be preserved, illustrates well the tin crystals imbedded in the decomposed granite, which are easily detached from the matrix. The Specimen No. 11, from the same vein of yellow colour, is considered the surest indication of the
presence of the mineral, and lies below the white, No. 10. Large scales * :
of chlorite occur with it, which as they are generally found where. the tin is most abundant, is called by the natives the mother of tin. The face of the hill is in one spot scattered over these, which appear to have been brought down from the vein with other matter _ from which the tin has been separated by the usual mode of washing. It will be noticed, that the granite is completely decomposed, and that the crystals would be easily separated by washing. No. tin has been raised here since the country came into our possession, but the locali- ° ty has been known. It was worked during the Burmese rule, and © valued as supplying the richest ore of tin.. A Burmese residing near the spot, pointed out the place where his operations had ceased. He had followed the direction of the vein alluded to, as well as he was able, and had driven a gallery under ground in an inclined direction upwards, till the bank above fell in, when the mine was abandoned,
He stated that he had procured considerable quantities of tin
daily, and that he often found it in large masses mixed with yellow ground above mentioned. Arriving at the spot where his work had terminated, I set people to excavate and find, if possible, the vein which had been described. It was reached after about two hours’ digging, at the depth of five feet from the surface of the cut in the hill in which we stood. In about a quarter of an hour, a few baskets of the decom- posed granite were removed down the hill, from which 3900 grains of thn eataiont peertin oh, BRE ee ee
On the Tin of the Province of Mergui. 53
Specimen No. 12, were collected; and the next day 23400 grains, equal to 2 lb. 6 oz. and 200 grains of pure tin were found in the same manner by one man’s labour in excavating, one carrying down to the water, and a third washing..
18. This locality appears to be of very promising description, and I have little doubt that if the work were aided by ordinary skill and means, that a tii miné here would be productive. A vein of tin is,. in fact, exposed to the day, and would only require for a considerable period of work the precaution of well supported galleries and shafts, to allow of its contents being easily extracted. ) _ 19.. The Kahan hill is I conceive an indication of a salts re- .
pository of tin. It is but quarter of a mile from ‘the creek communi, cating with the river, which is accessible to any boats. Its proximity to Mergui offers also great facility for the procurement of labour and supplies.
20.. The localities therefore which appear to hold out the best prospects for tin are, lst, for stream tin, the Thabawlick river and the Thengdan river ; and 2d, for mine tin, the Kahan hill. They all produce tin of the same nature and quality ; viz. crystals of the na- tive peroxide, being a combination of oxygen and. tin only.
21. No difficulty would be found in procuring labour from Mergui, or carrying on tin works at either of these places.
: 22. Of the existence of tin in considerable quantities, . there
cannot, from the facts. above stated, be much question; and from the trial of the produce of one man’s labour in a given time, there appears to be sufficient to justify every expectation of a profitable - employment of labour on an extensive scale.
23. The results, however, which are given in detail, can only be con- sidered rough approximations to 'the probable out-turn of tin, with an establishment properly” ‘superintended. Much economy in labour might be effected in collecting thé sand and gravel for the washers, but no better mode could, I think,.be adopted in separating the tin in the first instance, than by people accustomed to work with the flat conical-shaped troughs before described. ‘The quantity collected would fully repay the employment of men in this operation. ~ - 24. The tin as produced by thé washers should be. placed on sloping . iene and water conducted Over it from a fi ara with holes.
54 On the Tin of the Province of Mergui.
for the purpose, in order to get rid of foreign particles, and it would then, after by being finely pounded, be ready for smelting. Of all metals, tin is in this process the least troublesome after the ore is freed from the earthy and silicious particles with which, in other countries, it is often mixed. The crystallized form in which the ore is here found, renders its separation extremely easy, and the whole processes of stamping and dressing, which in England are te- dious and expensive operations, can thus be dispensed with. No arsenic or sulphur being mixed with the ore, it need not be roasted before it is placed in the furnace. (25. It will thus be seen, that the tin of the Misnihsdlidoes ctmen no ordinary inducement to the outlay of capital, without much of the risk, uncertainty, and large previous outlay usually attending mining adventures. 26. The location of the coal mine on the Great Tenasserim river,
has given rise to much additional cultivation along the banks of that
iver, where there are many Kareen villages, from which parties on the Thengdan could be supplied. Fruit trees, not indigenous to the place, and other traces of a considerable population having once occupied its banks, are observable on this river. The banks of the Little Tenasserim are thinly occupied by Siamese villages. The country in this direction, except near the banks of the river, is utter- ly unpeopled, and appears always to have been so,
- 27. Communication by water from the Thakiet to the Thabaw- liek tin ground is not open in the dry season, but the distance by land is short. The produce of two lines of country, that of the vici- nity of the Great and Little Tenassérim river passes the town of Te- \nasserim at the junction of these rivers, only eleven miles from the Thakiet, and no difficultyin procuring subsistence for working als ties on the Thabawliek need be apprehended.
Although stream ore is worked with advantage in Cornwall, we believe it is Mine-tin ore that is chiefly worked at Banka, and other parts of the Dutch possessions, in the Straits, with so much advantage. As mine ore occurs under favourable circumstances at Kahan, a hill described by Captain Tremenheere on the right bank of the Great Tenasserim, only eleven. miles from Mergui, the Coal and Mineral Committee, to which this report has been referred by the Government, were of opinion that the ore Ned be worked in that
locality, with every prospect of success. —Ep.
ating
55
Oa the Manganese of the Mergui Province. By Captain G. B. TREMENHEERE. Plate ii.
1. During my stay at the Tenasserim coal basin, a piece of man- ganese ore, (black wad) of good quality, was brought to me by a Ka- reen, who stated, that it had been found accidentally in the bank of a stream called the Thuggoo, which enters the Great Tenasserim, seven- teen miles below the coal site. Subsequently, several other pieces of the same ore were brought by Mr. T. A. Corbin, Assistant to the Commissioner from the Therabuen river, five miles above the Thug- | goo, and from an intermediate spot, the locality of which had been previously known, and had been, I believe, originally pointed out by Lieutenant Glover of the Madras Army.
2. In proceeding down the river, I visited these spots, and found at each, that a valuable bed of manganese ore existed close to the surface of the country. It had been apparently cut through by the action of the stream and river before mentioned, leaving a section of the bed of ore in their banks, covered only by the debris of the banks themselves. Large quantities might have been carried away, but a few hand specimens only were taken, which sufficiently shew the nature of the deposit, and are fair samples of what might be easily collected.
3. The best Specimens, Nos. 1 and 2, are from the Thuggoo river and the bank of the Great Tenasserim. That of the Tnerabuen did not appear to be at the surface of so pure a quality, but the exist- ence of the bed being known, it is perhaps premature to pronounce it an inferior ore from the examination of specimens taken from a hole extending not two feet into the bank. No. 5, is a portion of - manganese rock projecting into the Great Tenasserim river, near the mouth of the Therabuen stream.
4. For the localities above mentioned, I must refer to the sketch accompanying my Report on the tin of this province, recently forwarded.
5. Of the extent of these manganese beds it is difficult to pro- nounce. The face of the country in which they are situated is flat, thickly overspread with soil, and with the densest jungle. It is not, as
far I could perceive, intersected by many streams which would afford
56 «ss Muscologia Itineris Assamici.
"the means of tracing the mineral deposit.” The Great Tenaseerimn
river has passed through the manganese bed in one spot, 2} miles removed from two other points ‘at which it occurs to the north and.
south, at both of which it is likewise discovered near the surface —
by the action of the streams Thuggoo and Therabuen. The pro- ~ bability therefore, is, that it is an horizontal deposit. covering many square miles. But without indulging in conjecture, there is suffici- ent at the localities referred to, to indicate large quantities of man- ganese ore which could be collected by penetrating through the soil ying above it, and immediately near the spots in which it is now exposed tothe day. ==”
It occurs in the form of the black oxide, and is the -manganese of commerce. It is largely consumed in Europe in the preparation of
bleaching compounds, eae is valuable to the manufacturer
of glass.*
6. The soft black ore, No. 1, fa & Mydsabe of the peroxida of man- ganese, known under the name of wad. It contains of water two equivalents, or 29 per cent.
Iron, 1.96 grains by analysis; its specific gravity is 1.47. The specific gravity of the grey peroxide, No. 4, is 1.46. Moulmein, 11th September, 1841.
Muscologia Itineris Assamici ; 6 eon of Mosses collected during the Journey of the Assam Deputation, in the years 1835 and ' 1836: By W. Gairrrra, Esq. Assist. Surgeon, Madras Estabt. (Continued from page 514, vol. ii.) . Bracuymentum, Hoox. Brip. Bryow. untv. 1. Brachymenium contortum, Griff. oer beevi' simplici vel fastigiatim ramoso, foliis siccitate con- _ tortis, oblongo-lanecolatis_marginibus incrassatis apicem ver- _ sus denticulatis, capsula erecta elongato-obovato-pyriformi. Hab: Super arbores pinetorum Moflong. Caulis brevis, vix bilinealis, innovationibus ramosus, et sepius dichotomus. Rami erecti, simplices, caule paullo longiores. * It is used in the fumigation of ships, and has hitherto been imported for the purpose from Europe. An application has been made to Capt. Tremenheere for a few maunds as s sam-
ple, and if the Tenasserim manganese is found to answer, the article may be omitted in future indents on Europe for Medical Stores.—Ep.
Ne ee eee
Muscologia Itineris Assamici. 57
Folia siccitate valde contorta, leniter tortilia, marginibus-valde revolutis humore patenti-ascendentibus, interdum leniter con- torta summa subrosaceim patula, interdum obovata, margi- nibus leniter revolutis (apices versus exceptis fibrosis, sur- sum attenuatis et apices versus denticulatis, percursa vena in cuspidem subulatam folio aliquoties: breviorem ‘scabram ex- currente-areolis conspicuis.
Flores monoici vel dioici; masculi terminales geramitories, cincti foliis caulinis terminalibus et ideo quasi ‘ discoidei, foliisque - perigonialibus conniventibus multo minoribus, ovato-rétunda- tis, apiculatis simili modo, concavis.
Paraphyses plures hyaline filiformes.
Antherz plures subsessiles-oblongo, cylindracez, areolate, apice dehiscentes. : sf
Flores feeminei terminales discoidei.
Paraphyses pistillaque plurima.
F, Perichzltalia -consimilia, interiora minora. Seta terminalis, seepius e dichotomia uncialis vel sescuncialis, rubra, sicca flex- uosa tortilisque, humore paullo flexuosa.
Vaginula longiuscula, subcylindrica, paraphysibus hyalinis filifor- mibus pistillisque pluribus obsita.
Capsula erecta cum apophysi longa capsula paullo breviore obco-
~ nica, obovato-pyriformis, brunnea, ore valde constricto, lucido, . rubro, annulato. _Membrana interna leviter adnata.
Peristomii dentes operculo detruso primo per paria cohzrentes, demum erecto discreti, zequidistantes, reflexo-patentes, medio- cres, pallidi, apicibus albidi opaciusculi, linea longitudinali notati, trabeculati, capsule firme adhzerentes.
nterius e membrana areolata punctulato-opaciuscula, sedecies carinata, carinis dentibus peristormii exterioris alternis paull prominulis, obtusis, ultra interstitia que plerumque bidentato breviter productis ; dentes interstitiorum interdum (mora Bartramis) conniventes. Membrana secus carinas facile findie tur. !
Sporula viridescentia, majuscula, levia, immersa globosa opacius- cula,
Columella truncata, inclusa.
Muscologia Itineris Assamici. Operculum diu persistens, conicum, obtusum cum columelle apice secedens. Calyptra desiderata. An. B. nepalense, Schwaeg ; Brid. Bryol. univ. tard Habitus illi Leplostomo, RBr. certe affinis.
2. Brachymenium cuspidatum, Griff.
Caule brevi ramoso, ramis cylindraceis fastigiatis, foliis lan- ceolatis acuminatis integerrimis, vena excurrente cuspidatis, marginibus simplicibus, capsula suberecta pease:
Hab : In sylvis Myrung.
Caulis primarius brevissimus, innovationibus ramosus. Rami erecti, breviusculi, vix semunciales, sicci filiformes, humore squarrosuli, Folia siccitate adpressa, humore ascendenti-pa- tentia, concava, valde acuminata, vena excurrente in cuspidem brevem subulatam patentem preedita, areolis fusiformibus.
F. Perichetialia magis acuminate oblongiora, marginibus sub- incrassatis. Seta terminalis, uncialis, vel ultra, flexuosula, ru- bescens, sicca tortilis, Vaginula brevis, conico-ovata, obsita — paraphysibus hyalinis filiformibus pistillisque numerosis.
Capsula erecta vel paululum inclinata, cum apophysi longe obo- vato-pyriformis, rufo-brunnea,—fere Br. contorti, sed.minor.
Peristemntom exterius e dentibus 16, erectis, imis apicibus subre-
curvis, trabeculatis, linea aye notatis, rubris, — opacis lutescentibus.
Interius e membrana alta, sordide lutescente areolata, sedecies plicata, plicis exeuntibus in dentes breves irregalares, (inter- . dum in cilia,) fissis plerumque divaricatis et dentibus p. exter- ioris oppositis, sinubus sepius nudis.
Sporula minuta, levia, immersa diaphana.
* Culumella inclusa, filiformis, truncata.
Operculum conicum, obtusum. Calyptra desiderata. An B. bryoides, Schwaeg. Brid. Bryol. univ, 1. 603 ?
. Brachymenium filiforme, Griff.
Caule ramisque elongatis filiformibus, foliis arcte adpressis ovatis _muticis mediatenvs }-veniis, capsula cernua vel pendula.
Muscologia Itineris Assamici. 59
Hab: In ripis Maamloo; in rupibus inter Surureem et Moleem et ad cataractam Moosmai.
Czspitosum, argenteo canescens; caules basi decumbentes, sub-
. clavati,-apicem versus innovationibus ramosus, ramique sim- plices, interdum longissimi, sepe fastigiati. Folia dense im- bricata, sicca madidave arcte adpressa, obtusa vel acutius- cula, integerrima, vel minutissime denticulata, marginibus simplicibus, vena mediocri medium versus evanida donata ; areolis fusiformi-angulatis.
Perichetialia exteriora caulis terminalia sed acutiora, interiora minora.
Seta terminalis, uncialis, vel ultra, rubescens, siccatione etortilis. Vaginula brevis, conica, paraphysibus pistillisque pluribus ob- sita. Capsula cum apophysi mediocri obconica (capsula 3-plo breviori) obovata, brunnea, ore constricto rubro annulato.
Membrana interna libera.
Peristomium exterins connivens, e dentibus 16 angustis, plano- subulatis, sordide et pallide rubris, acuminibus setaceis albidis, subhyalinis, linea longitudinali inconspicua szpius notatis trabeculatis. Interioris membrana alta, solida, areolata, sor- dide lutescens, sedecies carinata, carinis dentibus p. exteri- oris more solito alternis, productis in dentes irregulares breves, vel longiusculos, setaceos, rarius perforatos, interdum si breves,-fissos, laciniis divaricatis. (ut in Bartramia.)
Sporula minuta, lutescenti-viridia, immersa diaphana.
Columella, inclusa puncata.
Operculum conicum, obtusum, rubrum, obliquiusculum.
Calyptra desiderata.
Bryvum, Linn. 1. Bryum argenteum, Linn. Hook. Hab : Saxa ad Surureem et Nunklow. cg, Bryum cespiticium, Linn.
Hab : Rupes, Churra Punjee et Surureem. Super arborem de- lapsam Suddiya.
Muscologia Itineris Assamici.
. Bryum coronatum, Schwaeg: Brid. Bryol. univ. 1. 650.
Hab : Colles Khasiyani ; locus nobis ignotus. Planta Khasiyana descriptioni Bridelii 1. c. apte quadrat.. .
Bryum crudum, Huds. e Muse. Brit.
Hab : Terreste. Pineta Moflong. .
Variat statura : Caules sepe innovationibus ramosi, folia sepe plus minus destructa, vena continua etiam subexcurrente pre- dita, innovationum latiora brevioraque. sacs Pr A
. Bryum coriaceum, Griff..
Caulibus sterilibus repentibus, fertilibus erectis simplicibus, foliis terminalibus rosaceo congestis obovatis emarginatis denticula- sit, setis aggregatis, capsula cylindraceo-oblonga cernua, oper- culo longe et oblique rostrato.
Hab : Rupes humidi maamloo, ubi copiosum.
Caules steriles ramosi, flagelliformes, fertiles sepius simplices, subunciales, basi denudati, radiculoso-villosi.
| Folia caulium fertilium crassa, coriacea, emarginata, sinu mucro-
nigero, marginibus diaphanis lutescentibus e cellularum diffor- mium sub-triplice serie conflatis, percursa vena subulata com- pleta vel intra apicem evanida sepius centro linea fuscescenti notata percursa, areolis majusculis sub-6-gonis seepe aer conti- nentibus; inferiora magis rotundata, et vix emarginata.
Caulium sterilium folia inferiora aliis conformia, superiora rotun- data vel orbicularia, repanda.
Pericheetialia exteriora caulina terminalia, interiora minora, in-
' tima minima, acuminata, integra.
Flos terminalis, hermaphroditus
Anthere plures. Pistilla numero varia.
Paraphyses copiosissime, hyaline, filiformi-clavate.
Seta pallida, raro solitaria, seepius 2-3, ne 6, aggregate sescuncialis, sicca parce tortilis.
Capsula cernua vel nutans, sepius hdrizontalis, fasco-viridis immatura tantum visa.
Peristomium exterius e dentibus 16, latis, breviusculis, trabecu- latis, linea longitudinali obsoleta notatis.
| Muscologia Itineris Assamici. 61
- Interioris membrana lutescens ; ciliis ample perforatis, ciliolis
binis ternisue cohzrentibus interjectis.
Operculum e basi convexa longe et oblique rostratum, (rostro seepius incurvo) capsula dimidio brevius.
Calyptra longe subulata, hinc fissa.
Medium quasi tenet inter B. punctatum et affine.
Bryum Sollyanum, Griff.
Caule repente, ramis erectis, foliis terminalibus, rosaceo-congestis obovatis acuminato-cuspidatis marginatis, marginibus medium infra revolutis integris supra planis argute serrulatis, vena intra apicem subevanida, capsula oblongo-cylindracea cernua, oper- culo acute mammillari.
Hab : In sylvis Surureem, et copiose in pinetis Moflong.
Rami erecti, unciales vel ultra, inferne nudiusculi radiculoso- villosi, interdum apice vel infra proliferi.
Folia rosaceo-patentia, confertissima, maxima, semuncialia, vel ultra, lalitudine extrema fere 3-linealia, breviter acuminato- cuspidata, cuspide semi-torta, argute serrulata, dentibus serra- turis sepe biseriatis, percursa vena crassa sursum attenuata intra apicem subevanida, lete viridescentia, areolis anguste hexagonis siccitate flexuosula interdum subtortilia.
Flos hermaphroditus femineusve, terminalis, vix discoideus, cinctus foliis perigonialibus caulinis multo minoribus, erectis, lanceolato-linearibus linearibusve, carinatis, acuminatis, acu- mine in subulam scabrellam longam exeunte, marginibus sub- simplicibus infra medium insigniter revolutis, sursum planis obsolete denticulatis, vena basin acuminis versus evanida.
Anthere plurime, clavate, breviter peptate, apice dehiscentes, celluloso-areolate.
Paraphyses plurime, hyaline, filiformes, eequaliter septate. Pis- tilla floris hermaphroditi pauca, feeminei copiosa, 2-3 sepius fecundata.
Seta terminalis, sepius bine termeve, 1} vel 2-uncialis, ru- bescens.
Vaginula ovato-conica, mediocris.
Capsula raro pendula, sepius subtransversa, maxima, longitu-
62
y &
1 Muscologia Itineris Assamici.
dine trilinealis, oblongo-cylindracea, inequilateralis, basi solida, demum brunnea, collo parum constricto, ore annulato.
Membrana interna libera.
Peristomium exterius connivens, e dentibus 16, magnis, plano subulatis, utrinque trabeculalis, lineis compositionis albis con- spicuis notatis pallide rubris, acuminibus setaceis albidis.
Peristomuim interius e membrana lutescente altiuscula, insigniter sedecies plicata, ciliis valde acuminatis, .crebre ampleque perforatis punctulatis ; ciliolis interjectis hee subeequantibus tenuissimis, seepius ternatis conspicue trabeculatis. —
Sporula minuta, viridescentia, globosa, levia, immersa opacius- cula. Columella longe apiculata, inclusa; operculum concolor. Calyptra desiderata.
Species pre aliis ampla et palchra.
B. Umbraculo proximum. Hook ; Musc. exot. p. 16. t. 133.
Bryum longirostrum, Griff.
Cuale sterili repente, fertili erecto, foliis (terminalibus) rosaceo- congestis oblongo-ligulatis obtusis marginatis denticulatis vena in mucronulum excurrente, setis aggregatis, capsula cernua cylindraceo oblonga, opercula longe et oblique ros- — trato.
Hab: In arboribus vel ripis sylvarum, collium is ta inter Churra Punjee et Nunklow.
Folia omnia subconformia, siccitate crispata, seepius recurvata et carinata, oblongo-vel spathulato-ligulata.
Pericheetialia intima, minima:
Sete aggregate 2-8, capsule sepius hurizontalis, inaquilate ralis, annulata.
Peristomium exterius humore connivens, pallide lutescens; dentes plano-subulati, breviusculi, trabeculati.
Interioris membrana solito saturatius lutescens, ciliis acuminatis valde poratis, ciliolis simplicibus binisve interjectis.
Sporula globosa, lavia, immersa opaciuscula,
Columella longiuscule apiculata, inclusa.
Operculum e basi convexa longe et oblique rostratum, capsula } brevius, lutescens, margine rubrum.
Muscologia Itineris Assamici. 63
Calyptta longe subulata, apice uncinata, ad medium usque fere fissa.
A B. ligulato, vix distinguendum operculo longiro-nisistro, et floribus hermaphfoditis ?
\
Preroconium, Hook.
Pterogonium squarrosum, Griff.
Caule repente pinnatim ramoso setigero, ramis erectis simpli- cibus, foliis siccatione adpressis humore patentissimis late ovatis valde concavis breviter apiculatis integris aveniis, capsula erecta oblongo-ovata, operculo conico-subulato.
Hab: Super arbores sylvarum Tingrei vicinitatisque Suddiye.
Rami siccatione seepe depressi, apice interdum elongati.
Folia dense et undique imbricata, late ovata, interdum suborbicu- laria, breviter acuminata, apices versus fusco-tincta, areolis angustis fusiformibus, basilaribus utriusque lateris ampliatis subquadratis.
Perichetialia lanceolato-oblonga, acuminata, acuminibns exte- riorum et minorum patentissimis vel recurvis, interiorum rectis.
Seta vix semuncialis, pallida, sicca parce tortilis.
Vaginula subcylindracea, pallida. Paraphyses plures, tenues, filiformes. Pistilla pauca.
Capsula exannulata, albida, zequilateralis.
Peristomium e dentibus 16, plano-subulatis, acutis, binatim com- positis, linea longitudinali transversisque distinctis, interdum apices versus obsolete perforatis, sub lente centies augente obscure striatis, badio-rufis, apicibus diaphanis ; serius albi- dum, fragile. gh
Sporula magna, valde ineequalia, rotundata.
Columella apiculata, inclusa.
Operculum leviter inclinatum, obtusius culum.
Calyptra profunde dimidiata, levis.
Affine Pterogonio Myuro, Hook. Muse, exot. p. 9. t. 148, a quo precipue differt caule repente, ramis erectis squarrosis ap- proximatis, foliisque acuminatis.
64
2.
3.
4.
Muscologia, Itineris Assamici.
Pterogonium aureum, Hook. Musc. exot. p. 8. t. 147,
Brid. Bryol. univ. 2. 180.
Hab : Super arbores—Mumbree. Folia plantee Khasiyyance multo_magis patentia quam demonsrat
Hookeriana icon.—Capsulas seniores tantum vidi, quarum
_ peristomia ‘decolorata.. Praecedenti valde affine, discrepans foliis minus patentibus, membranaceis, lanceolato-acuminatia, marginibusque recurvis.
Pterog onium flavescens, Hook. Muse. exot. p. 8. t. 155, Bridel. Bryol. univ. 2. p. 18,
‘Hab: ‘Super arbores Myrung.
Omnia fere plant nepalensis, sed statura major, et ramifiontio indistincte pinata. Variat dentibus peristomii solidis perfora- tisve.
Pterogonium neckeroides, Griff.
Caule repente pinnatim ramoso, ramis ascendentibus, foliis as- cendenti-patulis lanceolato-acuminatis planiusculis tenuissime semi-veniis subintegris, capsula obliqua cylindracea inclinata — annulata, operculo conico-subulato brevi.
‘Hab : Super Buddlee speciem arboream Mumbree.
_ Rami depressi,- siccatione filiformes.’ Folia sub-4-fariam ‘ie:
cata, siccitate adpressa, humore patentia,. marginibus: medium - infra leviter revolutis, areolis Apgitis, mae, baseos majusculis quadratis. . ith;
F. Pericheetialia avenia, acuminibus patulis,
Seta axillaris, solitaria, vel aggregate, sed ad iatooaebeatien di- versas seinper pertinentes, pallida, sicca tortilis; vaginula me- diocris, cylindracea ; paraphyses pistillaque paucissima, — a
. Capsula cylindracea, inzequilateralis, sont paullo attenuata, brunneo-rufescens.
Peristomii dentes 16, subulati, similis. breviusculi, coriacei, solidi, lutescentes, mergiaibas: valde opacis, triaggot mang nati. ;
Sporula majuscula, vix uuniforniia, ston, ‘vn virdewentin
immersa opaca.
Muscologia Itineris Assamici. 65
Columella filiformis, inclusa, apiculata; operculum obliquius- — culum.
Calyptra non visa. .
Variat statura.
NECKERA. . Hedw. ex pte. Bridel. Bryol. univ. 2. 226, ex pte. © 1. Neckéra curvata, Griff.
Caule repente pinnatim ramoso, ramis apice attenuatis curvatis, _ foliis undique imbricatis late ovatis ovatisve-breviter acumi- “natis minutissime denticulatis seepius aveniis, capsula erec- - tiuscula cylindracea leniter arcuata, operculo concico subulato.
Hab: Rupestris prope torentem Bogapanee collium Khasiyano-
Caulis elongatus. Rami siccitate filiformes, madidi subcyliudracei. Folia subquadrifariam. imbracata, siccitate appressa, humore ascendentia, concaviuscula, sub-lente forti minute denticulata, ~ avenia vel basi brevissime bivenia (potius bistriata,) fusco- tincta, caulinia late-ovata, acuminata, ramena ovata, acuta vel breviter acuminata.
F, Perichetialia exterioria conforma, recurva; interiora majora, oblongo-lanceolata, valde acuminata, recta, subintegra.
Seta lateralis, aucialis vel paullo longior, rubro—sanguinea sicca
Vaginula oblongo—cylindracea pallida. Paraphyses hyslini, ‘ filifomes, plures. Pistilla pauca.
Capsula obliquiuscula, leviter arcuata, anguste cylindracea, fer- rugineo-brunnea, —
Membrana interna libera, stipitata:
Peristomium utrumque cum membrana interna scedens, exterius e dentibus 16, plano-subulatis, binatim compositis, solidis, rigidis, fragilibus, conniventibus, etrabeculatis, infra. medium rufis, supra idem lutes centibus. Interius e ciliis totidem altenantibus, brevioribus, éetacies, Dinatim compositis, solidis,
_ pallide cites sana sieptanlh, basi unitis in sor el ns perbrevem.
Columella subcylindracea, Scicialo persistente exerto.
Muscologia Itineris Assamici.
Sporula viridescentia, globosa, levia, mixta cum massis ovatis, aliquoties majoribus, compositis, in membrana hyalina in- clusis.
Operculum conicum, obtusum, capsula fere 4-plo brevius.
Calyptra levis, demidiata.
Habitus omnino Hypni.
; Neckera lurida, Griff.
Caules repente subpinnatim ramoso, foliis undique imbricatis ovato-lanceolatis brevissime acuminatis cymbiformibus basi obsolete biveniis integerrimis, capsular oblongo cylindracea basi subapophysata operculo conico.
Hab: Rupes Surureem.
Caules elongati repentes, subpinnatim ramosi, sepe denudati. Folia undique imbricata, patulo-ascendentia, acuta, cymbifor- mia, marginibus leviter involutis, basi obsolete biveniis.
Perichetialia fere praecendentis.
Seta precedente paullo brevior, apice in apophysi pS incrassata.
Capsula inclinata, leviter arcuata, obliquiuscula, rubra incomplete annulata. —
Columella, sporulaque preecendentis.
Peristomii exterioris dentes fere ut in preecedente, sed duplo breviores magisque evoluti et trabeculati.
‘aterius e ciliis totiden alternantibus, inferne obsolete carinatis, — brevioribus vel subzquantibus, lutes centibus, diaphanis, basi unitis in membranam brevissimam (vix demonstrandam) den- tium peistomii exterioris basibus arcte cohzrentem.
Precedenti, quamvis habitu sat distincta, proxima,
An species Anomodanti et Hookeri et Taylori.
Neckera pulchella, Griff.
Caule repente pinnatim ramoso, ramisque subcomplanatis, foliis undique imbricatis lanceolatis acuminatis, concavis, basi bi- striatis apicem versus minute denticulatis, capsula cylindracea leniter arcuata, peristomio interiore tenerrimo, operculo coni- co-subulato.
Muscologia Itineris Assamici. 67
Hab: Sylve Mumbree.
Species pusilla. Rami presertim siccitate complanati, depressi. Folia undique imbricata, lateralia disticha, concava incurva, acuta, basi inconspicue bivenia, areolis angustis, basilaribus utrinque laxis et quadratis, marginibus subincurvis.
Flos feemineus axillaris, gemmiformis, cinctus foliis perichetia- libus conniventibus acuminibus patulis, interiorum longissimis rectis vel subtortilibus. Pistilla circiter 12. Paraphyses ma- gis numerose hyaline, longiores.
Seta axillaris, lineas tres vix excedens, rubescens, sicca valde tortilis. Vaginula mediocris, pallida, ore membranaceo.
Capsula suberecta, obliquiuscula, annulata, brunnea.
Peristomium exterius e dentibus 16, humore incurvis, plano-su- bulatis, breviusculis, vix trobeculatis, transversim crebre line- atis, linea longitudinali inconspicud, valde fragilibus, pallide rubro-brunneis, acuminibus hyalinis. Interioris cilia breviora, alba, utrinque repanda, fere moniliformia, tenerrima, fragilli- ma, membrana basilari tenuissima dentibus peristomii exteri- oris cohzerente.
Sporula mediocria, rotundata, fusco-viridescentia, immersa se- mi-opaca,
Columelle apiculus acutissimus, primo exsertus.
Operculum subulatum, rostro curvato, capsula vix duplo_bre-
__ vius. |
Calyptra profunde dimidiata, levis.
Medium quasi ambigit inter N. curvatam et N. letam, precipue hujus varietatem A.e qua tantum differt statura minore, ra- mis minus complanatis, operculo longiore peristomioque in- teriore tenerrimo.
Dentis peristomii exterioris fere ut in Pterogonio.
Neckera léta, Griff.
Caule repente pinnatim ramoso, ramis complanatis, foliis lanceo- latis acutis integerrimis basi sepius bi-tri-striatis, capsula _ erecta cylendracea, operculy subulato. Hab : Super arborem lapsam prope cataractas ‘“‘Moosmai.”” Loci editi Assamici prope Suddiyam et Negrogam.
Muscologia Itineris Assamici.
Folia undique imbricata, antica posticaque adpressa, literalia disticha, ascendentia, concaviuscula, pallide viridescentia.
Flores masculi axillares, gemmiformes. Fol perigonialia exte- rioria rotundata, interiora oblongo acuminata, acumine patente ascendente. __
Paraphyses pauce, hyaline, antherarum longitudine. Anthere plures, circiter decem, subsessiles, apicibus dehiscentes, in- conspicue saltem post dehiscentiam areolate. — 7
F. Perichetialia acuminata, acuminibus exteriorum’ recurvis, interiorum ascendenti-patentibus.
Seta axillaries pallida, subuncialis, sicca tortilis. Vaginula brevis, pallida, ore rubro. ' Paraphyses hyaline, filiformes.
Pistilla pauca, stylis longis.
Capsula anguste cylindracea, basi solida, subsqualis, pallida, sub lente modice augente areolis quadratis reticulata, ore levi, rubro, exannulato.
Membrana interna adnata.
Peristomium exterius humore connivens, siccitate erectum, breve; dentes binatim compositi, subulati, rigidi, fragiles, vix trabe- culati, castaneo-brunnei.
Interius e ciliis totidem, subconcoloribus, solidis, ridiinaibial diaphanis, basi in membranam mediocrem sursum concolorem cum peristomis exteriore leviter cohzerentem unitis.
Columella filiformis, apiculo semi-exserto.
Sporula subuniformia, levia, immersa subdiaphana.
Operculum obliquiusculum, alatum capsula sub 5 plo-bre-
vius.
Calyptra profunde dimidiata, levis, apice stylifera.
Variat :
A. ramis magis complanatis, foliis estriatis, (an semper ?) Peris- tomii exterioris dentes siccitate ascendenti-patentes, longiores perforati.
Hab: Negrogam et Suddyia.
An distincta ob dentes p. exterioris s perforatos (characterem i inso- litum) coloremque. ;
B. Fuscescens.
Hab: Nunklow.
Muscologia Itineri is Assamici. 69
+B Recker brevitostris,” Griff.
‘Caule repente, ramis complanatis ascendentibus apice valde atte- nuatis, foliis ouatis lanceolatisve cuspidato- acuminatis conca- vis marginibus revolutis subintegerrimis basi szepius bistriatis, capsula cylindracea inclinata, Apiren to conico subulato rostro
'. curvato.
Hab : Arbore utasieia:
Rami aseendentes, simplices, ambitu Jineari-lanceolati, apicibus — valde attenuati, basi sepius setigeri.
Folia sub 4-fariam laxe imbricata, basi concaviuscula, lanceotata, valde acuteque acuminata, sublente forte minute denticulata, raro prorsus avenia ; partis rami attenuati minora, falcatim-
- jncurvata,’ disticha. In axillis foliorum inferiorum adsunt
| appendicule, longissime, tenuissimz filiformes, septate, pauce, utrinque -leviter attenuate, articulis vel omnino materia gru- mosa velpartim materia coagulata repletis. : 5 F, Pericheetialia acuminata, acumine- denticulato. Seta lateralis, 7- 8-linealis, filiformis, \oicagseieen sicea tor-
. tilis. - Vaginula detent, clinda Parphyses subnulle: Pistilla _ pauca. Capstila inclinata, apte cpindaces, angusta, exannulata, fusco- - brunnea.
Membrana interna adnata, ore carnosiore acters
Peristomium exterius e dentibus 16, angustis, subulatis humore apicibus patulo-reflexis, i inconspicue trabeculatis, lineis trans- versis subconspicuis, VCE aenaeimans notatis, albidis, punctulato-opacis.
Interius ; cilia totidem ilcriiiitie: breviora, tenuissima, sane lato opaca, basi unita in’ membranam brevissimam areolatam dentibus peristomii exterioris leviter adnatam..
Columella. apiculata, inclnsa, subcylindracea.
Sporula fusco-viridescentia, deformia immersa, majora opacius- ‘ cula, minora diaphana.
Operculum fuscescens, e basi conica breviter rostratum ; rostro
- obtuso, ut plurimum i incurvo, Variat, A, Ramis erectis, foliisque augustioribus striatis, appen-
0 Muscologia Itineris Assamici.
diculis copiosissimis oculo nudo villos ferrugineos mentientibus valde conspicuis, capsula oblongo-cylindracea, operculoque longiore.
Hab : Pineta Mofiong.
Appropinquat sectioni ultime.
6. Neckera rostrata, Griff. :
Caule repente subpinnatim ramoso, ramis ascendentibus brevibus, foliis. undique imbricatis lanceolatis valde acuminatis con- cavis, sub integerrimis aveniis, capsula inclinata cylindracea, operculo conico-subulato inclinato capsulam fere zquante.
Hab: Sylva Myrung, abi muscis aliis mixta vee Super pinuia vicinitate Myrung frequentissima.
Arborea, ceespitosa. Folia, etiem sicca, palenti-ascendentia, pluri- fariam imbricata, marginibus subrevolutis. '
Seta lateralis, rubescens, vix uncialis. |
Vaginula arcta. Paraphyses pitillaque pauca.
Capsula inclinata, equalis, cylindracea, utrimque paullo atte- nuata, brunea, exannulata. .
Membrana interna adnata.
Peristomium exterius siccitate apice inflexile, e dentibus 16, binatim compositis, linea longitudinali notatis, trabiculatis, subulato-setaceis, longis, apicibus opaciusculis,
Interius: Cilia totidem alternantia, conniventi-erecta, angustis- sima, opaciuscula illis paullo breviora: membrana basilaris brevis basi peristomii exterioris coheerens.
Columella inclusa, apiculata.
Sporula insequalia, rotundata, levia, immersa diaphana.
Operculum e basi conica longe et oblique subulatum.
Calyptra dimidiata, levis.
7. Neckera copillacea, Griff.
Caule repente, ramis subascendentibus brevibus, folius undique imbricatis lanceolato-acuminatis aveniis apicem versus minute denticulatis, seta longissima capillacea, capsula erecta urceo- lato-ovata, operculo conico subulato obliquo brevi.
Hab: Super arbores sylvarum Surureem rara,
Muscologia Itineris Assamici. 71
Folia ascendenti-patentia, concava; perichetialia oblongo lan- ceolata, acuminibus denticulatis. . Seta 14 uncialis, pallida, flexuosa. Capsula ereeta, zequalis, fusco-brunnea, exannulata. Peristomium utrumque album; exterioris dentes siccatione un- dulati, plano subulati, obtusi, conniventes, lineis compositi- onis inconspicuis, opaco-punctulatis, basi unitis in membranam brevem areolatam solidam sedecies plicatam. ' Sporula sordide viridia, levia, immersa opaciuscula. Columella inclusa. | Operculum conico-subulatum, obliquum, capsula triplo brevius. Calyptra non visa. Species distincta, Leskiz approximans.
8. Neckera comes,* Griff.
Caule repente subpinnatim ramoso apice attenuato penduol, foliis laxe imbricatis lanceolato-acuminatis aveniis acumine minutim denticulato, seta brevi, capsula inclinata ovato-ob- longa, operculo conico-subulato obliquo.
Hab: Colles Khasiyani, inter Churra Punjee et Nunklow. Prope
_ maumbree frequentissima, semper que sodalis.
Caules apicibus sepius valde attenuati gracillimique, spithamei, vel paullo ultra, muscis sociis arcte implicati. | |
Folia palentissima, margine uno involuto, concaviuscula, prorsus avenia, acuminatissima, partium elongatarum dis- ticha et sepe aristata.
Perichzetialia externa rotundata, mutica ;' interiora caulinis sub- conformia, acumine ascendente ; intima longissime acuminata,
Seta pallida, curvatula, subbilinealis ; vaginula subcylindracea ; paraphyses plures, hyalin, filiformes. Pistilla numerosa,
Capsula exserta, zequalis, exannulata, pallide brunnea.
Membrana interna inferne libera.
Peristomium utrumque album, fere hyalinum, humore connivens, ori capsule arcte cohzrens.
* Come—because it always occurs mixed with other mosses. i
=I aa | >|
. Neckera aurea, Griff.
Muscologia Itineris Assamici.—
Exterioris dentes 16, subulato-setacei, linea longitudinali sub- inconspicua transversisque crebris conspicuis exsculpti.
Interioris cilia alternantia, breviora, submoniliformia, carinata, interdum obsolete perforata, basi unita jn membranam brevem, hyalinam, reticulatam. - :
Columella apiculata, inclusa.
Operculum e basi convexiuscula oblique neues, capsula paullo brevius.
Calyptra dimidiata, levis.
Affinis videtur N, acuminate, Hook. Muse. exot. 2. 15. t. 151.
Caule repenet, seepius longissime pendulo pinnatim ramoso, foliis undique imbricatis e basi lanceolata acuminatissimis serrulatis mediatenus-veniis, seta brevissima, capsula subexserta oblongo- urceolata, operculo conico-subulato recto, calyptra mitreeformi
Hab : Pineta Maamloo et Moflong. Margines sylve Mumbree, ubi frequentissima aliorumque Muscorum Jungermanniarum- que socia.
Fusco-aurea, squarrosa. Caules longitudinis varise, paullo elon- gati copiose fructiferi, vel longissimi, pedales quin. fere sesquipedales, seepiusque steriles. Rami plerumque simplices, unciamque vix excedentes. Folia sicca subdisticha, madida pa- lentissima, oblique torta, margine uno basin versus involuto, plus minus undulata, areolis angustissimis, partium attenuata- rum disticha apice fere pilifera. Variant angustatione, margi- nibus subinvolutis, venaque ultra medium evanida. —
Flores moneeci; masculi axillares, gemmiformes, cincti foliis perigonialibus concavis, ovato-lanceolatis, lanceolatisve acu- minatis, integris, aveniis, interioribus minoribus. Paraphyses _ paucissime, 2-3, filiformi-clavate, hyaline.
Anthere pauce, subquine, breviter stipitate, apice tekileonntie: ore membranaceo irregulari, cellulis sine ordine om areolate.
Folia perichetialia caulinis euhenlaeala, subintegra vel acu- mine denticulata ; interiora majora, capsulam subsequantia,
Muscologia Itineris Assamici. 73
Seta brevissima, vix linealis, crassiusculava, ginula ovata, ore ‘¥brunneo, seta subduplo-brevior, paraphysibus fere ex- pers.
Pistilla. pauca.
Capsula suberecta, equalis, exannulata, setam paullo excedens, fusco-brunnea.
Membrana interna adnata.
Peristomium exterius albidum; dentes plano-subulati, longe acuminati, acuminibus flexuosis, longitudinaliter obsolete transversim magis conspicue notati, vix trabeculati, opaci humore reflexo-erecti. Interius e ciliis totidem ejusdem lon- gitudinis teniussimis, capillaceis, binatim -compositis, solidis, punctulato-opaciusculis, basi carinatis et unitis in membranam brevem obsolete sedecies plicatam.
Columella cylindracea, apiculata, inclusa.
Sporula rotundata, immersa opaciuscula..
Operculum lutescens, capsula vix duplo brevius.
Calyptra. mitreformis, glabra, basi aliquoties fissa fe inflexa, fissura una profundiore. ;
Habitu precedenti valde affinis. Variat statura et gracilitate, capsulaque interdum exserta. ©
10. Neckera crispatula, Hook, Muse. exot. 2. 15. t. 151. —Brid. Bryol. univ. 2. 236.
Hab: Colles Khasiyani, inter - Churra et Nunklow, super oo arboresque. __
Fructiferam non vidimus.
Muscus hujus sectionis preeczteris speciosus. Caules elongati, sepe penduli. Folia siccatione adpressa, tri-striata fere’ tri- carinata, leviter flexuosa.
Flos, masculus axillaris, gemmiformis, ovatus. Folia perigo- nialia concava, avenia ; exteriora rotundata, mutica ; interiora ovata acuminata, acuminibus ascendentibus vel subpaten- tibus.
Paraphyses filiformes, hyaline, rectze.
Anthere circiter decem, subsessiles areolate, saturate brun- nee.
74
Muscologia Itineris Assamici.
11. Neckera fuscescens, Hook. Musc. exot. 2. p. 14, t. 157.
Pilotrichum fuscescens, Brid. Blyol. univ. 6-224.
Hab: Socia N. aurez, comitis filamentoseque. Nuperius col- _ .
libus Naga, Borhauth vicinis, legimus.
Folia quam iconis Hookerane, 1. c. magis concava.
Flores moneeci? axillares; masculi gemmiformes, ovati, cincti foliis perigonialibus concavis, ovato-rotundatis vel ovatis, breviter acuminatis, acuminibus rectis vel patulis. Paraphy- ses plures, hyaline, filiformes. Anthere subsessiles plures, cylindraceo fusiformes, areolate-brunnee. Flores feminei subcylindracei, gemmiformes; folia perichetialia inferiora minima, rotundata ovatave, acuta, avenia ; interiora longissi- ma, alba, lineari-lanceolata, acuminata, subintegra vel apices versus minute denticulata, citra medium 1—venia.
Paraphyses pauce, interdum subnulle.
Pistilla pauca.—Florem femineum, quoad wewnente, masculo apte similem semel solum vidimus.
Seta brevissima. Vaginula cylindracea, ore hennaneieo, pa- raphysibusque nonnullis longissimis flexuosis rectisve varidque longitudinis stipata.
Capsula immersa, foliis pericheetialibus interioribus longe su- perata.-
Membrana interna adnata.
Peristomia infra marginem oris capsule oubiamensiabes ex- serta.
Exterius humore connivens, castaneo-brunneum, apice pallidum ; dentes plano-subulati, diaphani, lineis compositionis conspi- cuis notati, leviter trabeculati; interius e ciliis totidem alter- nantibus, subsequantibus, a medio infra circiter binatim com- positis, setaceis, articulis incrassatis, basi in membranam bre- vissimam concolorem liberam unitis, p. exterioris dentibus preeteris similibus.
Sporula valde inzequalia, rotundata vel angulata, levia, immersa, diaphana, in acervulo fusco-viridia
Columella crassa, sub cylindrcea, apiculo gracillimo in- cluso.
Muscologia Itineris Assamici. 75
Calyptra basi aliquoties fissa, fissura una profundiore, villis flexuosis numerosis ascendentibus simplicibus (paraphysibus) paucissimisque compositis eadem directione (foliis abortienti- bus) obsita. Pistilla etiam gerit.
Variat folliis magis concavis, integris ; apiculo productiore tortili ; peristomii exterioris dentibus irregulavibus linea longitudinali obsolete notatis ; interioris ciliis minus evolutis quin inter- dum simplicibus. _ Varietas rara, forma foliorum sequenti accedens.
12: Neckera filamentosa, Hook, Musc. exot. 2. p. 14. t. 158. Pilotrichum filamentosum, Brid. Broyl. univ. 2. 264.
Hab : Colles Khasiyani, super arbores ; muscorum, presertim vers N. fuscescentis socia. Collibus “ Naga,” altitudinis circiter 1000-pedalis nuperius legimus, fructifera vers nobis ignota. Inter Churra Punjee et Nunklow.
Flos masculus axillaris, gemmiformis, cinctus foliis perigoniali- bus conniventibus, valde concavis ; exterioribus ovato-rotun- datis, muticis vel breviter apiculatis; interioribus majoribus, acuminatis, rectiusculis. Paraphyses copiose, breviuscule, antheras longitudine paullo excedentes, hyaline, filiformes. Anthere breviter stipitate, majuscule, 12-15, oblongo- cylin-dracez, areolis subquadratis reticulate, apice dehi- scentes. ;
Var. A. Statura multo minore, vena longiore, infra apicem evanida. .
Fores feeminei gemmiformes, axillares. Folia perichetialia foliis perigonialibus supra descriptis subsimilia, acuminibus scabris sepius rectis: interioribus minoribus lanceolatis, acumibus— denticulatis ; intimis minimis, setiformibus scabris.
Paraphyses paucissime, hyaline, filiformes, articulis seepe alter- natim compressis. Pistilla pauca 8-10, stipitata.
An ita distincta a planta Hookeriana cujus ‘folia perichetialia “obtusa, emerginata, atque pilo longo sub-flexuoso termi- nata, nervo obscuro ; intra hec folia parphyses numerose.”
Hab : Loci Assamorum editi, ‘ Negrogan’ vicini.
( To be continued. )
. Production of Isinglass on the Coasts of India, with a notice of its Fisheries. By J. Fonsxs Royze, M. D.*
Isinglass is a substance well known in commerce, from its employ- ment both in the arts and in domestic economy. It is the purest known form of afiimal jelly, and is obtained from the swimming bladder of a few kinds of fish, chiefly of the genus Sturgeon, the
Acipenser of zoologists. This is indicated by some of its continental ~ _
names, of which the English is no doubt a corruption;—thus. in German, Isinglass is called Hausenblase, from hausen, the great stur- . geon, and blase a bladder. It is exported in the largest quantities from the rivers of Russia, principally from those which flow into the Black and Caspian Seas, but also from the Sea of Aral and the Lake Baikal. The fishery affords employment to numerous individuals, and is still further important from the fish, both in their fresh and in their dried state, forming a great portion of the food of the inhabitants of Russia. Some, moreover, are exported, the eggs converted into Ca- viare, and the sounds or swimming bladders into Isinglass.
The preparation and commerce of Isinglass are not of recent origin. It is, indeed, remarkable for having been well known at the time of the Romans, and probably at even still earlier periods. For we learn from Pliny, as translated by Holland, “ A fish there is named Icthyo- colla, which hath a glewish skin, and the very glue that is made thereof is likewise called Icthyocolla (that is fish-glue). Some affirm that the said glue, Icthyocolla, is made of the belly and not of the skin of the said fish, like as bull’s-glue. This fish-glue is said to be best that is brought out of Pontus,t the same also is white without any veins, strings, or scales, and very quickly melteth or resolv- eth.” In comparing the different passages of this author, as well as referring to the accounts of previous (as Dioscorides) as well as —
* We have been favoured with the proof sheets of a Pamphlet bearing the above title, written under authority at the India House, and the very useful con- tents of which we place before our readers. Our own observations on the same subject, and which we intended for the present number, we must now reserve for the 10th No --Ep. Calcutta Journal Natural History.
+ Laudatur Pontica, candida, et carens venis squamisque et que celerrime liquescit.—Plinii, lib. 32, cap. xxiv.
- Production of Tsinglass on the Coasts of India. 17
- of subsequent authors (see Hardouin’s Pliny), where the same fish is mentioned, we find it described as -being without bones and without _ scales, but provided with bucklers on its skin; also that its name is Acipenser, and that it is found in the Danube and in the rivers falling . into the Euxine. . Hence, there can be no doubt that the substance - was Isinglass, and that it was obtained from some species of Sturgeon. The continuance of this:commerce from ancient’ times until the. present day is a proof of the abundance as well as of the facility of the fishery.. It may likewise be taken as an indication of the ex-. cellence of this Isinglass, considering that it is a substance prepared from an organ like the sound, so generally found in fishes. . The whole quantity exported from Russia is considerable, but we will at present refer only to that which is imported into England. From McCulloch’s Commercial Dictionary, we learn that the imports in _ 1831 and 1832 amounted on an average to 1,9843 cwt.a year. In the Report of the Committee on the Import -duties, we see, that in the year 1839 there were imported 1,860 cwt. with additional 25 cwt. from: British possessions. The former yielding a duty of 4,039/. and the latter of 19/.* _- Considering the nutritious nature of Isinglass, and the facility i it affords in making elegant dishes for the sick and convalescent, as well as its general uses in confectionary and cookery, its employ- ment in clarifying wine, beer, &c., and its utility also in some other of the arts, we should have expected a considerable increase in the importation even from 1831 to 1839. Instead of this, there is, in ' fact, an actual decrease, though this is only to a small amount. There is no doubt that the very high retail price of. the best Isin- glass, amounting to 18s., or even higher, per pound, must check its consumption in domestic economy, and necessitate only the inferior kinds being employed in the arts. Perhaps its being principally _ supplied from the more difficultly accessible parts of Russia may also have some effect. -But the consumption limited by these causes is still further diminished by substitutes being found for it, in a con- stituent of the animal frame, of which it itself is the purest form.
* Isinglass, the produce of, and imported from, any British possession, pays l5s. 10d., but otherwise imported a duty of 2/. 7s. 6d. per cwt.
78 Production of Isinglass on the Coasts of India.
This is gelatine, which is very abundantly diffused throughout the animal kingdom. —
Gelatine is familiarly known to every one in the form of animal jelly, and is found in considerable quantity in different parts of @ great variety of animals. It is distinguished from other animal substances, which it may resemble by being soluble in hot, or rather boiling water, and forming a transparent and colourless solution, _ which on cooling becomes a solid tremulous jelly. This contains so large a proportion of water that it readily reliquifies on being warm-
ed. Albumen, which, when liquid or in solution, may be mistaken:
for gelatine, is distinguished from it by becoming solid when ex- posed to heat, This may be witnessed in the boiling of an egg, the white of which consists of albumen, and was of a glairy consistence previous to the application of heat.
Gelatine, when pure, is transparent and nearly colourless, devoid of both taste and smell, easily preserved when in a dry state, but “soon putrifying when moist. . It is soluble in. the different dilute acids as well as in the fixed alkalies, but the compounds formed with the latter, do not form a permanent lather with soap. A charac- teristic of gelatine is the copious precipitate which is formed from any of its solutions on the addition of tannin, as in the form of a decoction of oak bark, of galls, or of catechu. The precipitate forms a grey ductile mass which smells like tanned leather, with which it is indeed identical in nature.* The extent to which pure gelatine can unite with water, and still become a solid fremulous mass, ‘has been ascertained by the experiments of Dr. Bostock. He found that when water contained no more than ~ of its weight of Isinglass, it still stiffened completely on cooling, and even if it contained only
a, the solution was evidently gelatinous when cold, though. it
did not become concrete. ‘“ One of the most remarkable properties .
of gelatine is,” as Dr. Prout says, “its ready convertibility into a sort of sugar, Wy 6 procme eile tu: that bg, OUR, eaeeney be so converted.”
It has been stated that gelatine is very abundantly diffused through
the animal kingdom. Thus, though not contained in any of the
* Corrosive sublimate does not precipitate gelatine, and therefore serves to. distinguish it from albumen, as both are precipitated by galls and oak-bark.
Production of Isinglass on the Coasts of India. © 79
healthy animal fluids, it is obtained in large proportion from skins, most of the white and soft parts of animals, as cartilage, tendon, and membrane; also from bone and horns. It is likewise found in a large proportion in cartilaginous fishes, and forms the natural ce- ment of many shells. From all these gelatine may be extracted by simple boiling in water, with different precautions in regard to cleaning. From bones it may be obtained by the same process, but with the assistance of pressure, and still more easily, if they have been first acted on by muriatic acid, to remove the phosphate of lime. The obtaining of gelatine may thus give rise to a number of employments, which may be practised wherever these offals are obtainable, and the product, in the form of gelatine, can be turned to account.
The solution of gelatine, which, on cooling, becomes a tremulous mass, may by further evaporation be converted into a hard and brit- tle substance, well known by the name of glue. This is made from the parings of hides or horns of any kinds, the pelts obtained from furriers, the hoofs and ears of horses, oxen, calves, sheep, &c. In France it is made from the raspings and trimmings of ivory, the refuse pieces and shavings left by button-mould makers, and from other kinds of hard bone. Size, again, is made by boiling down in water the clippings of parchment, glove-leather, fish-skin, and other kinds of skin and membrane. This is used either alone or mixed with flour paste, gum arabic, or trugacanth, and employed by book- binders, paper-hangers, and painters in distemper.
Mr. Hatchett, many years since ascertained that the viscidity and tenacity of the varieties of gelatine are qualities inherent in each, depending in one, on the age of the animal, the old giving a much stronger glue than the young; in another, on the substances by _ which it is furnished, as glue obtained from the skin is much stronger than the solid gelatine from bones, sinews, or any other part. Mr. H. further found the force of adhesion of the glue from skin was generally proportionate to the toughness of the skin, those which were soft and flexible yielding a thinner gelatine than the hard bony skins, at the same time that they yielded it more easily.
Considering the nature and sources of Gelatine, and the high price of Isinglass, it is not surprising that the former should be fre-
80 ‘Production of Isinglass on the Coasts of India.’
quently substituted ‘for’ the latter. ‘Hence we have different kinds of British gelatine and French gelatine, “as well as a Patent gelatine, - selling at retail prices of from 8s. to 12s., Whtn the est lsinighens ts. selling for 18s. a pound."
~~ Gelatine is one Gf the. principal constituents of moat of ths animal substances employed as food, and it arranged by De, Prout among” the albuminous group, all of which, he says, ‘ ‘ differ from. the olea- _ ginous and the saccharine principles in this respect : that they con- _ tain a fourth elementary principle namely azote.” It forms one of the constituents of bone, from which it may be separated even ages
. after the animal has ceased to exist, as in’ the case of the bones of -_
the Mammoth, from which gelatine was separated and tasted at the table of the Prefet of Strasbourg. As it is found in other refuse animal matter, it has been proposed and employed especially in hospitals and prisons, and some public institutions in France as an ‘article of diet in the form of soups, &c., which has by some been
a disparagingly called “soup of gaiter buttons.”
In some. recent experiments, it has been ‘attempted to prove that gelatine or animal jelly affords no nutriment, or not sufficient _ to support: the’ life of the more highly developed animals, Similar experiments have formerly been made with other articles of diet. such as sugar and gum, and now with Gelatine, Albuinen, Fibrine, and Fecula, and all with the sdme results, so as to prove that none of them: singly are calculated to afford nourishment and support life. For, in fact, man was not intended to live upon any one of these sub- . stances alone, but upon # mixed diet. So Flesh, Bones, and Gluten, being compound bodies, supported life perfectly. Dr. Prout arranges all nourishing substances, capable as they are of assuming an infinite variety of forms, under the three heads, or staminal principles, of the Saccharine, the Oleaginous, and the Albuminous group.* And says as all the more perfect organized béings feed on others that — are organised beings, their food must necessarily consist of one or more of the above three staminal principles. Hence, the diet Se ee ee must
* Gelatine he considers as the least perfect kind of . siigurnens matter i Existing in animal bodies.
Production of Isinglass on the Coasts of India. 81
contain more or ei of the three staminal principles, and therefore. Gelatine may be one of them. : Isinglass, as already stated, is one of the purest forms of animal jelly, and is brought to market i in different forms, sometimes in that of simple plates, at other times rolled up in different shapes, or cut into fine threads, When of good quality, Isinglass is of a whitish colour, thin and semi-transparent, but tough and flexible, destitute — of taste as well as of smell. The inferior kinds are thicker, yellowish coloured, opaque, and sometimes having a fishy smell and taste. ‘When placed in cold water, it becomes soft, then swells, and’ if held up to the light in this state is opalescent. In boiling water, Isinglass is entirely dissolved, with the exception of a very minute proportion of impurities, which Mr. Hatchett ascertained did not amount to
more that 1.5 parts in 500; these consisted of earthy residue,
which appeared to be the phosphates of soda and of lime. A solution . © of one part of Isinglass in 100 of water when cooled down assumes -
_ the form of a clear and colourless jelly ; which is a compound of pure
gelatine and water. Though the best Isinglass is thus completely dissolved in hot water ; yet. much of that found in commerce does not become so, in consequence of the presence of albuminous parts. ee
With respect to the action of acids and alkalies, as well as of tannin and other chemical re-agents, the effects are the same as those produced on a solution of gelatine.
_ Isinglass, being mild and unirritating in its nature, and atthe same. time nutritious, is much employed as an article of diet for the sick
and convalescent, and the fine shreds into which it is cut.and kept in shops, give great facilities: for making a jelly in the shortest possible time. This can be made as palatable and nourishing as any. by the ° addition of sugar and milk, acids or spice ; about one-third or half an ounce is sufficient for a pint of water. It may also be taken in the form of a soup with the addition of salt, spices, and sweet herbs, or it may be employed medicinally as an emollient and demulcent, either externally or internally.. The best kinds of Isinglass are alone employed in articles of diet and for the best confectionary, being add- ed in small quantities to other, especially vegetable, jellies, to give them a tremulous appearance. But gelatine is now frequently sub-
stituted. M
82 Production of Isinglass on the Coasts of India.
Isinglass is also employed in making court-plaster, which, in France, is called sparadrap d’ Angleterre ; it is a thin coating of Isin- glass with a little tincture of benzoin spread on black sarcenet. It is also employed for giving a lustre to some kinds of woven fabric ; but it is more extensively used for clarifying different liquors, such as wine, beer, and coffee, than for any other purpose. The inferior _ kind, called cake Isinglass, being brownish coloured, and having an unpleasant odour, is only employed in the arts, and for the purposes of glue. .
The great consumption of Isinglass—necessarily however of the inferior kinds—is chiefly by the brewer, in the process of fining. This he effects by the use of Isinglass, which he dissolves in sour beer to the consistence of thick mucilage. A little of the solution being added to the liquor to be clarified, causes the subsidence of all the suspended matter in the course of a few hours, when the liquor remains perfectly transparent. The sounds of codfish are said to be employed for the same purpose, though I cannot learn that many are imported, except in a salted state, for food. The white of egg, and the serum of blood will also produce the same effect as far as trans- parency is concerned. The mode of action of these substances in this process is usually explained by supposing that the floating par- ticles become entangled within the Isinglass, as in the meshes of a net, and, uniting with it, form insoluble compounds, which precipi- tating, are carried downwards, and thus leave the supernatant liquor free from all impurity. Mr. Donovan explains this process by sup- posing that the substance added, by dissolving in the water, lessens its affinity for the suspended particles, which thus set free, subside by their own specific gravity.
Such being the uses of Isinglass, and its consumption being no doubt limited by its high price, it is desirable to examine more minutely into the present sources of supply, and to inquire whether efficient substitutes, in the form of new varieties of Isinglass, may not be obtained from other parts of the world.
It has been mentioned that Isinglass is chiefly obtained from the rivers of Russia, which fall into the Black and Caspian Seas, and that it is principally formed of the swimming bladders of fishes of the — genus Acipenser, or Sturgeon. These belong to the great subdivision
Production of Isinglass on the Coasts of India. 83
of cartilaginous fishes, which are so named from the skeletons being devoid of bony fibres, and chiefly composed of cartilage, with the lit- tle calcareous matter deposited in small grains. Among these along with the Sturgeons, are arranged the Shark, Ray, and Skate, as well as the Lamprey and the Myxine, the most er of fishes, and indeed of vertebral animals.
The Sturgeons are easily distinguished by having bony bucklers implanted in longitudinal rows on their skin, and by having their heads, to use Cuvier’s expression, similarly cuirassed. The mouth is small, devoid of teeth, and placed under the muzzle. They resemble ordinary fish by having their gills free, which have but a single orifice, and by being oviparous. Internally, they are characterised by having a large swimming bladder, which communicates by a wide hole with the cesophagus. They ascend several rivers in great numbers from different seas, and thus give rise to very p ofitable fisheries, as their flesh is in some countries esteemed as food, both in a fresh and salted state, while ‘their eggs form Caviare, and their sounds Isinglass. .
As the genus Acipenser is known to consist of several species, it might be expected that Isinglass is yielded by more than one of them. This is found to be the case with several, though all the species of the genus have not yet been accurately determined. A few have been known from early times ;’ several were determined by Pallas, no less than nine are figured and described in the Medical Zoology of Brandt and Ratzeburg.*
* Medizinische Zoologie von J. F. Brandt und J. T. C. Ratzeburg. Ber- lin, 1829.
The following are the species which are best known, in Empnpeence of their be- ing caught and valued for their products: —
The Common Sturgeon (Acipenser Sturio)—Br. and R, tab. iii. fig. 1,—which is usually about six or seven feet in length, and is found in the Atlantic Ocean, on the coasts of France and of England, in the North Sea, Baltic, and German Ocean, whence it ascends the rivers of France and Germany. It is occasionally caught in the Thames, and used formerly to he considered a royal fish, and much prized, probably on account of its rarity. ‘The flesh, somewhat resembling veal is eaten both in a fresh and salted state. The roes yie.d an excellent Caviare, the swimming-bladders may yield Isinglass, but are not applied to any use, probably because too few are obtained at a time.
84 Production of Isinglass on the Coasts of India.
Fishing occupies a great number of people, affords food to many of the inhabitants, and is the source of considerable revenue to
The gréat Sturgeon (Acipenser Huso)—Br. and R. tab. i. fig. 1.—Suppl. tab. i. fig. 1,—called hausen or husen by the Germans, and beluga by the Russians, attains a great size, being often twenty feet in length. It is an’ inhabitant of the Caspian, especially of the quieter bays and gulfs, and of the rivers which flow into it, and of their tributaries. It ascends these great rivers from the sea, towards the | end of winter when they are frozen, in order to deposit its spawn in spring, and is said to return to the sea in the autumn.’ The fishery is performed by contract. Many of the fish caught are kept in pieces of water, and are again brought up in winter through holes made in the ice. Then the mass of the fish becomes frozen, when it is distributed in this, as well as in a salted and pickled state, through the interior of Russia. The roe and the Isinglass are at the same time separated. A single fish is said sometimes to yield as much as 120 pounds of roe, with which caviare is prepared. This is principally consumed in Russia, Germany, Italy, and by the Greeks during their long fasts: but lately the consumption has much in- creased in England; that made by the Cossacks of the Oural is usually preferred. The belugas also afford a considerable portion of oil, and the whole fish yields a considerable revenue to Russia, About seven poods and a-half of Isinglass are ob- tained from 1,000 fish. The roe, or caviare, of 1,000 fish weighs 100 pood, or 4,000 pounds. This species, according to Dr. Martius, yields Leaf Isinglass of three qualities—fine firsts, firsts, and seconds,
The Osseter (A. Guldenstadtii, Br. and R. tab. iii. fig. 2). This species is wide- ly diffused, being found in the Black and Caspian Seas and the rivers which flow into them, as well as in their tributaries; also in. Lake Baikal. It yields about. one-fourth of all the Caviare and Isinglass of commerce. The caviare iis one of the best kinds, and is preferred to that of the belugas. It is probably this species which is called the Sturgeon in the above situations. One thousand, produce two poods and a half of the best Isinglass, and the same number of fish not more than 60 poods of caviare or roe. Both staple and leaf Isinglass are yielded by this species. The varieties of the former are Patriarch, Astrachan, and Astrachan firsts, seconds, and thirds, also leaf and book at Sallian (Martius).
The Sterlet (A. Ruthenas)—Br. and R. tab. ii. fig. 2,—is also very generally diffused, being found in the Caspian and Black Seas, as well as in the Arctic Ocean, in many of the rivers which flow into them, and also in the tributaries; likewise in Lake Baikal. It was transferred by Frederick the Great to the Lakes of Pomerania and by Frederick the First of Sweden into the Malar and Hamarby Lakes. Its flesh is prized. It yields the best Isinglass, especially for inlaid works. In commercial language, leaf and book (first and second). also staple Isinglass are yielded by this species, and its roe yields caviare.
The Sevruga or Sewrjugha, Starred Sturgeon (A. stellatus, Pallas)—Br. and _ R. tab. iii. fig. 3,—is a native of the Caspian and Black Seas and of their tributary rivers, also of the Lake of Aral, One thousand sevrugas produce one pood and a quarter of superior Leaf Isinglass, and sixty poods of the best caviare.
Production of Isinglass on the Coasts of India. 85
Russia. ‘Those of the Volga are particularly productive, and comsist of the Carp, the Pike, the Trout, the Herring, and of the«Pilchard ; but to a still greater extent of the Sturgeon, Beluga, and Salmon, besides of the Lampreys and Mackerel in the Crimea for pick. ling. ,
M. Schnitzler says, that the Sturgeon fishery is: of considerable value: 1,850,500 caught | in the year 1793, in the Volga, near Astrakhan, yielded 124,970 poods of caviare and 3,375 poods o Isinglass. The net value‘of the Russian fisheries is calculated oe him to amount to more than 10,000,000 rubles. __
The following statement of the produce of the Ruseian fisheries of the Caspian and its tributary streams, in 1828 and 1829, is extracted from the’ official Report made to the Minister of Commerce at St. Petersburgh.
| |
Number .
of -Per 3 , dgons em-' Stur- | o* fer ge Fish Car- sin ass. Year. ployed geon, Sevruga. Beluga. avin: ih Care [" 8 ing. |’ : i | |
Z
| | Poods. 1b.| Poods. Ib. Poods.Ib.- 1828 | $887 | 43,035 |. 653,164 | 23,069 | 34.860 11,207 381,225 27 1829 | 8760 | 68,325 | 697,716 20,30 | 28,420 7h 173 264 1,092 22 ' ; x
Pallas, in his Travels in the Southern Provinces of the Russian Empire, states that the emoluments of the fisheries in the Volga and the not less productive shores of the Caspian Sea, may be considered as the principal support of the inhabitants of Astrakhan. It would be difficult to find in the whole world, except on the banks of Newfoundland, a more productive fishery; or one more advantageous to the government, than those on the Volga and the Caspian Sea united. During the fasts of the Greek church and the weekly fast days, which together amount to at least one-third of the year,. this fishery ‘affords the principal food ‘to the whole European part of Russia, and its populous. capitals. Many thousands of indi-
The other species figured in the same work are Acipenser brevirostris. tab. i. fig. 2. A. Schypa, tab. i. fig. 3, and Suppl. tab. i. fig, 2. A. Ratzeburyii, tab. i. fig. 3. A. Lichtensteinii, tab. ii. fig. 1. With A. Maculosus and Oxyrbynchus of North America described, but not figured.
86 Production of Isinglass on the Coasts of India.
viduals are employed, and acquire wealth either by fishing and con- veying the fish on rafts or sledges, or by selling them in the mar- kets.
The whole value of the Sturgeons of different kinds caught in the waters of Astrakhan and the Caspian Sea, amounts to the annual sum of 1,760,405 rubles.* To this must be added the value of the Persian fishery at Sallian, which, when established only a few years, yielded annually upwards of 300,000 rubles, « It might be still more lucrative, if the injudicious fishermen would preserve the great number of fish, instead of throwing them into the sea as useless, after having collected their roes and air-bladders.
“The most valuable production of the Sturgeons,” Pallas con- tinues, “ is the Isinglass prepared from their air-bladders. Accord- ing to the list of exports printed by the English factory at St. Petersburg, there has been exported in British vessels, from 1753 to 1786, from 2,000 to 3,000 ; in later years usually upwards of 4,000, and in 1788, even 6,850 poods of that article. The exporta. tion to other countries has also amounted, within these few years, to above 1,000 poods. The large and almost incredible demand, has, at the same time, tended to increase the price of the different qualities of this commodity at Astrakhan itself ; and on the exchange of St. Petersburg, whence Isinglass of the best quality, so late as the year 1778, did not exceed the price of 36 rubles a pood, it has lately been advanced to 90 rubles.”
Isinglass being prepared from the swimming-bladder of certain fishes, and this being an organ generally, though not universally, diffused through that class of the animal kingdom, it seems remarka- ble that it should not be more generally employed for the purpose of yielding so valuable a commercial article. The fact, however, is, — that though Isinglass of the finest quality, and in the largest quanti- _ ties is yielded by, it is not confined to, the Sturgeon tribe, for even in Russia the Silurus Glanis, Cyprini, and Barbel yield it, and we meet in commerce with Brazilian, New York, and Hudson’s Bay Isinglass.
* Products of the fisheries of the great ig ied AMOUNE tO. sseeesveees 341,535
Little ites he sees ccesevowceess seneeeceaveeseerens 549 Odd
Sevrugas. AO ERR ee MOK eee ee eT EHH EH ETOH TESTES tees oe gah325
Production of Isinglass on the Coasts of India. © 87
The fishes which produce it on the coast of Brazil have not been ascertained. Camera supposed it to be a species of Gadus.*. Mr. Yarrell informs me that no species of Gadus is caught on the coast of Brazil. The common Cod prefers water of a low temperature ; though found all the year about Boston, it migrates northward from New York when warm weather begins. The fishes producing Isinglass in Brazil, he further writes, are probably species of the genera Py- melodus and Silurus, or closely allied genera. ~
The Brazilian Isinglass is imported from Para and Maranham. It is very inferior in quality for domestic purposes to the best imported from Russia, which sells for 12s. per lb., and the other from about 3s. to 3s. 6d., and even as low as 9d. per lb. It is in the form of Pipe, Block, Purse, Honey-comb, Cake, and Tongue: Isinglass, the last formed of a double swimming-bladder. The specimens known to Mr. Yarrall appeared to him ta belong to different species of Fish.
The Isinglass obtained from North America, in the form of long ribbons, is produced, according to Dr. Mitchill, by Labrus squeatea- gue, at New York, which is called weak fish, about fifteen inches in length, and above six pounds in weight, forming one of their most abundant fish, and the principal supply of their tables. One author states that the thick silvery swimming-bladders are pressed, and — others that the intestines are cut into strips, and I am told, pressed between iron rollers to form Isinglass.
The Labrus Squeateague is Otolithus regalis of Cuvier (the Johnius regalis of Bloch), of the tribe Sciznoides. These are allied to the Perches, but have more variety, and a more complicated structure in their natatory bladders ; almost’ all good for eating, and many are of superior flavour. To the genus Otolithus also belong some Indian fishes, as O. ruber, Cuv., the Peche pierre of Pondicherry, called there panan, is fifteen inches long, and is caught in abundance all the year, being esteemed as food, and O. versicolor, Cuv. This genus is closely allied to Sciena, of which species as S. Aquila (maigre of the French, and umbrina of the Romans), &c., are found in the Mediter- ranean. S. Pama or Bole Pama of the Ganges resembles the maigres,
* Notice sur l’icthycolle fonrnée par differentes espéces de gadus que l’on péche au Brésil. La Médicine éclairée par les Sciences Physiques, i. p. 364.
88 Production of Isinglass on the Coasts of India.
but has a singular natatory bladder. Whien twelve or fifteen inches long, it is erroneously called whiting at Calcutta, and furnishes a light and salubrious diet. It is caught in great abundance at the mouths of the Ganges, but never ascends higher than the tide.
In New England, the intestines of the common Cod (Morrhua vulgaris). are cut into ribbon Isinglass: in Iceland also the Cod is said to yield Isinglass, so also the Ling (Lota Molva). Mr. Yarrell informs me that he has no reason to believe that Isinglass is so pre- pared, at least in the southern parts of this country; the fish being brought alive in well-boats as far as possible. Cod sounds as used in this country, are mostly preserved soft by salting, and are dressed for table as a substitute for fish.
Hence we see that Isinglass is not confined to the rivers of Rus- sia, nor to the tribe of Sturgeons, but that it is found in fishes on the warm coast of Brazil and the cold one of Iceland. It would not, therefore, be surprising to find it yielded by .some of the great va- riety and shoals of fishes, on the long extended coasts of the British Empire in India. Some experimental quantities have, in fact, al- ready been imported’ from Bengal into this country .within the last year. Indeed, from the accounts published, and the additional facts which will be adduced, it will appear that a trade in Isinglass, and in some of its substitutes, has‘long been established on the coasts of India. ‘ mi The first who appears to have drawn attention to this subject, was an anonymous correspondent in Parbury’s Oriental Herald in Junu- ary, 1839, who stated, that the Chinese haditong been engaged in trade with Calcutta in Isinglass. Also, that this was afforded by a fish called sulleah in Bengal, and that from half a pound to three- quarters of a pound was obtained from each fish,
In consequence of this notice, the. attention of Mr. McClelland, of the Bengal Medical Service, was was turned to the subject, and he. has pursued it with a degree or « or energy icy and intelligence, which renders it extremely probable, that Isinglass may be regularly esta- blished as an article of export from Bengal to Europe. ,
Mr. McClelland’s first paper was published at Calcutta in ‘June, ~ 1839, in the Journal of the Asiatic Society, vol. viii. p. 203. Inthis — he informs us, that having procured a-specimen, from the bazar, —
Production of Isinglass on the Coasts of India. 89
of the fish yielding the Isinglass, he -was surprised to find it to be a species of Polynemus, or paradise fish, of which several species are known for their excellence as articles of food. Of these he ad- duces the Mango Fish, or Tupsée Mutchee of the Bengalese (Polyne- mus Risua, Buch.) as a familiar instance, though this is remarkable as being without a swimming-bladder :* while the other species have it large and stout. These occur in the seas of warm climates; five are. described by Dr. Buchanan in his Gangetic fishes, but only two are of considerable size, occurring in the estuary of the Hoogly, and probably in those of the Ganges. - One of these, with another large _ species is also described by Dr. Russell in his work on the fishes of
the Madras Coast. That figured in tab. 184, and called maga- boshee is Polynemus uronemus of Cuvier, while the maga-jellee, tab. 183, named P. tetradactylus, by Shaw, is probably P. Teria of . Buchanan. Both, but especially the first, Russell says, are esteemed for the table, and called row ball by the English.
Mr. McClelland ascertained that the species affording the Isinglass, is the Ploynemus Sele of Buchanan, sele or sulea of the Bengalese, described but not figured in his work on the Gangetic fishes (p. 226). Mr. M. has, however, published in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, a figure from Dr. Buchanan’s unpublished collection’ of drawings, which are kept at the East-India Company’s Botanic Garden at Calcutta. ° This figure, he states,.conveys an excellent representation, about half “the size of a specimen, from which he obtained sixty-six grains of Isinglass. Dr. Buchanan describes the Sele as affording a light nourishing food, like most of the fishes which he has called bola, but as inferior to many of. them in flavour. It is common in the estuaries of the Ganges, and is often found weighing -from twenty to twenty-four pounds ;+ and may perhaps be the. Emoi of Otaheiti, the Polynemus lineatus of La Cepede, the P. slebeius of Broussonet.t This, according to Bloch, is by the English
* We have since found this to be likewise the case with Polynemus iar: JSilis, Cuv.—Ep.
t Its ordinary size when in season is from 3 to 4 feet in Tength, and’ from 50 to 100 lbs.—Ep,
¢ The Polynemus Emoi, P. lineatus, eolynemus plebeius, Polynemus sele of authors, are different names for one and the sdme species, called Suleah by the
Nae
90 Production of Isinglass on the Coasts of India.
called king-fish, and is the Kala mine of John from Tranquebar, and abundant in the Kistnah and Godavery. Buchanan further states, that the Sele has a strong resemblance to the above named maga- booshee of Dr. Russell.
As the anonymous author above referred to, states, that from half a pound to three-quarters of a pound may be obtained from each fish ; Mr. McClelland supposes either that P. Sele attains a much larger size than twenty-four pounds, the limit given to it by Buchanan, or that Isinglass is also afforded by a far larger species, namely P. tetradactylus, Terea, or teria bhangan. This, as we have seen, is identical with the maga-jellee of the Coromandel Coast, and which Buchanan often saw six feet long in the Calcutta bazar, and was in- formed it sometimes equalled 320 pounds avoirdupois in weight. It is considered by the natives as a wholesome diet, although seldom used by Europeans.
Mr. McClelland says, he has frequently seen them of a uniform size, that must have weighed from fifty to a hundred pounds at least, loading whole cavalcades of hackeries (carts) on their way to the Calcutta bazar during the cold season. Both the Sele and the teria bhangan must consequently be very common there from November to March.
Whether both species have natatory bladders was doubtful when Mr. M. wrote his paper.* But from the large quantities and size of the Isinglass which has been produced in the Bay of Bengal, it is probable that it is yielded by both the above species. P. Sele is supposed to be a variety of P. lineatus, which is said to be com- mon on all the shores to the eastward ; but if so, Mr. M. says, it seems strange that the Chinese should send for it to the Hoogly. The same might, however, be said of the Cod, which, though caught in abundance on the coasts of Great Britain, is also diligently sought for on the banks of Newfoundland. He also inquires whether
Bengalese, and which is well known all round the coasts of India by various local names.—Ep.
* We have since ascertained that of the various species of Polynemus, the Suleah alone affords Isinglass, as well as the principal supplies of the article known in commerce as Cod Sounds, or Fish Maws,—Ev.
Production of Isinglass on the Coasts of India, 91
Polynemus Emoi and P. plebeius, supposed by Buchanan to corres- pond with his Sele, contain the same valuable substance ? and do either of Russell’s species, the above named maga-booshee and maga- jellee (Indian Fishes, 183-184) yield it? These questions are very interesting, in connection with the information which will be after- wards given, respecting the extent of the fishery along the coasts of India, and of the export to China of large quantities of a substance which is 16 doubt one form of Isinglass.
Dr. Cantor, in a paper read before the Royal Asiatic Society, on some Indian fishes found in the Bay of Bengal, says, ‘To the genus Polynemus, I shall add a species called by the natives salliah or saccolih. It enters the mouths of the Ganges in shoals, and is equally sought by Europeans and natives for its excellent flavour, which much approaches that of salmon. I have seen it from three to four feet in length and eight to ten inches in depth. . It ap- pears equally plentiful all the year round, which is also the case with a nearly allied species, the Polynemus quadrifilis of Cuvier.” In re- ference to this passage, Mr. M. says, ‘I am not sure that the species of Polynemus, Dr. Cantor particularly refers to in his paper as salliah or saccolih, is not the very fish that affords Isinglass ; if so, it appears to be considered by Dr. Cantor as a new species.”’* ;
In his letter, dated 17th February, 1841, Mr. McClelland says, “ that besides the Polynemus Sele, the fishes described by Dr. Buchanan, under the name of Bola, all afford a considerable quanti- ty of Isingless.t Some of the specimens sent are from a species of this genus. Several of the Siluridze also afford it in large quantities, especially the species marked Silurus raita by Dr. Buchanan.” This
* We have now reason to think the species in question is the Suleah to which so many names have already been applied by different authors.—Ep.
t+ The Bole of Buchanan are the Scienoides of Cuvier, one of which inhabiting the coasts of North America, is said to afford Isinglass. Another which we have recently received from Dr. Heddle of Bombay, where it is called Gol, and with Polynemus sele contributes to the supply of fish-maws exported from that coast ; we are not yet sure of the species, but we think it has been indicated by Buchanan as a variety of his Bola chaptis, called Nuria in Jessore. The same species also exists on the Tenasserim coast, from whence we recciyed a
92 Production of Isinglass on the Coasts of India. is interesting and important, as it is probable, as before stated, that a Silurus yields a Brazilian Isinglass ; and, Silurus Glanis, in the wouth of Russia, and of several kinds as, firsts, seconds, book, &c., one of which is esteemed in England, it might, therefore, be produced of as good quality by the Indian species of Silurus.
The first sample received at the India House was sent to the author by Mr. Cantor, of the house of Cantor and Co., of Calcutta, with a note, dated 30th October, 1840, stating that it was a»specimen of a consignment sent by his house in Calcutta.*
The next samples. were forwarded by Mr. Rogers to Mr. Melville, the Secretary of the East India Company, for the Court of Directors, with a note stating that they were curious as being the first impor- tations of Isinglass from India. No.-1, was valued at 4s., and No. 2.+ at 1s. 8d. per lb., alco thet tip ipeeeiien See pected to exteed fifty tons during the year.
“Tide theeiaes apetenplaledeg.ortianimeatannmada aie G. Rem- _ frey, stating that No. 1.{ was Isinglass simply taken out of the fish and dried by exposure to the sun; and that No. 2. was the same substance partially prepared, by being cut open, the’ interior mem- branes taken out, washed with told water, and beat on a piece of wood; by which means it is flattened, extended, and loses weight. He further states, that another description of Isinglass is common at Calcutta. “This is prepared by the natives to imitate, and is sold for local consumption for one-fourth of the price of European Isinglass. They take the above Isinglass, when in its freshest state, and pull it into shreds with their fingers, then dry it in the sun, and mix with it ° Satna portions af chunnte (Qewseney ne) Shanta damp, &c.
_ Mr. Remfrey also adverts to the fact, that while Europeans were unacquainted with the existence of this trade, the Chinese had from
specimen for which we were indebted to Mr. E. O’Reily and Mr. Blundell. — Both the Tenasserim and the Bottbay specimens, were too much decayed to
allow of a sufficiently accurate Np SoHE but the species is probably unde- scribed.—Ep.
* On the part of a: constituent.—Ep. + ~ These numbers du not eem to refer to the same specimens.
Production of Isinglass on the Coasts of Fadl. 93
time immemorial been supplied with Isinglass from Bengal. He - says, that when in Calcutta he was informed that ‘the natives of the eastern countries were in the habit of coming through the Sun- derbuns to a large village, near the salt-water lake, six miles south- east of Calcutta. There they obtain as much as 800 to 900 maunds of this Isinglass for the China market, and pay for it 25 to 40 rupees. per maund. The Chinese, if is surmised, use it for their soups, glues, &c. It is imported in the same state as specimen No. 1.’ It was at this village that both the samples sent were purchased. The Chinese are said also, in one account,-to bring back to Calcutta the Isinglass which they had exported from its neighbourhood, but in an ~ improved form, and at a considerable advance of price.
-Isinglass, the produce of Bengal, though apparently unknown to the merchants and European residents of Calcutta, has been celebra- ted in China from the-earliest times. Dr. Lumqua, a Chinese physician, long resident in Calcutta, informed Mr. McClelland that -’ the Bengal Fish-sago (as Indian Isinglass is called in China), is well known throughout the empire. Algo that nothing could surpass his surprise, on his arrival nearly: twenty-five years since in Calcutta, -when he found that, with the exception of his countrymen, who car- ried on the trade, no one appeared to know or care anything yout ever for the article in question.
The next quantity réceived, was haunted by the Governor-Ge- neral, the Earl of Auckland, to the Court of Directors, as samples of an article of considerable interest ; sin order that the Court might, if they saw fit, obtain the opinion pf competent ‘persons, as to the purposes and probable extent to which Bengal Isinglass of the des- cription, sent could be applied.
‘These samples had been prepared by Mr. McClelland, who forward- ed forty-six seers of Bengal Isinglass, in different forms, obtained chiefly from the Polynemus Sele, with other specimens from the species-of Bola already.alluded to. He states that his attention had for two years been directed to the subject to ascertain the extent ‘to which Isinglass may be procured, and the means by which its manufacture may be improved.
Mr. McClelland also informs us, that in order to ascertain the value . of the article, (merely stripped of all impurities calculated to injure
4
94 Production of Isinglass on the Coasts of India.
its quality, without any regard to appearance), a considerable quantity had been sent to England. An account having been receiv- ed of the sale, it appears that this Isinglass realised only Is. 7d. per lb., which was considerably under its prime cost. Forty-four maunds and ten seers of Fish Sounds having been bought for 40 rupees a maund, required an expense of 100 rupees for cleaning after purchase from the fishermen, thus costing altogether about ls. ld. per Ib. This quantity, or 2,235 lbs. at 1s. 7d. per lb., realised £176. 18s. 9d.; but the charges in India and in England, consisting of packing, demurrage, freight, insurance, shipping charges, export and import duties, ware-house, brokerage, commission, interest, &c., were so heavy, that the whole did not realise quite one-third of the outlay.
The kinds now sent consist, firstly, of the Isinglass in entire pieces ; secondly, of the same cut into fine shreds; and, thirdly, some to which a little chalk had been added, to preserve it dry and free from insects. Also four specimens of Isinglass from the Bola Fish.
These several samples of Bengal Isinglass differ considerably from each other in appearance. ‘Those first received from Messrs. Cantor and Rogers were in oval-shaped pieces, about nine inches in length, and five in breadth, and at least one-quarter of an inch in thickness, opaque, of a brownish colour externally, but beautifully white, even silky-looking, when thin pieces were stripped off.* These speci- mens had little taste or smell, but as they were only few in number, the smell could not be judged of so well as when in bulk.
Mr. McClelland’s specimens vary in length, being from six to twenty-four inches long, about three and four inches broad, and from one-sixth to one-tenth of an inch in thickness.} Whitish in colour, rough in some places apparently from the adhering pieces of mem- branes stripped off, smooth and translucent in others, and oc-
* These samples consisted of the Isinglass in its riatural state, as taken from the fish, and merely cleaned and dried without any attempt to improve the shape and | appearance of the article. —Ep.
+ These were stretched and altered in shape, by having been passed between _ rollers, but in other respects they are the same as the specimens received from Messrs. Cantor and Rogers, and came from the same hands,—Ep.
Production of Isinglass on the Coasts of India. 95
casionally nearly transparent in-some, having something of an oily feel when rubbed, and exhaling a fishy odour when in mass. Some of the specimens are whitish in appearance, from a little adhering chalk, which was sprinkled on the soft substance to assist its drying, and to prevent the masses adhering together. As this is easily brushed off, and is, moreover, insoluble in water, it will not in any way interfere with the article when brought into use.
The Isinglass cut into threads is unsuitable for the English market, notwithstanding that Isinglass for retail is cut into fine threads, as more convenient for general use, and for making jellies and soups, in consequence of the extensive surface which is exposed, rendering it more easily and quickly soluble. But there is a great prejudice in the wholesale market to buying things in a cut or powdered state, in consequence of the innumerable methods adopted, for falsifying and adulterating almost every drug. Machinery is used in London for cutting the Isinglass into threads of any degree of fineness, and as it ‘is impracticable at present to rival this in India, besides having to contend against a prejudice if sent in this state, it is preferable, and will be cheaper, to prepare the article and send it as sheet Isinglass, that is in the form of the slit sounds themselves, or their purest: membrane washed, cleaned, and dried in the best manner.
It has been stated that several parcels of Isinglass from Calcutta have already been sent to the London market Though we are not acquainted with the prices which all have brought, yet we have the fullest evidence respecting the cost and the out-turn of one large sample ; and that the price was small, compared even with the origi- nal outlay. But other parcels have sold at a higher price.
Many circumstances tend to produce an unfavourable effect on the price of an article exposed for sale, independent of the intrinsic va- lue. In the first place, it is new and unknown; this will of itself repel many: ordinary purchasers, because they are unacquainted with its peculiarities, and do not consider it worth the trouble and expense of submitting to experiment, more especially as they do not know whether they may meet with it again as'a regular article of com- merce: Others, again, who are willing to submit it to trial, will only do so, when they can obtain it at a sufficiently cheap rate, and therefore take adyantage of its unknown condition to depreciate its
96 Production of Isinglass on the Coasts of India.
value. Besides, there is always a certain degree of trouble and risk with a new substance.
The Indian Isinglass prepared as it is from the sounds of a fish, undoubtedly possesses all the general characteristics of Isinglass, for which reason it is valued by the Chinese, and imported into their country from the mouths. of the Ganges. Yet-it has some positive defects, which, though interfering but little with its general proper- ties, may give a colour to the objections of purchasers.
That this Bengal Fish Sound does possess the general properties of Isinglass may be proved to the satisfaction of any one who will boil a portion of it for a little time in water. If, after straining, it be set aside to cool, it will be found to congeal into a clear, tasteless, transparent jelly, which, when sweetened and flavoured in the usual manner, can hardly be distinguished from any- other kind, as has been observed both by Mr. Yarrell and the author. —
Notwithstanding this, some may object to its appearance, as many of the specimens are but imperfectly prepared ; but others are fine and transparent enough to be mistaken for specimens of good Russi- an Book Isinglass. It is not surprising, if without practical experi- ence, and with necessarily imperfect knowledge respecting the best modes of preparing Isinglass on the banks of the Volga, the fisher- men on those of the Ganges should nof at first succeed in rivalling this anciently established manufacture. Taking all things, however, - into consideration, the success of the first attempts is surprising, and assures us how much more is likely to attend the efforts of those who follow Mr. McClelland’s example, when informed of the objec- tions made in the London market to their first attempts. This Isin- glass, however, appears excellent when compared with the simply dried sounds, or the rude thick masses which characterise Brazilian, which has also the disadvantage of a Sern: smell, and in il tions being insoluble albumen.
The defective preparation of Bengal Isinglass is especially observable in its still retaining something of the fishy smell, as well as in being in part insoluble, apparently from some portion of the albuminous membranes still continuing adherent to the purer gelatinous parts. .It is probable, that by increased care in cleaning “and drying by: exposure to air, some of those defects may be removed, especially as _
Production of Isinglass on the Coasts of India. = 97
we shall observe, in comparing the two processes, that much greater care is bestowed on the preparation in Russia than in India.
These objections made to the Indian Isinglass in the London Market, and known to many, are embodied in the following letter - from experienced Brokers, to whom the author submitted prnples of
this Isinglass.
. TO DR. ROYLE.
S1r,—The three samples of Isinglass are of a quality not unknown to us as from the East Indies, and have hitherto been received in the whole or entire sheet state, and not cut. In consequence of the article not having had sufficient care bestowed upon it before being - subjected to the process of drying, so as to remove the unpleasant fishy smell, it is impossible to bring it into use here for culinary pur- ‘poses, and thereby supersede the Astrachan sorts now in use, and selling a* 10s. to 12s. per tb. The East Indian will be only available for brewer’s use, and then it must be sweeter and of better flavour than the present samples. The Brazil is the description taken by brewers, and is worth 2s. 6d to 3s. 6d. per tb., but is quite free from the objectionable smell, as is also the Samovy, which is of nearly the same value, and applied to similar purposes.
We sold a parcel of East Indian in sheet at public sale in Novem- ber 1840, at 2s. 6d. per tb. in bond; but we think that 3s. 6d. is nearer the price it would now bring.
) Tuomas Merry anv Son. 15, Laurence Pountney Hill, 26th August, 1841. — ; P. S. One of the cut samples has been bleached, but is of no more _ value than the unbleached one.
Mr. Emley, also an experienced Broker, in examining the speci- mens found some which he considered very well prepared, though the majority were too thick and whitish coloured, instead of being colourless and transparent ; Mr. Rogers’ 8 specimens he RRR to the Cake Brazilian. —
Mr. McClelland, in sending this Isinglass, writes, that in Calcutta it was found to correspond precisely with the Russian Isinglass in
o
98 Production of Isinglass on the Coasts of India.
Chemical and Essential properties. The author sent specimens to Mr. Hennel of Apothecaries’ Hall, which he was good enough to examine. He complains of it as being insoluble, very closely resem- bling the Brazilian Isinglass, and therefore of low value. As the article promises to be of considerable importance as an export from India, it was desirable to have it submitted to a detailed and careful Chemical analysis. Mr. Edward Solly, jun., Lecturer on Chemistry at the Royal Institution, has furnished the following account of the results of his experiments.
NOTE ON BENGAL ISINGLASS.
Good Isinglass is generally described as ‘being one of the purest forms of Gelatine we are acquainted with ; it consists, in fact, of little else besides, and accordingly presents very nearly the charac- ters of that substance. The properties of pure Isinglass or Gelatine are briefly the following. It is transparent and colourless, or nearly so, inodorous, tasteless, and of a hard or horny consistence. It is but little hygrometric, remaining tolerably dry in ordinary conditions of the atmosphere. In cold water, it gradually softens and swells up ; in hot water, it easily dissolves, and forms a clear solution, which if it contain as much as a say th part of its weight of Gelatine, has the property of gelatinizing or assuming the form of a soft tremulous solid as it cools. Dry Gelatine is a permanent and unchangeable substance, but in solution it is very liable to undergo decomposition, becoming mouldy, and rapidly putrifying when exposed to the air ; it has been observed that the ordinary and more impure forms of Gela- tine are more liable to undergo these changes than the pure sub- stance, the presence of minute quantities of acids, alkalies, and other impurities, greatly accelerating its decomposition. All Isinglass contains small, quantities of Albumen, Saline, and earthy matter, and a peculiar substance called Ozmazome, the better sorts containing less, and the inferior more of these impurities.
The Bengal Isinglass consists of Gelatine, Albumen, a small por- tion of saline and earthy substances, Ozmazome, and a. minute trace of an odorous oil. The Albumen exists in an unusually large pro- portion, which of course somewhat modifies the properties of the Isinglass. The pieces are rather unequal in composition, some of
Production of Isinglass on the Coasts of India. 99
the thinner portions being purer, and containing less Albumen than the others, thus three experiments gave the following results :—
: |
Isinlass. Soluble Gelatine. Insoluble Albumen. j cL aiatents Sa FORT Bed tte a eS | 1,000 parts 965 3a |
Ditto 909 91 : Ditto 928 es 72
The best pieces have comparatively little colour or smell, dissolve tolerably easily in water, and form a good firm jelly, which appears to have but little tendency to become mouldy. The inferior pieces are somewhat coloured, unequal in appearance, dissolve with dif- ficulty, and have a peculiar disagreeable smell, in great part due — to the presence of the oily substance before-mentioned. From the ap- pearance and properties of this Isinglass, it is probable that its defects are in a great measure to be attributed to a want of sufficient care in its preparation, and it is evident that good Isinglass cannot be made without considerable attention is paid during the processes of wash- ing, beating, scraping, and drying ; all of which have a very important influence on the goodness of the finished Isinglass. Some of the samples of the Bengal Isinglass are unquestionably very good Isin- glass,