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THE LIBRARY
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THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
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PRESENTED BY
PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID
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CASE
PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY.
IN
THIRTY-SEVEN BOOKS.
n '
A TRANSLATION
ON THE BASIS OF THAT BY DR. PHILEMON HOLLAND, ED. 1601.
WITH CRITICAL AND EXPLANATORY NOTES.
VOL. I.
bp tf)e WUcnurtan Club.
PRINTED FOE THE CLUB
BY
GEOKGE BAKCLAY, CASTLE STEEET, LEICESTER SQUARE.
1847-48.
184-1 v.l-3
PURSUANT to a Resolution to the following effect, passed at a meeting of the Committee held on Wednesday, 3rd February, 1847 : —
" The best thanks of the Club are hereby presented to —
JONATHAN COUCH, Esq. F.L.S., the Superintending Editor of this Publication, and Translator of the Work.
Also to the following Gentlemen, viz. : —
In the Department of Astronomy, SIR JOHN F. W. HERSCHEL, BART. F.R.S.
In the Department of Classical Literature,
Rev. GEORGE MUNI-ORD, M.A. W. G. V. BARNEWALL, Esq. M.A. Rev. T. FULCHER, B.A.
In the Departments of Antiquities and Geography,
JONATHAN COUCH, Esq. F.L.S. C. J. B. ALDIS, Esq. M.D. OCTAVIUS A. FERRIS, Esq. CHARLES MOXON, Esq.
For the Editorial Assistance rendered by them in the preparation of the accompanying Work."
PREFACE,
INCLUDING A
MEMOIR OF THE AUTHOR.
fAIUS PLINIUS SECUNDUS, usually called the Elder, to distinguish him from his nephew of the same name, who was equally eminent in letters, but in a dif- ferent field, was born of an illustrious family of Verona, in the 23rd year of the Christian era. According to the custom of Roman youths, he served in the army, where he was honoured with the regards of Titus, son of Vespasian, and afterwards emperor, to whom he dedicated his great work on the " History of Nature."
To one of his inclinations and tastes, the military career was probably little suited ; yet every Roman was called on to enter it, whatever department of the public service he might afterwards occupy. With the army in Germany he acquired distinction. On his return to Rome he was enrolled in the College of Augurs — a post which favoured his philosophic in-
VI PREFACE.
quiries ; and he was subsequently appointed Procu- rator, or Vice-Governor, in Spain.
It has been remarked, that none labour more strenuously in any favourite pursuit than those whose time appears absorbed in the necessary affairs of life ; none are so idle as those whose business is slight enough to afford leisure for every occupation. Of this truth history furnishes no example more striking than is visible in the varied pursuits, the diligence, and the research of Pliny ; while there can be no doubt also but that his public services acquired additional value from the wide range which his mind embraced, and the rich stores of knowledge which it was his habit to accumulate and arrange.
Such was the spirituality of his nature, that bodily requirements — much more bodily indulgences — seemed extinct in him. His relaxation from official business was a change of labour. The greater portion of his nights was devoted to study ; his very meals were an abstraction ; for, lest he should forget the higher aim of existence, his amanuensis read to him in their pro- gress ; and, instead of walking, he drove in the cha- riot — his secretary beside him — to save time and escape distraction from his contemplations. So nume- rous and valued were his extracts, remarks, and an- notations, that Lartius Lutinius offered the philoso- pher a sum equivalent to more than three thousand pounds sterling for the possession of them ; but they were more nobly bequeathed to his beloved and distin- guished nephew. In the vast realms of Nature and Art no object was indifferent to him ; in the province of the Fine Arts, the accuracy of his judgment and the fidelity of his details seemed only to be outmea-
PREFACE. Vll
sured by the extent of his acquirement ; and as a his- tory, a critique, and a catalogue, nothing more pre- cious in letters than his 34th, 35th and 36th books, has escaped the ruin in which the fall of the Roman empire had nearly involved all of enlightenment that had grown up and flourished with it. To his huma- nity and scientific curiosity combined, he became one of the most memorable martyrs that stand on record. The events of the day that closed his mortal career, in the 79th year of the Christian era, are minutely and touchingly detailed to Tacitus the historian, in one of the most elegant of the epistles penned by a nephew who was the worthy inheritor of the wealth, the fame, and the virtues of his uncle. The body was found three days after its destruction by the eruptions of Vesuvius, and interred at Misenum, in face of the fleet which he had quitted for the prosecution of his phy- sical investigations. For the emulation of those who delight to
" Look from nature up to nature's God,"
as the best eulogy that can be pronounced on Pliny himself, and, at the same time, as a sentiment evincing his nephew's exalted mind, the subjoined extract of the memorable letter cannot be too often and too long remembered : — " Equidem beatos puto, quibus Deo- rum datum est, aut facere scribenda, aut scribere legenda ; beatissimos vero quibus utrumque."
No impulse short of an intense love of nature could have actuated a man so deeply engaged in the high offices of the state to snatch at every fragment of his time — as his nephew, in a letter to a friend, de- scribes him — and appropriate it to forming a digest of
Vlll PREFACE.
the scattered rays of natural knowledge. The subject was scarcely popular with his countrymen ; and its materials were to he sifted from Greek writers of every school, with a toil and patience which few can duly estimate. The abstracts thus made filled one hundred and sixty closely written volumes, and though the sentiments, or, as we should now term them, the theories, of his authors were not a little discordant, he was well able to separate their matter from their opinions ; and, if sometimes found to have hastily adopted hypotheses for facts, it must be remembered that there existed then no standard for the test of fact — that what he had abstracted had the sanction of venerable names — and that the period of sound criticism comes in only when vast stores of facts and incidents have been collected ; and Pliny was then the most dili- gent accumulator for a riper age. To him belongs the glory of having harvested the materials for future science. Where attempts at explanation were made, occult causes, in the ignorance of experiment, were the only resource ; and even the great Galileo took refuge in " Nature's abhorrence of a vacuum," for the only solution he could give of an operation which now admits of such rational explanation. Even the errors of these authors are a portion of the " History of Nature," and Pliny's record of them becomes valuable, where otherwise his narrative tempts only to a smile.
The light of modern science clears away the mist ; yet few, even of ourselves, are privileged, from our higher sphere of advancement, to look down con- temptuously on the erroneous conjectures or super- stitious feelings exemplified in this cyclopaedia of the Roman naturalist : for too many such failings are still
PREFACE. IX
visible amongst ourselves, and these from a wrong and sometimes cherished bias in us, which were only an inability to penetrate more deeply in themselves.
To Pliny's especial honour be it mentioned (and instances of the merit will be frequently referred to in the notes), wherever a rational explanation of natural appearances can be given, he uniformly prefers it to the traditionary and the vulgar, however the latter may have been interwoven with the religion of the state, to which, on other occasions, he paid the homage which it required : a practice like this demanded no ordinary courage, when it might easily have provoked the charge of scepticism and profanity ; and his escape from this may not, perhaps, unreasonably be traced to the support he obtained for his remarks from Greek authors, to whom, in points of speculation, the Romans peculiarly deferred.
By many it was feared, that if what the people were accustomed to worship as deities were shewn to their understandings as only natural influences, they might sink into atheism, and the little restraint winch this worship exercised over their morals have been en- tirely dissipated. The Rationalism of the philosophers thus appeared a formidable evil ; and the prevalence of the notion that certain remarkable natural causes pro- ductive of great good or great evil, according to our limited judgment, were deities themselves, is amply illustrated by the fact, that it was triumphantly asked of the first Christians to shew their God ; and much of the contempt, persecution, and reproach of atheism they incurred, may have had its origin in this seeming incapacity to conform to this demand.
To modern eyes, Pliny's mode of conducting his
X PREFACE.
investigations has changed its aspect ; and his credu- lity is gravely urged against him as a crime which his exposure of much error and superstition is not thought sufficient to outweigh. Some of the matters which he announces, it is true, might well have shaken the strongest tendency to belief : and Herodotus, when re- porting similar occurrences which had been narrated to him, is known to have carefully separated between what was given on the authority of others, and on his own responsibility. On the other hand, it must be borne in mind, that a proneness to belief in the case of natural wonders was the feature -of the age ; and had these been omitted, the author would have incurred censure on this ground — an accusation, the reverse, doubtless, of what is now advanced, but which would, nevertheless, have affected his character for fidelity.
There is, moreover, reason to believe that he has softened down much of the wonderful which he ex- tracted from other authors, and the following coinci- dence may be regarded as giving confirmation to this estimate of Pliny's discretion. When Aulus Gellius landed at Brundusium, on his passage from Athens to Rome, he found on the book-stalls some bundles of Greek works, which he read with eager curiosity. But, with every disposition to credit the authorities, he calls some of the narratives of Aristeas, Isigonius, Ctesias, Onesicritus, Polystephanus, and Hegesias, unheard of and incredible. Accordingly, in making extracts from these volumes, which bore marks of having been much read, it would appear that he passed by those incidents which were most absurd, and selected such only as he deemed worthy of further inquiry. The selections thus made are found remarkably to corre-
PREFACE. XI
spond with those which Pliny has introduced in his own work.
Narratives of similar stamp and character gained equal credit in Europe during the middle ages : the famous traveller, Maundeville, believed what he nar- rated, and found, as he expected, readers ready to be- lieve him ; and the more so, perhaps, for the marvels which the history of his tour contains. Indeed, in the infancy of observation, when the Causes of Natural Phenomena were little known, so much was seen as to render every thing probable, and so little understood, that any explanation was alike satisfactory.
Rapid as is the foregoing sketch of the great natu- ralist's life and character, enough, it is hoped, has been glanced at to commend the revival of the volume be- fore us, and to secure for its author among ourselves a reverence as great as is the undying interest given by his name to the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii, which perished with him.
The following translation may be regarded as that of Dr. Philemon Holland, who flourished in the reign of Elizabeth, and is the only writer who has given a complete rendering of Pliny's works in English. Some liberties have been taken with the original translation. An attempt has been made to reduce its verbosity, and to approximate it more closely to the brevity and terse- ness of the Latin text ; while the Editor has been at the same time studious of not interfering unnecessarily with the simplicity of style by which writers of that day were distinguished. The notes are given by various members of the Club, to whom application has been severally made by the general Editor, according to the department in which each may be found most
Xll
PREFACE.
competent. The contributions have received the approval of the Committee, and been specially ac- knowledged in each volume.
The first and thirty-third books of Pliny were translated by Dr. Bostock in 1828, as specimens of a new version, which, but for his death, would in all probability have been completed. Of the notes ap- pended to these sample chapters, such use has been made as subserves the purposes of our republishing Pliny in English ; but, in the main, they are found to be more critical than explanatory.
SSternerfan
Bone Ticket of Admission to the Amphitheatre, found at Pompeii
THE FIRST BOOK
NATURAL HISTORY
BY C. PLINIUS SECUNDUS.
The Preface to Vespasian\ his [friend'] C. Plinius Secundus sendeth greeting.
HESE Books, containing the History of Nature, which a few days since I brought to Light (a new work among the Romans, your Citizens), I purpose by this Epistle of mine to present and conse- crate unto you, most gentle Prince (for this Title2 ac- cordeth fittest unto you, seeing that the Name of [Most mighty3] sorteth well with the Age of your Father:) which haply might seem boldness and presumption in me, but that I know how at other Times you were wont to have some good Opinion of my light Matters*. Where, by the Way, you must give me Leave to soften a little the Verses which
1 Titus. 8 Suavissimm. 3 Maxim-its.
" Namque tu solebas, Mcas esse aliquid putare nugas"
14 Pliny s Epistle to T. Vespasian. [BooK 1.
I borrow of my Tent-fellow, Catullus (to this Term of Camps1 you are no Stranger) : for he, as you know well, changing the former Syllables of his Verses2, one for another, made himself somewhat more harsh than he would seem to be unto the fine Ears of his familiar Friends, the Veranioli and Fabulli. And I would be thought by this my intrusive Writing to you, to satisfy one point, which, as you com- plained in your Answer of late to another bold Letter of mine, I had not performed, that is, that all the World might see (as it were upon Record) how the Empire is managed by you and your Father equally : and notwithstanding this Imperial Majesty whereunto you are called, yet is your Manner of conversing with your old Friends affable, and the same that always heretofore it had been. For although you have triumphed with him for your noble Victories, ful- filled the Office of Censor, and also six times that of Consul3, shared the Authority of Tribune, Patrons, and Protectors of the Commons of Rome, together with him : although, I say, you have otherwise shewed your noble Heart in honouring and gracing both the Court of the Emperor your Father, and also the whole State of the Knights and Gentlemen of Rome, whilst you were Captain of the Guard, and Grand Master of his House and royal Palace (in all which Places you demeaned yourself in respect to the Good of the Com- monwealth), yet to all your Friends, and especially to my- self, you have borne the same Countenance as in former Times, when we served under the same Colours, and lodged together in one Tent. In all the Greatness to which you are elevated, there is no other Change seen in your Person but this : That your Power is now commensurate with your Will, and you are able now to perform that Good which you have ever intended.
1 Conterranewn.
2 It seemeth that Pliny read thus in Catullus :
" Tuputare namque, Nugus esse aliquid meas solebas" which, indeed, was but an hard composition and couching of the words.
3 Sexies, or rather Septies; out of Suetonim.
BOOK I.] Pliny s Epistle to T. Vespasian . 15
And however this great Majesty resplendent in you on every Side, in regard of those high Dignities, may induce the World at large to reverence your Person, yet 1 for my part am aided only with the strength of Confidence to shew my Duty in a more familiar manner than others : and, therefore, this my Boldness you will impute unto your own Courtesy ; and if it be a Fault in me, you will seek your Pardon from yourself. I have laid Bashful ness aside, but to no Purpose. For although your Gentleness and Humanity induce me to draw near to your Presence, yet you appear in other re- spects in great Majesty : for the Sublimity of your Mind, your high Attainments, set me as far behind as if the Lictors marched before you. Was there ever any Man, whose Words passed from him more powerfully, and who more truly might be said to flash forth as Lightning the Force of Eloquence ? What Tribune was ever known more effectu- ally to move the People with agreeable Language ? How admirably you thundered out the Praise of the worthy Acts of your Father ! What a Testimony of Love to your Bro- ther! How skilful in Poetry! How ingeniously you find means to imitate your Brother1 in this respect2! But who is able boldly to give sufficient Estimate of these Gifts ? How may any One enter into the due Consideration of them with- out Fear of the exact Judgment of your Wit, especially being challenged therunto as you are ? For the case of such as publish a Work in general is unlike theirs who dedicate it by Name to yourself. For had I set forth this my Book without any personal Dedication, I might have said, Sir, why should a mighty Commander and General3 busy him- self to read such Matters ? These Treatises were written for the lower Classes, for rude Husbandmen and Peasants of the Country, for the Mass of Artisans, and those who had Leisure for studying them. Why should you make yourself
1 For Domitian Vespasian was reputed an excellent Poet.
2 The sense of the passage, as seen by supplying the ellipsis of the original, is this : " With what testimony of love you set forth the praises of your brother to the full." — Wern. Club.
'A Iraperator.
16 Pliny s Epistle to T. Vespasian. [BooK L
a Censor of this Work? When I first thought of this Enter- prise of mine, I never reckoned you in the Number of those Judges that should stoop to pass sentence upon these Writ- ings. It is a common case, and incident to Men of deep Learning, that their Judgment be rejected in this behalf. Even that illustrious Orator, M. Tullius, who for Wit and Learning had not his Fellow, useth the Benefit of this Liberty : and (whereat we may well marvel) maintaineth the Action by an Advocate, taking Example (for his Defence) from Lucilius : for in one Part of his Works thus he saith, / wish not the learned Persius to read these Books of mine ; but I prefer Lcelius Decimus. Now if such a one as Lucilius, who was the first that durst control the Writings of others, had reason thus to say ; if Cicero borrowed the same Speech in his Treatise of the Republic1, how much greater Cause have I to decline the Censure of a competent Judge? But I am cut off from this refuge, in that I expressly make choice of you in this Dedication of my Work : for it is one Thing to have a Judge, either selected by Plurality of Voices, or cast upon a Man by drawing Lots ; arid another Thing to choose and nominate him from all others : and there is great Difference between that Provision which we make for a Guest solemnly bidden and invited, and the sudden Entertainment which is ready for a Stranger who
1 This work of Cicero, entitled " De Republica," is more than once referred to by Pliny. The high standard of morals which it upheld caused it to be much respected by the most eminent Fathers of the Latin Church : insomuch that it is thought to have suggested to St. Augustine the idea of his celebrated work, " De Civitate Dei." During the. dark ages, however, the Treatise " De Republica " was so completely lost, that upon the revival of letters, not a single manuscript of it could be any where discovered. At length, about thirty years since, a large portion of it was found by Angelo Ma'i, then Librarian of the Vatican, in a parch- ment manuscript. The parchment had been washed, and again used for a manuscript ; but the original writing was so far from having been en- tirely effaced by the ablution, that the large Roman letters were soon rendered legible again by the aid of a peculiar process. The recovered portion of this valuable work, being about one-third of the entire Trea- tise, was printed in London in one volume, 8vo. 1823. — Wern. Cluib.
BOOK l.J Pliny s Epistle to T. Vespasian. 17
cometh to our House unlocked for. Cato, that professed Enemy of Ambition, who took as great Contentment in those Estates and Dignities which he refused as in them which he enjoyed, attained to such a good Name of upright- ness, that when in the hottest Contention about the Election of Magistrates, they that contested for these Offices put into his Hands their Money upon Trust, as an Assurance of their Integrity and Fidelity in this respect; they professed that they did it in Testimony of their Opinion of his Equity and Inno- cence : whereupon ensued that noble and memorable Exclam- ation of M. Cicero in these Words : " Oh ! happy M. Portius, whom no Man would ever venture to solicit to any thing contrary to right!" When L. Scipio, surnamed Asiaticus, appealed to the Tribunes, and besought their lawful Favour (among whom, C. Gracchus was one, a Man whom he took for his mortal Enemy), he exclaimed, "That his very Ene- mies, if they were his Judges, could not choose but give Sen- tence on his Side." Thus every Man maketh him the supreme Judge of his Cause, whom himself hath chosen : which Man- ner of Choice the Latins call an Appeal (Provocatio). As for yourself, who are set in the most eminent Place, and endued with the highest Eloquence and deepest Learning, it is no Wonder if those who do their Duty unto you approach with the utmost Respect and Reverence: in which regard, exceeding Care above all Things would be had, that what- soever is said or dedicated unto you, may become your Per- son, and be worthy your Acceptance. And yet the Gods reject not the humble Prayers of country Peasants, yea, and of many Nations, who offer nothing but Milk unto them : and such as have no Incense, find grace with the Oblation of a Cake made only of Meal and Salt ; and never was any Man blamed for his Devotion to the Gods, if he offered ac- cording to his best Ability.
I may be more challenged for my inconsiderate Boldness, in that I would seem to present these Books unto you, com- piled of such slender Matter : for in them can be comprised no great Ability (which otherwise in me was ever meagre), neither admit they any Digressions, Orations, and Discourses,
18 Pliny s Epistle to T. Vespasian. [BooK I.
nor wonderful Incidents and variable Issues ; nor any other Circumstances that may be agreeable to rehearse, or pleasant to hear. The Nature of all Things in this World, that is to say, Matters concerning our ordinary Life, are here deli- neated ; and that in barren Terms, without any Show of Phrases : and what I have noted concern the commonest Points thereof, so that I am to deliver the Matter either in rustic, or foreign, nay, even barbarous Language, such as may not well be uttered, but with Apology to the Reader. Moreover, the Way that I have pursued hath not been trodden before by other Writers ; being indeed so strange, that no one would willingly travel therein. No Latin Author among us hath hitherto ventured upon the same Argument, no Grecian whatsoever hath handled all : and that because most study rather to pursue Matters of Delight and Plea- sure. It may be confessed, that others have made profession of doing so, but they have done it with such Subtilty and Deepness, that their Efforts lie as if buried in Darkness. I, therefore, take upon me to gather a complete Body of Arts and Sciences (which the Greeks call lyptuxXcwra/ds/og), that are either altogether unknown or have been rendered doubtful through too great Refinement of Ingenuity ; other Matters are dealt with in such long Discourses, that they are ren- dered tedious to the Readers. It is a difficult Enterprise to make old Matters new, to give Authority and Credit to Novelties, to polish that which is obsolete, to set a Lustre upon that which is dim, to grace Things disdained, to procure Belief to Matters doubtful, and, in one Word, to reduce all to their own Nature. And to make the Attempt only, although it be not effected, is a fair and magnificent Enterprise. I am confidently of opinion, that the greatest Credit belongs to those learned Men who have forced their Way through all Difficulties, and have preferred the Profit of instructing to the Grace of pleasing, the Gratification of mere Desire of pleasing the present Age; and this I have aimed at, not in this Work only, but in other of rny Books. And I wonder at T. Livius, a very celebrated Writer, who, in a Preface to one of his Books of the Roman History,
BOOK I.] Pliny s Epistle to T. Vespasian. 19
which he compiled from the Foundation of Rome, thus pro- tested : That he had gotten Glory enough by his former Writing, and might now be at ease, but that his Mind was so little able to abide Repose, that it could not subsist but in labour. But, surely, in finishing those Chronicles, he should have respected the Glory of a People of Conquerors, who had advanced the Honour of the Roman Name, rather than displayed his own Praise : his Merit had been the greater to have continued his History for Love of the Subject, rather than his private Pleasure; to have preferred the Gratification of Rome to his own mere Pleasure. As touching myself (forasmuch as Domitius Piso saith, " That Books ought to be Treasuries, and not bare Writings"), I will be bold to say, that in Thirty-six Books I have comprised 20,000 Things that are worthy of Consideration, and these I have collected out of about 2000 Volumes that I have diligently read (and of which there are few that Men otherwise learned have ventured to meddle with, for the deep Matter therein con- tained), and those written by one hundred several excellent Authors ; besides a Multitude of other Matters, which either were unknown to our former Writers, or Experience has lately ascertained. And yet we cannot doubt but there are many Things which we have overlooked : for we are Men, and employed in a Multiplicity of Affairs ; and we follow these Studies at vacant Times; that is to say, by Night Season only ; so that you may know, that to accomplish this we have neglected no Time which was due to your Service. The Days we assign to your Person ; we sleep only to satisfy Nature, contenting ourselves with this Reward, that whilst we study (as Varro saith) these Things, we gain so many Hours to our Life ; for surely we live then only when we are awake. Considering those Occasions and Hindrances, I had no Reason to promise much ; but as you have embol- dened me to dedicate my Books to you, yourself supply what- ever in me is wanting ; not that I place Dependency on the Worth of the Work ; so much as that by this Means it will be better esteemed, for many Things there be that appear
20 Pliny s Epistle to 1\ Vespasian. [BooK I.
the more precious only because they are consecrated in the sacred Temples.
We, indeed, have written of you all — your Father, your- self, and your Brother, in an adequate Volume, which we compiled touching the History of our Times, beginning at the Place where Aufidius Bassus ended. If you inquire of me, Where that History is ? I answer, That it is long since finished, and by this Time is justified and approved by your Deeds : otherwise I was determined to leave it unto my Heir, and I gave Order that it should be published only after my Death, to remove the Suspicion that it had been written to obtain some selfish End. And by so doing, I do both them a great Favour, who, perhaps, were inclined to publish the like Chronicle ; and Posterity, also, who, I well know, will compete with us as we have done with our Pre- decessors. A sufficient Argument of this my Mind you shall have by this, that in the Front of these Books now in Hand, I have set down the Names of those Writers whose Help I have used in the compiling of them : for I am of Opinion, that it is the Part of an honest Man, and one that has a Claim to any Modesty, to confess by whom he hath pro- fited ; and not as many of those Persons have done, whom I have alleged for my Authors. For, to tell you the Truth, in conferring them together about this Work of mine, I have met with some of our modern Writers, who, Word for Word, have copied out whole Books of old Authors, and never vouchsafed so much as the Naming of them ; but have taken their Labours to themselves. And this they have not done in the Spirit to imitate and match them, as Virgil did Homer: much less have they shewed the Simplicity and Openness of Cicero, who, in his Books on the Common- wealth, professeth himself to follow Plato; in his consola- tory Epistle written to his Daughter, he saith, " I follow Crantor" and Pancetius likewise, in his Treatise concerning Offices. Which Volumes of his (as you know well) deserve not only to be handled, but read daily, and committed en- tirely to Memory. It is the Part of a base and servile Mind
BOOK I.] Pliny s Epistle to T. Vespasian. 21
to choose rather to be taken in a Theft, than to bring Home borrowed Goods, or to repay a due Debt ; especially when the Interest thereof hath gained a Man as much as the Principal.
In the Titles and Inscriptions of Books, the Greeks have a happy Art. Thus one has been entitled K»j£/ov, whereby they would give us to understand of a Honeycomb: others1 Kygag A^aXSs/ag, that is to say, the Horn of Plenty ; so that whosoever readeth these goodly Titles must hope for some great Matters ; and as the Proverb goes, look to drink there a Draught of Hen's Milk2. You shall have, moreover, their Books set out with these glorious Inscriptions ! The Muses, The Pandects3, Enchiridion4, As/^wv5, r/vax/<rr/oi/6: so that one might even consent to forfeit a Recognisance or Obligation in a Court of Law, to turn over the Leaf. But let a Man enter into them, and behold, what a Nothing shall he find within ! As for our Countrymen, they are gross in Compa- rison of them in giving Titles to their Books : for they come with their Antiquities, Examples, and Arts ; and those also be such Authors as are of finest Invention amongst them. Valerius, who (as I take it) was named AntiaSj both for that he was a Citizen of Antium, and also because his Ancestors were so called, was the first that gave to a Book the Title of Lucubratio, or Night Study. Varro terms some of his Satires Sesculyxes and Flex'ibulce. Diodorus, among the Greeks, laid aside such empty Titles, and entitled his Book, JBiblio- theca, or, a Library. Apion7, the Grammarian, whom Tiberius
1 To wit, Helius Melissus.
3 " Lac gallinaceum summa felicitate olim usurpabatur." — STBABO, lib. xiv. " Eos, qui Sami fcecunditatem laudabant, ei proverbium accommo- dasse tradit, quo aiunt <p'.gi*> ogvduv ><«>.«." — DAUBCHAMPIUS. — Wern. Club.
" Proverbium de re singular! et admodum rara." — Note in Valpy, p. 18. — Wern. Club.
3 Containing all things, as Tyro Tuttius did.
4 A Manual to be carried always in Hand.
5 Meadow. 6 A Table or Index.
7 Apion, sometimes called Appion, was an Egyptian, but he had a great desire to be regarded as of Greek extraction. His works were numerous, and among them was one on all the wonders he had seen or
22 Pliny s Epistle to T. Vespasian. [BOOK I.
CcBsar called the Cymbal of the World (whereas, indeed, he deserved to be rather named the Drum of public Fame), was so vainglorious, that he professed to confer Immortality on all those whom he mentioned in his Writings. I am not ashamed I have not devised a prettier Title for my Book ; yet because I would not be thought altogether to condemn the Greeks, I am willing to be regarded in this Behalf like those excellent Masters in Greece for Painting and Statuary, whom you shall find in these Reports of mine, to have enti- tled their rare and perfect Pieces of Work (which the more we look upon, the more we admire) with Half-Titles and im- perfect Inscriptions, in this Manner : Apelles worked at this Picture*: or,Polycletus undertook this Image: as if they were but begun and never finished, and laid out of their Hands : which was done (no doubt) to this End, that for all the Diversity of Men's Judgments scrutinising their Work, yet the Artificer thereby had Recourse to an Apology, as if he meant to have amended any Thing therein amiss, in Case he had not been prevented. These noble Workmen, therefore,
heard of in Egypt. It seems to have been his practice to regard every thing in proportion to the wonders it would enable him to relate. He is the sole authority for some curious facts in Natural History ; which Pliny seems to have taken from him. Aulus Gellius admits that he was prone greatly to embellish the truth ; and Josephus has given evidence of his emptiness and scurrility, which he poured out abundantly against the Jews, to whom he bore a mortal antipathy. He had an opportunity of displaying this in an address before the Emperor Caligula, when he repre- sented their refusal to worship him as a god as a proof of their disaffec- tion to his person and government ; by which he excited the indignation of the emperor against the illustrious Philo and his companions. His notoriety for reviling and noisy opposition was such as to cause his name to be selected by a Christian writer of the third century, who assumed the name of Clement of Rome, as the fictitious opponent of St. Peter, in a disputation concerning the Christian religion : as mentioned by Eusebius and Lardner. His conceit appears from what Pliny says of him ; and it would have been to him the deepest mortification, could he have been told that he would only be known to posterity through the mention made of him by his opponents. He is sometimes called Plistonicus and Poly- histor.— Wern. Club. 1 Apelles faciebat.
BOOK I.] Pliny s Epistle to T. Vespasian. 23
shewed great Modesty, that the Inscriptions on their Works were as if they had been their last Pieces, and their Perfec- tion was hindered by their Death : for there were not known ( I believe ) above three which had their absolute Titles written upon them in this Form : Ille fecit, or, This Apelles finished : and those Pictures I will specify in the proper Place. By which it appeared evidently, that the said three Pictures were so fully finished, that the Workman was highly satisfied with their Perfection, and feared the Censure of no Man: no Marvel, then, if all three were so much admired throughout the World, and every Man desired to be Master of them.
For myself, I confess that many more Things may be added, not to this Story alone, but to all the Books that I have published before : which I say, because I would antici- pate those Fault-finders and Scourgers1 of Homer (for surely that is their very Name) ; because I hear say there be certain Stoic Philosophers, professed Logicians, and Epicureans also (for at the Hands of Critics I never looked for any other), who are in Labour to be delivered of somewhat against my Books which I have published on Grammar : and the Space of Ten Years has produced nothing but Abortion, when the Elephant is not so long in producing her young one. But this does not trouble me ; for I am not ignorant that a Woman wrote against Theophrastus*, though he was a Man of such Eloquence that from thence he obtained his divine Name, Theophrastus : from whence arose this Proverb, "Then go choose a Tree to hang thyself."3 I cannot refrain, but I
1 Homeromastiges.
* Her name was Leontium, and she studied philosophy under Epi- curus, where she became more celebrated for her talents than her virtue. The elegancy of her style is praised by Cicero. — Wern. Club.
3 There is a passage in Plutarch's " Life of Antony," which shews how lamentably the antients were addicted to the crime of suicide, and at the same time illustrates this proverb. It is thus translated by Langhorne :— " Once, in an assembly of the people, he (Timon of Athens) mounted the rostrum, and the novelty of the thing occasioned an universal silence and expectation : at length he said, ' People of Athens, there is a fig-tree in my yard, on which many worthy citizens have hanged themselves ; and
24 Pliny s Epistle to T. Vespasian. [BoOK I.
must set down the very Words of Cato the Censor, so perti- nent to this purpose ; whereby it may appear, that even Cato himself, who wrote of Military Discipline, who had been trained to War under Scipio Africanus, or rather, in- deed, under Hannibal; who, in the end, could not endure Africanus himself, but was able to control him in martial Affairs ; and who, besides having the Conduct, as Imperator, of the Roman Army, achieved the Superiority over his Ene- mies in the Field, and returned with Victory : this Cato could not avoid such Slanderers ; but knowing that there would be many of them ready to purchase to themselves some Reputation by reproving the Knowledge and Skill of others, brake out into a certain Speech against them : and what was it ? "I know well" (says he, in that Book) "that if these Writings be published to the World, many will step forth to cavil at them, and those soonest who are themselves void of all Praise. But I let their Words flow by." It was well said by Plancus, when being informed that Asinius Pollio was framing certain Orations against him, which should be published either by himself or his Children, after the Decease of Plancus, that they might not be answered by him ; he remarked : " That none but Bugbears1 fight with the Dead :" with which Word he gave those Orations such a Rebuff, that (by the Judgment of the Learned) none were
as I have determined to build on the spot, I thought it necessary to give this public notice, that such as choose to have recourse to this tree for the aforesaid purpose, may repair to it before it is cut down.'" — Wem. Club.
1 Bugbears. Larvae. — It was supposed that the soul of man, when freed from the bonds of the body, and not obliged to perform its func- tions, became a kind of demon, and this was denominated generally Lemur. Of these Lemures, those who were kind to their families, and preserved them in peace, were called Lares familiar es, or domestic Lares; but those who, for punishment of their crimes committed during life, were condemned to continual wandering, without finding a place of rest, frightening good men and plaguing the wicked, were denominated Larvce. The sarcasm consisted in comparing Asinius Pollio to such a perturbed spirit. In the singular number, Larva signifies a mask, used to terrify children. — Wern. Club.
BOOK I.] Pliny s Epistle to T. Vespasian,
25
accounted more Impudent than they. Therefore, feeling myself secure against these Busy-bodies, (and verily Cato hath given such Fellows a proper Name when he called them Vitilitigatores, by a Term elegantly compounded of Vices and Quarrels: for to say a Truth, what do they else but pick Quarrels and make Brawls?) I will proceed in my intended Purpose.
To conclude my Epistle : knowing that for the Good of the Commonwealth you ought to be spared in any private Business of your own, and especially in perusing these long Volumes of mine ; to prevent such a Trouble, therefore, I have adjoined to this Epistle, and prefixed before these Books, the Summary or Contents of every one : and care- fully have I endeavoured, that you should not need to read them throughout to ascertain their Contents ; whereby alt others also, after your Example, may ease themselves of the like Labour: and as any Man is desirous to know this or that, he may readily find in what Place to meet with the same. This Plan I learned of Valerius Sorranus, one of our own Latin Writers, who hath done the like before me in those Books which he entitled
Brass coin of T. Vespasian, in the possession of Mr. Coticft.
IN THE SECOND BOOK
IS CONTAINED THE
DISCOURSE OF THE WORLD, OF CELESTIAL IMPRESSIONS AND
METEORS, AS ALSO OF THOSE THAT APPEAR IN THE
AIR, AND UPON EARTH.
CHAP.
1 . Whether the World be limited ?
and whether there be but one ?
2. The Form of the World.
3. The Motion of Heaven.
4. Why the World is called Mun-
dus?
5. Of the Four Elements.
6. Of the Seven Planets.
7. Concerning God.
8. The Nature of the fixed Stars
and Planets : their Revolution.
9. The Nature of the Moon.
10. The Eclipse of Sun and Moon:
also of the Night.
11. The Magnitude of Stars.
12. The divers Discoveries of Men
and their Observations of the Celestial Bodies.
13. Of Eclipses.
14. The Motion of the Moon.
15. General Rules concerning Pla-
nets and Lights.
16. The Reason why the same
Planets seem higher or lower at sundry times.
17. General Rules concerning the
Planets.
18. What is the Cause that Planets
change their Colours ?
19. The Course of the Sun: his Mo-
tion : and whence proceedeth the Inequality of Days.
20. Why Lightnings are assigned
to Jupiter.
CHAP.
21. The Distances between the
Planets.
22. The Harmony of Stars.
23. The Geometry of the World.
24. Of Stars appearing suddenly.
25. Of Comets and other prodi-
gious Appearances in the Sky : their Nature, Situa- tion, and Kinds.
26. The Opinion of Hipparchus of
the Stars, Torches, Lamps, Pillars or Beams of Fire, burning Darts, Gapings of the Sky: with Instances.
27. Strange Colours appearing in
the Sky.
28. Flames seen in the Sky.
29. Circles or Garlands in the Sky.
30. Of Celestial Circles and Gar-
lands of short Duration.
31. Of many Suns.
32. Of many Moons.
33. Of Nights as light as Day.
34. Of Meteors resembling fiery
Shields.
35. A wonderful Appearance in
the Sky.
36. The extraordinary Shooting of
Stars.
37. Of the Stars named Castor and
Pollux.
38. Of the Air.
39. Of certain set Times and Sea-
sons.
Contents of the Second Book.
27
CHAP.
40. The Power of the Dog- Star.
41. The Influences of Stars accord-
ing to the Seasons and De- grees of the Signs.
42. The Causes of Rain, Wind, and
Clouds.
43. Of Thunder and Lightning.
44. Whereupon cometh the Re-
doubling of the Voice, called Echo.
45. Of Winds again.
46. Considerations on the Nature
of Winds.
47. The Kinds of Winds.
48. Of sudden Blasts.
49. Other strange Kinds of Tem-
pests.
50. In what Regions there fall no
Thunderbolts.
5 1 . Divers Sorts of Lightnings, and
wondrous Accidents by them occasioned.
52. The Observations [of the Tus-
cans in old Time] about Lightning.
53. Of causing Lightning.
54. General Rules concerning
Lightning.
55. What Things are not struck
by Lightning.
56. Of monstrous Showers of
Milk, Blood, Flesh, Iron, Wool, Brick, and Tile.
57. The rattling of Armour : and
the Sound of Trumpets heard from the Sky.
58. Of Stones falling from the
Sky.
59. Of the Rainbow.
60. Of Hail, Snow, Frost, Mists,
and Dew.
61. Of Shapes represented in the
Clouds.
62. The particular Properties of
the Sky in certain Places.
63. The Nature of the Earth.
64. The Figure of the Earth.
CHAP.
65. Of the Antipodes: and whe-
ther there be such. Also, of the Roundness of the Water.
66. How the Water resteth upon
the Earth.
67. Of Seas and Rivers of Naviga-
tion.
68. What Parts of the Earth be
habitable.
69. That the Earth is in the Midst
of the World.
70. Whence proceedeth the In-
equality in the Rising of the Stars. Of the Eclipse : where it is, and why.
71. The Reason of Daylight upon
Earth.
72. A Discourse thereof according
to the Gnomon : also of the first Sun-dial.
73. Where and when no Shadows
are cast.
74. Where the Shadows fall oppo-
site twice in the Year.
75. Where the Days are longest,
and where shortest.
76. Likewise of Dials.
77. The divers Observations and
Acceptations of the Day.
78. Reasons of the Difference of
Nations.
79. Of the Earthquake.
80. Of Openings in the Earth.
81. Signs of an Earthquake.
82. Helps against approaching
Earthquakes.
83. Strange Wonders seen only
once in the Earth.
84. Miraculous Accidents of Earth-
quakes.
85. In what Parts the Seas went back
86. Islands appearing new out of
the Sea.
87. What Islands have thus shewed,
and at what Times.
88. Into what Lands the Seas have
forcibly broken.
28
Contents of the Second Book.
CHAP.
89. What Islands have been joined
to the Continent.
90. What Lands Jmve become all
Sea.
91. Of Lands that have been swal-
lowed up of themselves.
92. What Cities have been over-
flowed by the Sea.
93. Wonderful Things of Lands.
94. Of Lands that always suffer
Earthquake.
95. Of Islands that float continu-
ally.
96. In what Countries it never
raineth : also, of Miracles, as well of the Earth as other Elements, accumulated to- gether.
97. The Reason of the Sea- tides,
as well ebbing as flowing, and where the Sea floweth extraordinarily.
CHAP.
98. Wonderful Things in the Sea.
99. The Power of the Moon over
Sea and Land.
100. The Power of the Sun : and
why the Sea is salt.
101. Also of the Nature of the
Moon.
102. Where the Sea is deepest.
103. Remarkable Observations of
the Waters, of Fountains, and Rivers.
104. Remarkable Things in Fire
and Water jointly together : also of Maltha.
105. Of Naphtha.
106. Of Places that burn continu-
ally.
107. Wonders of Fire alone.
108. The Dimension of the Earth,
in length and breadth.
109. The harmonical Circumfer-
ence of the World.
In Sum, there are in this Book, of Histories and Observations, Four Hundred and Eighteen in Number.
LATIN AUTHORS ABSTRACTED IN THIS BOOK :
M. Varro, Sulpitius Gallus, Tiberius Ccesar the Emperor, Q. Tubero, Tullius Tiro, L. Piso, T. Livius, Cornelius Nepos, Statins, Sebosus, Ccelius Antipater, Fabianus, Antias, Mutianus, Cecina (who wrote of the Tuscan Learning), Tarquitius, L. Aquila, and Sergius Paulus !.
FOREIGN AUTHORS :
Plato, Hipparchus, Timceus, Sosigenes, Petosiris, Necepsus, Pythagoras, Posidonius, Anaximander, Epigenes, Gnomonicus, Euclides, Cceranus Philo- sophus, Eudoxus, Democritus,Crisodemus, Thrasyllus, Serapion, Diccearchus, Archimedes, Onesicritus, Eratosthenes, Pytheas, Herodotus, Aristoteles, Ctesias, Artemidorus Ephesius, Isidorus Characenus, Theopompus.
1 Sergius Paulus. There can be no doubt that this writer on Natural Philosophy— whose works are lost— is the same person that is mentioned in the 13th Chapter of the Acts of the Apostles; and from the nature of his pursuits we are enabled to perceive the reason why, at one time, he was the patron of Elymas the Sorcerer. The greater portion of the Im- postors-of those days were accustomed to found their claims to regard on their acquaintance with some branches of Philosophy, in which Sergius Paulus was an inquiring student. We do not find the name of the Sorcerer among the numerous authors referred to by Pliny.— Wern. Club.
THE SECOND BOOK
HISTORY OF NATURE
WRITTEN BY
C. PLINIUS SECUNDUS.
CHAPTER I. Whether the World be finite, and but one.
HE World1, and that which, by another Name. Men have thought Good to call Heaven (under the Compass of which all Things are covered), we ought to believe, in all Reason, to be a Divine Power, eternal, immense, without Beginning, and never to perish. What is beyond the Compass
1 The Author manifests a philosophic, as well as pious spirit, in begin- ning his work with a reference to Divine power ; but in giving this idea of the nature of the world, and representing it as a separate and inde- pendent divinity, he adopts an ancient speculative opinion derived from the Oriental philosophy, in preference to the popular opinion of his country, which is selected by Ovid in his Introduction to the " Metamorphoses;" and which ascribed the creation of the world to an already existing or eternal God — " whichever God he was :" though not to the highest in rank of the Heathen Mythology ; for the latter is represented as descended from pre- viously existing, or humanly deified, parents, and consequently was of a subsequent age. The knowledge of the Great Eternal having been left
30 History of Nature. [ BOOK II.
thereof, neither is it fit for Men to search, nor within Man's Understanding to conceive. Sacred it is, everlasting, infi- nite, all in all, or rather itself all and absolute : limited, yet seeming infinite : in all Motions, certain ; though in Appear- ance uncertain : comprehending in itself all both without and within : Nature's Work, and yet very Nature itself. It is Madness that some have thought in their Mind to mea- sure it ; yea, and durst in Writing set down the Dimensions thereof: that others again, by Occasion hereupon taken, or on this founded, have taught, That there are Worlds in- to slip from the minds of learned Heathens, through their speculations into occult causes, and the wrapping up of religion from the inquiries of the vulgar, as being too high for their comprehension, they were led to the conception of what, in fact, was no more than a mere abstraction, and destitute of all proper personality : a simple, unconscious fatality, with little volition : and, in truth, no better than a diffusive aether, or, as it would now be denominated, galvanic influence. The philosophy of Pythagoras was derived from the East; "But it was this," says Lord Bacon (" Natural History," 10th century), " which did first plant a mon- strous imagination, which afterwards was, by the school of Plato and others, watered and nourished. It was, that the world was one, entire, perfect, living creature ; insomuch as Apollonius of Tyana, a Pythagorean prophet, affirmed that the ebbing and flowing of the sea was the respira- tion of the world, drawing in water as breath, and putting it forth again. They went on, and inferred, that if the world were a living creature, it had a soul and spirit ; which also they held, calling it ' spiritus mundij the spirit or soul of the world. By which they did not intend God (for they did admit of a deity besides), but only the soul, or essential form, of the universe. This foundation being laid, they might build upon it what they would; for in a living creature, though never so great (as, for example, in a great whale), the sense and the effects of any one part of the body instantly make a transcursion throughout the whole body. So that by this they did insinuate, that no distance of place, nor want nor indisposition of matter, could hinder magical operations ; but that, for example, we mought here in Europe have sense and feeling of that which was done in China ; and likewise we mought work any effect without and against matter; and this not holden by the co-operation of angels or spirits, but only by the unity and harmony of nature." This was the occult cause, to which all the otherwise unaccountable operations of nature might easily be referred. We have a curious instance of such a method of explanation at the end of the ninety-third chapter of this book. — Wern.Club.
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 3 1
numerable : as if we are to believe so many Natures as there are Heavens : or if all were reduced to one, yet there should be so many Suns and Moons, with the Rest also of those immeasurable and innumerable Stars in that one : as though in this plurality of Worlds we should not always meet with the same Question still at every Turn of our Thought, for Want of some End to rest upon : or, if this infiniteness could possibly be assigned to Nature, the Work-mistress of all ; the same might not be understood more easily in that one Heaven which we see ; so great a Work as it is. Now surely it is more than Madness to quit this, and to keep seeking without, as if all Things within were well and clearly known already : as if any Man could take the Measure of another Thing, who knoweth not his own : or the Mind of Man might see those Things which the World itself may not receive.
CHAPTER II. Of the Figure of the World.
THAT the Form of the World is round1, in the Figure of a perfect Globe, its Name in the first Place, and the Consent of all Men agreeing to call it in Latin Orbis (a Globe), as also many natural Reasons, evidently shew. For not only because such a Figure every Way falleth and bendeth upon itself, is able to uphold itself, includeth and containeth itself, having need of no joints for this purpose, as finding in any Part thereof no End or Beginning : or because this Form agreeth best to that Motion, whereby continually it must turn about (as hereafter will appear) : but also because the Eyesight doth approve the same ; because, look which Way soever you will, it appeareth convex, and even on all sides; a Thing not incident to any other Figure.
1 That it was an oblate spheroid, flattened at the poles, was little likely to be known by observers, however acute, whose opinion of the uninhabitable nature of the frigid and torrid zones would lead them to limit their practical inquiries to the temperate. The good sense of Pliny induced him to prefer the opinion of the rotundity of the globe, to that of Epicurus, that it was an extended plane. — Wern. Club.
32 History oj Nature. [^OOK **•
CHAPTER III. The Motion of the World.
THAT the World thus framed, in a continued Circuit, with unspeakable Swiftness turneth round in the Space of four-and-twenty Hours, the ordinary Rising and Setting of the Sun leaves no Room to doubt. Whether it being in Height exceedingly great, and therefore the Sound of so huge a Frame, whilst it is whirled about unceasingly, cannot be heard with our Ears, I cannot easily imagine : no more, by Hercules ! than 1 may vouch the Ringing of the Stars that are driven round therewith, and roll their own Spheres : or determine, that as the Heaven movetb, it represents a plea- sant and incredibly sweet Harmony : although to us within, by Day and Night, it seemeth to roll on in Silence. That there is imprinted on it the Figures of living Creatures, and of all Kinds of Things besides without Number, as also that the Body thereof is not all over smooth and slippery (as we see in Birds' Eggs), which excellent Authors have termed Tenerum, is shewn by Arguments ; for by the Fall of natural Seeds of all Things from thence, and those for the most Part mixed one with another, there are produced in the World, and in the Sea especially, an immense Number of monstrous Shapes. Besides this, our Sight testifieth the same ; for in one Place there appeareth the Resemblance of a Chariot, in another of a Bear, or a Bull, and of a Letter (A), and prin- cipally the middle Circle over our Head, where it is more white than the Rest.
CHAPTER IV. Why the World is called Mundus.
FOR my own Part, I arn ruled by the general Consent of all Nations. For, the World, which the Greeks, by the Name of Ornament, called Ko<r/y,o$, we, for the perfect Neat- ness and absolute Elegance thereof, have termed Mundus. And we have named the Sky Calum, because it is engraven,
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 33
according as M. Varro interpreteth it. Arid the Order of Things therein contributes to this, and especially the defined Circle called Signifer, or the Zodiac, divided by the Forms of Twelve living Creatures, through which is the Sun's Track ; preserving the same Course for so many Ages.
CHAPTER V. Of the four Elements l.
I SEE no doubt regarding the Number of the Elements, that they are four. The highest, Fire : from whence are those bright Eyes of so many shining Stars. The next, Spirit, which the Greeks and our Countrymen by one Name called Air : this Element is vital, and it soon passeth through all, and is intrinsically mixed in the Whole : by the Power whereof, the Earth hangeth suspended in the midst, together with the fourth Element, of Water. Thus, by a mutual em- bracing of each other, divers Natures are linked together : and so the light Elements are restrained by the heavier, that they do not fly off: and, on the contrary, the massier are held up, that they fall not down, by means of the lighter, which seek to mount aloft. So, through an equal Endeavour to the Contrary, each of them holds its own, bound as it were by the restless Circuit of the World itself: which, run- ning evermore upon itself, the Earth falleth to be lowest, and in the Middle of the Whole : and the same hanging steadily by the Pole of the Universe, poiseth those Ele- ments by which it hangeth. Thus it alone resteth un- movable, whilst the whole Frame of the World turneth
1 The idea here conveyed of the existence of four elements, which enclose each other, each heavier one in succession subsiding below the other, is more fully expressed by Ovid, in his account of the creation of the world at the beginning of the first book of his " Metamorphoses." The opinion was generally entertained, of these elements being the con- stituents of all things, until modern chemical analysis demonstrated that themselves are compounded of other and more simple elements. Yet the language of the ancient opinion has not altogether ceased from use, even at the present time. — Wern. Club.
C
34 History of Nature. [BoOK II.
about it : and as it is united by all, so all of them rest upon the same.
CHAPTER VI.
Of the seven Planets.
BETWEEN the Earth and Sky, there hang in the Air above- named, seven Stars, divided one from another at distinct Distances ; and these, on account of their variable Motion, we call Wandering Planets ; whereas, indeed, none wander less than they. In the midst of them the Sun taketh his Course, as being the greatest and most powerful of all : the very Ruler, not of Times and Seasons only, and of the Earth, but also of the Stars and Sky itself. We ought to believe this Sun1 to be the very Life and (to speak more plainly) the Soul of the whole World, and the principal Governance of Nature; and, considering his Operations, nothing less than a divine Power. He it is that giveth Light to all Things, and scatters their Darkness : he hideth the other Stars ; he or- dereth the Seasons in their alternative Course ; he tempereth the Year, which ariseth ever fresh again for the Good of the World. He disperseth the Sadness of the Sky, and cleareth the Cloudiness of the Mind of Man ; to other Stars, likewise, he lendeth his own Light. Most excellent and glorious he is, as seeing all, and hearing all ; as, I see, is the Opinion of Homer* (the Prince of Learning) regarding him alone.
1 We find the ascription of Divinity to be the last resource in ex- plaining the operation of a hidden cause in nature. A false divinity was, therefore, the foundation of errors in philosophy ; and the latter again reacted on the former. — Wern. Club.
3 Pliny here refers to a passage in the eleventh hook of the " Odys- sey," where Ulysses descends into Hell, and meets with Tiresias, who, in recounting the future fortunes of the hero, says : " You shall find feeding the oxen and fat sheep of the sun, who sees and hears all things:" or, more diffusively, by Pope ; where —
u Graze numerous herds along the verdant shores ; Though hunger press, yet fly the dangerous prey ; The herds are sacred to the god of day, Who all surveys with his extensive eye, Above, below, on earth and in the sky." Wern. Club.
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 35
CHAPTER VII. Of God.
I SUPPOSE, therefore, that to seek after any Shape of God1, and to assign a Form and Image to him, is a Proof of Man's Folly. For God, whosoever he be (if haply there be any other, but the World itself), and in what Part soever resident, all Sense He is, all Sight, all Hearing : He is the whole of the Life and of the Soul, all of Himself. And to believe that there be Gods innumerable, and those according to Men's Virtues and Vices, as Chastity, Concord, Understanding, Hope, Honour, Clemency, Faith ; or (as Democritus was of Opinion) that there are two Gods only, that is, Punishment and Benefit : these Conceits render Men's idle Negligence the greater. But frail and wearisome mortal Men, remembering their own Infirmity, have digested these Things apart, to the End that each one might from thence choose to worship that whereof he stood most in need. And hence it is, that in different Nations we find the Gods named diversely : and in the same Region there are innumerable Gods. The infernal Powers, likewise, and Diseases, yea, and many Plagues, have been ranged in Divisions, and reckoned for Gods ; which, with
1 In this chapter the author openly asserts his disbelief of the truth of the established system of religion of his country ; and his manner of doing this sufficiently shews the confidence he felt, of finding sympathy in his scepticism among the learned and refined classes of society. This system was, indeed, singularly destitute of evidence ; and the reasons he gives for his disbelief shew it to have been as absurd to the eye of examination as it was unsupported by argument. That the chief deities of the Hea- then were no more than deceased men who had benefited the world in their lives, or at least acquired human respect, is asserted by many other ancient authors ; but it is to be regretted that the author should so far join in the error as from it to find occasion for thereby mixing up with it the flattery of a court. The treatise of Cicero, " On the Nature of the Gods," and the remarks of Pliny, are proofs that the ancient Heathens were not slow to discern the errors of the popular system of religion, though they were incapable of discovering or appreciating the true. — Wern. Club.
36 History of Nature. [BooK II.
trembling Fear, we have desired to pacify. This Superstition hath caused a Fane to be dedicated to Fever, in the Palatine Mount, by Order of the State ; and likewise an Altar to Orbona, near the Temple of the Lares: besides another erected to Bad Fortune on the Esquiline. By this it may be conceived that there are a greater Number of Gods in Hea- ven than of Men upon Earth, since every one makes as many Gods as he pleases, fitting himself with Junoes and Genii for his Patrons. There are certain Nations that account Beasts, and even some filthy Things, for Gods ; yea, and many other Matters more shameful to be spoken : swearing by stinking Meats, by Garlic, and such-like. But, surely, to believe that Gods have contracted Marriage, and that in so long a Time no Children should be born to them : also that some are aged, and ever grey-headed : others, again, young and always Children : that they be black of Complexion, winged, lame, hatched of Eggs, living and dying on each alternate Day ; are mere childish Fooleries. But it exceedeth all Im- pudency to imagine Adulteries among them : and presently, also, scolding, and Malice ; and more than that, how there be Gods that are Patrons of Theft and Wickedness. He is a God to a Man that helpeth Him : and this is the true Way to everlasting Glory. In this Way went the Romans in old Time : and in this Track, at this Day, goeth, with heavenly Pace, Vespasian Augustus, with his Children ; the most mighty Ruler of the whole World : relieving the afflicted State of the Empire. And this is the most ancient Manner of Requital to such Benefactors, that they should be enrolled with the Gods. And hereof came the Names as well of all other Gods, as of the Stars (which I have mentioned before), in Recognisance of Men's good Deserts. As for Jupiter and Mercury, and others ranged among the Gods, who doubteth that they were called otherwise among themselves ? and who confesseth not how these be celestial Denominations, to ex- press and interpret their Nature ?
To suppose that the sovereign Power, whatsoever it is, should exercise Care over Mankind, is ridiculous. For can we choose but believe that the Godhead must be polluted
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 37
with so base and manifold a Ministry ? And hardly can it be judged, whether it be better for Mankind to believe that the Gods have Regard of us, or that they have none ; con- sidering that some Men have no Respect and Reverence for the Gods, and others so much that their Superstition is a Shame to them. These are devoted to them by foreign Cere- monies .- they wear their Gods upon their Fingers in Rings, yea, they worship Monsters : they forbid some Meats ; and yet they devise others. They impose upon them hard Charges, riot suffering them to rest and sleep in quiet. They choose neither Marriages, nor Children, nor any one Thing else, but by the Allowance of sacred Rites. Others are so godless, that in the very Capitol they use Deceit, and for- swear themselves even by the Thunder of Jupiter. And as some speed well with their Irreligion, so others suffer from their own holy Ceremonies.
Between these Opinions, Men have found out a Medium of Divine Power, to the End that there should be a still more uncertain Conjecture regarding God. For throughout the whole World, in every Place, at all Times, and in all Men's Mouths, Fortune alone is called upon : she only is named ; she alone is blamed and accused. None but she is thought upon ; she only is praised, she only is rebuked ; yea, and worshipped with railing : and even when she is taken to be mutable : and of the most sort supposed also to be blind : roving, inconstant, uncertain, variable, and favouring the Unworthy : whatever is spent and lost, whatever is gotten : A and in all Men's Accounts she makes up the Book. Even the very Chance of Lots is taken for a God, by which God himself is shewn to be uncertain.
There is another Sort that reject Fortune, but attribute Events to their Stars, and the ascendant of their Nativity : affirming that the same shall ever happen which once hath been decreed by God : so that he for ever after may remain at Rest. And this Opinion now takes deep Root, insomuch as both the learned and the ignorant Multitude agree to it.
1 " Won and gotten," to balance " spent and lost."
38 History of Nature. [BooK II.
From hence proceed the Admonitions of Lightnings, the Foreknowledge by Oracles, the Predictions of Aruspices, yea, and other contemptible Things, as Auguries of Sneezing, and stumbling with the Foot. Divus Augustus Ccesar hath recorded that his left-foot Shoe was untowardly put on be- fore the right, on that very Day when he had like to have suffered in a Mutiny among his Soldiers.
Thus all these Things entangle silly Mortals, so that this only point remaineth certain — that Nothing is certain : nei- ther is there any Thing more wretched and proud than Man. For all living Creatures beside take Care only for their Food : wherein Nature's Goodness of itself is sufficient : which one Point is to be preferred before all good Things whatsoever, inasmuch as they never think of Glory, Riches, Ambition, nor, beyond all the rest, of Death. However, the Belief that in these Matters the Gods have care of Men's Estate, is profitable to the Course of Life : as also that the Punishment of Malefactors will come, though late (whilst God is busily occupied in so huge a Frame of the World), but that it never misseth in the End : and that Man was not made so near in Degree unto God, for this, that he should be almost as base as the brute Beasts. Moreover, the chief Comfort that Man hath, for his Imperfections in Nature, is this, that even God himself cannot do all Things. For nei- ther is He able to work his own Death, if even He desired it, as He hath given to Man as his best Gift when he is weary of the Miseries of his Life ; nor endow Mortals with ever- lasting Life ; nor recall the Dead to Life again ; nor bring to pass that one who lived did not live ; nor he that bore honourable Offices, has not borne them. Nay, He hath no Power over Things past, save only Oblivion : no more than He is able to effect (to come with Arguments to prove our Fellowship therein with God) that twice ten should not make twenty : and many similar Things. Whereby is evidently proved the Power of Nature, and how it is she only which we call God. I thought it not impertinent thus to digress to these Points, by Reason of ordinary Questions regarding the Essence of God.
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 39
CHAPTER VIII. Of the Nature of Planets, and their Circuit.
LET us return now to the Rest of Nature's Works. The Stars, which we said were fixed in the World, are not (as the common Sort thinketh) assigned to every one of us ; namely, the bright for the rich ; the less for the poor : the dim for the weak and feeble : neither shine they out more or less, according to the Fortune of every one, nor arise they each one together with that Person unto whom they are appro- priated ; and die likewise with the same : nor yet as they set and fall, do they signify that any Body is dead. There is not so great a Society between Heaven and us, that, together with the Necessity of our Death, the Light of the Stars should fade. When they are thought to fall, they do but shoot from them a Quantity of Fire out of that Abundance of Nutriment which they have gotten by the Attraction of Moisture unto them : like as we also observe in lighted Lamps with the Liquor of Oil1. The celestial Bodies, which frame the World, and are compact together, have an im- mortal Nature : and their Power extendeth much to the Earth : which by their Operations, Light and Greatness, might be known, though they are so subtle ; as we shall in due Place make Demonstration. The Mariner likewise of the heavenly Circles shall be shewn more fitly in our "Geogra- phical Treatise of the Earth ;" forasmuch as the Consideration thereof appertaineth wholly thereunto : only we will not put off the Devisers of the Zodiac, wherein the Signs are placed.
The Obliquity of this, Anaximander the Milesian is reported to have observed first, and thereby opened the Pas- sage to Astronomy, and the Knowledge of these Things : and this happened in the fifty-eighth Olympiad. Afterwards Cleostratus marked the Signs therein ; and those first of Aries and Sagittarius. As for the Sphere itself, Atlas devised it long before. For the present we will leave the Body of
1 See note 2, p. 63.
40 History of Nature. [BooK II.
the starry Heaven, and treat of all the rest between it and the Earth.
The Planet which they call Saturn* is the highest, and therefore seemeth to be least : also he performeth his Revo- lution in the greatest Circle of all : and it is certain, that in thirty Years' Space he retnrneth again to the Point of his first Place. Moreover, the Motion of all the Planets, and also of the Sun and Moon, go a contrary Course to that of the starry Heaven ; namely, to the left hand [i. e. eastward] ; whereas the said Sky itself always hasteneth to the right [i. e. westward]. And whereas in that continual turning with exceeding Celerity, those Planets be lifted up aloft, and hurried by it into the West, and there set : yet by a contrary Motion of their own, they pass every one through their several Ways eastward ; and this because that the Air, roll- ing ever one Way> and to the same Part, by the continual turning of the Heaven, should not grow stagnant whilst the Globe thereof resteth idle ; but should be minutely divided by the violent adverse Action of these Stars. The Planet Saturn is of a cold and frozen Nature, but the Circle of Jupiter is much lower than it, and therefore his Revo- lution is performed with a more speedy Motion, in twelve Years. The third, of Mars, which some call Hercules, is fiery and ardent, by Reason of the Sun's Vicinity, and run- neth his Race in about two Years. And it is by the exceed- ing Heat of Mars, and the Cold of Saturn, that Jupiter, who is placed betwixt, is well tempered of them both, and so be- cometh salutary. Next to them is the Course of the Sun, consisting of 360 Parts [or Degrees] : but that the Observa- tion of the Shadows which he casteth may return again to their former Marks, five Days be added to every Year, with the fourth Part of a Day over and above. Whereupon, in every fifth Year one odd Day is added to the Rest ; to the End that the Reckoning of the Seasons may agree with the
1 The planets since discovered — two of them, Herschel, or Uranus, and the new, and as yet unnamed, star, still more remote than it, and the others exceedingly small — must have been beyond the reach of ancient observation, from ignorance of the telescope.— Wern. Club.
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 41
Course of the Sun. Beneath the Sun there is a large Star called Venus, which wandereth this Way and that, by turns ; and by her Names testifieth her Emulation of the Sun and Moon. For while she anticipateth the Morning, and riseth Orientally, she taketh the Name of Lucifer, as a second Sun hastening the Day. Contrariwise, when she shineth from the West, lengthening the Daylight, and supplying the Place of the Moon, she is named Vesper. This Nature of hers, Pythagoras of Samos first found out, about the 42nd Olympiad ; which was the 142nd Year after the Foundation of Rome. Now this Planet, in Greatness, exceedeth all the other Stars : and so shining also, that the Beams of this Star only cast Shadows upon the Earth. And hereupon cometh such great Diversity of the Names thereof; for some have called it Juno, others Isis, and others the Mother of the Gods. By the natural Efficacy of this Star all Things are generated on Earth. For whether she rise in the East or West, she sprinkleth all the Earth with prolific Dew, and not only filleth the same with Seed, but stirreth up to in- crease the Nature of all living Creatures. This Planet goeth through the Circle of the Zodiac in 348 Days, departing from the Sun never above 46 Degrees, as Timceus was of Opinion. Next unto it, but Nothing of that Bigness and Power, is the Star Mercury, of some called Apollo : carried along in an inferior Circle, after the like Manner, but in a swifter Course by nine Days ; shining sometimes before the Sun rising, at others after his setting, never farther distant from him than 23 Degrees, as both the same Timceus and Sosigenes teach. And therefore these two Planets have a peculiar Consideration from others, and not common with the rest above-named. For those are seen from the Sun a fourth, yea, and third Part of the Sky : oftentimes also in Opposition against the Sun. And all of them have other greater Circuits of full Revolution, which are to be spoken in of the Discourse of the great Year1.
1 The enumeration of the planets here given is on the Ptolemaic sys- tem of astronomy, which supposes the earth to be fixed in the centre of
42 .History of Nature. [BooK II.
CHAPTER IX. Of the Moons Nature.
BUT the Moon, being the last of all, most familiar with the Earth, and devised by Nature for the Remedy of Dark- ness, exceedeth the Admiration of all the rest. She with her changing in many Shapes, hath troubled much the Minds of Beholders, angry because that of this Star, the nearest of all, they should be the most ignorant; growing as it doth, or else wasting continually. One while she bended into Horns ; another while divided in the half, and again moulded into a rounded Figure : spotted sometime, arid soon after, on a sudden, exceeding bright : one while large and full, and sud- denly nothing to be seen. Sometime shining all Night long, and at others late ere she riseth ; she also helpeth the Sun's Light some Part of the Day; eclipsed, and yet visible in that Eclipse. The same at the Month's End lieth hidden, at which Time (it is supposed) she laboureth not. At one Time she is below, and presently aloft : and that not after one Manner, but one while reaching up to the highest Hea- ven, and another while close to the Mountains ; now mounted to the North, and again brought down to the South. Which several Motions in her, the first Man that observed was Endymion : and hence sprung the Report that he was ena- moured of the Moon. We are not thankful, as we ought to be, to those who by their Labour and Care have given us Light in this Light ; but we are delighted rather (such is the wicked Disposition of Man) to record in Chronicles, Blood- shed and Murders: that Men's mischievous Deeds should be known, while we are ignorant of the World itself. The Moon being next to the Centre, and therefore of least Com- pass, performeth the same Course in seven-and-twenty Days, and one-third Part of a Day : which Saturn, the highest Planet, runneth (as we said before) in thirty Years. After
their orbits ; and which, in ancient times, was commonly received without dispute.— Wern. Club.
BOOK 1 1 .] History of Nature. 43
this, remaining in conjunction with the Sun two Days, forth she goeth, and by the thirtieth Day, at the most, returneth to the same Point again : the Mistress, if I may so say, and the Teacher of all Things that may be known in the Sky. By her means are we taught that the Year ought to be divided into twelve Months : forasmuch as the Moon over- taketh the Sun so many Times before he returneth to the Point where he began his Course. Likewise that she loseth her Light (as the Rest of the Planets) by the Brightness of the Sun when she approacheth near. For she shineth by bor- rowing of him her Light, much like to that which we see in the Reflexion of the Sunbeams from the Water. And here- upon it is that she, by her more mild and imperfect Power dissolveth, and also increaseth, so much Moisture ;x which the Sunbeams may consume. Hence it cometh also, that her Light is not equal in Sight, because it is only when she is opposite to the Sun that she appeareth full : but in all other days she sheweth no more to the Earth than she con- ceiveth from the Sun. In Time of Conjunction, she is not seen at all : for that whilst she is turned away, all the Draught of Light she casteth back again from whence she received it. That these Stars are fed with earthly Moisture, is evident by the Moon ; which, so long as she appeareth by the Half, never sheweth any Spots, because as yet she hath not her full Power of Light sufficient to draw Humour unto her. For these Spots be nothing else but the Dregs of the Earth, caught up with other Moisture among the Vapours.2
1 Lucretius supposes that all animals, and all the stars, are fed by exhalations from earth and air. Lucian also expresses the same idea. And as Pliny was of an adverse sect to the Epicureans, and consequently did not derive it from them, we may suppose the opinion to have been gene- rally received. See the beginning of chapter Ixviii. — Wern. Club.
2 The reader will, of course, accept of these remarks and explanations, as well of the moon as of the other planets, as descriptive of the condition of the astronomical philosophy of the day ; which it is, at least, amusing to compare with the results of modern observation. — Wern. Club.
44 History of Nature. [BooK II.
CHAPTER X. Of Eclipses of the Sun and Moon : and of the Night1.
THE Eclipse of the Moon and Sun is a Thing throughout the universal Contemplation of Nature most marvellous, and resembling a Prodigy, and shews the Magnitude and Shadow of these two Planets. For it is evident that the Sun is hidden by the Intervention of the Moon ; and the Moon again by the Opposition of the Earth : as also that the one doth equal the other, in that the Moon, by her Interposition, bereaveth
1 The opinions of the ancients on the subject of Eclipses were two- fold:— that of the vulgar was built on the supposition that certain sorce- rers, working by magic art, were able to draw this planet from her orbit, even to the earth, to accomplish their nefarious purposes in inflicting injury on particular persons or on communities. They were supposed to have a further object in view, by compelling her to deposit on some appropriate herbs a foam that was useful in magic arts : as we learn from Apuleius and Lucan. Horace represents his witch Canidia as thus en- gaged, in his 5th and 17th Epodes. Under these circumstances the moon was supposed to labour in agony ; and the method taken to relieve her throes, and prevent her total extinction, was by making such a clamour that the verse or influence might not ascend to her sphere ; and by not hearing, her dread might be relieved. Livy speaks of this clamour as an ordinary occurrence (lib. xxvi.) ; but it does not seem to have been an official proceeding. Another opinion was founded on the doctrines of Divinity, and therefore formed a portion of the religion of the state : the phenomena being regularly observed, reported, and registered by consti- tuted officers. According to this idea, every unusual appearance in the sky was a portent of some coming event — usually of an awful nature — and which it became the priesthood to avert, by those processions, sacri- fices, and supplications, that were appointed in the sacred books, as appro- priate to each appearance. It was no small effort of courage, as well as skill, in the philosophers whose names are given by Pliny, to venture to inquire into the nature and causes of phenomena which must have appeared inscrutable to one portion of the public, and too sacred to be meddled with to the other. The operation of both opinions appears in the narrative that Plutarch gives of the proceedings of Paulus Emilius, preparatory to the battle with the Macedonians, where, while the aid of the philosopher, Sulpitius Gallus, was used to remove their fears, his own office of augur was not neglected to work on their superstitious confidence.— Wern. Club.
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 45
the Earth of the Sun's Rays, and the Earth again doth the like by the Moon. Neither is the Night any Thing else but the Shade of the Earth. The Figure of this Shadow resem- bleth a Pyramid pointed forward, or a Top turned upside down : namely, when it falleth upon it with its sharp End, and goeth not beyond the Heights of the Moon ; for no other Star is in that Manner darkened : and such a Figure as this always endeth in a Point. And that Shadows grow to No- thing in a great Distance, appeareth by the exceeding high Flight of some Birds. So the Confines of these Shadows is the utmost Bound of the Air, and the Beginning of Mther. Above the Moon all is pure and lightsome continually. And we in the Night see the Stars as other Lights from out of Darkness. For these Causes also the Moon is eclipsed only in the Night. But the Reason why the Sun and Moon are not both in the Eclipse at set Times and Monthly, is the Obliquity of the Zodiac, and the wandering Turnings of the Moon (as hath been said): and because these Planets do not always in their Motion meet just in the Points of the ecliptic Line, that is, in the Head or Tail of the Dragon.
CHAPTER XI. Of the Magnitude of Stars.
IT is this Reason that lifteth up Men's Minds into Hea- ven : and as if they looked down from thence, discovereth unto them the Magnitude of the three greatest Parts of Nature. For the Sun's Light could not wholly be taken away from the Earth, by the Moon coming between, if the Earth were bigger than the Moon. But the Immensity of the Sun is more certainly known, both by the Shadow of the Earth and the Body of the Moon : so that it is needless to inquire into the Magnitude thereof, either by the Proof of Eyesight, or by Conjecture of the Mind. How immea- surable it is, appeareth by this, that Trees which are planted in Limits from East to West, cast Shadows equal in Propor- tion ; although they are many Miles asunder in Length : as if the Sun were in the Midst of them all. This appeareth
46 History of Nature. [BooK II.
also at the Time of the Equinox in all Regions of the same Meridian, when the Sun shineth directly over Men's Heads, and causeth no Shadow. In like Manner, the Shadows of them that dwell northerly under the solstitial Circle, fall all at Noontide, northward, but at Sunrising, westward ; which could not be possible unless the Sun were far greater than the Earth. Moreover, when he riseth, he surpasseth in breadth the Mountain Ida, encompassing the same at large both on the right Hand and the left, which only is from being so far distant. The Eclipse of the Moon sheweth also the Magnitude of the Sun, by an infallible Demon- stration ; as his own Eclipse declareth the Littleness of the Earth. For as there are of Shadows three Forms, and it is evident, that if the dark material Body which casteth a Sha- dow be equal in Bigness to the Light, then the Shadow is fashioned like a Pillar, and hath no Point at the End : if it be greater, it yieldeth a Shadow like a Top standing upon the Point, so as the lower Part thereof is narrowest, and then the Shadow likewise is of infinite length : but if the Body be less than the Light, then is represented a pyramidal Figure, falling out sharp-pointed in the Top ; which Manner of Shadow appeareth in the Moon's Eclipse : it is, without doubt, therefore, that the Sun is much larger than the Earth, as the same is seen by the silent Proofs of Nature itself. For why, in dividing the Times of the Year, departeth the Sun from us in the Winter? even because by means of the Night's length he may refresh the Earth, which otherwise he would have burnt up : for, notwithstanding this, he burneth it in some measure, from his excessive Greatness.
CHAPTER XII.
The Inventions of Men in the Observation of the Heavens.
THE first Roman that published the true Reason of both Eclipses was Sulpitius Gallus, who afterwards was Consul with M. Marcellus: but at that Time being a Tribune, the Day preceding that on which King Perseus was vanquished by Paulus, he was brought by the General into open Audi-
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 47
ence before the whole Army, to foretel the Eclipse which was about to happen : whereby he delivered the Army from Anxiety; and presently after he compiled a Book of the same. But among the Greeks, Thales Milesius1 was the first that investigated it ; who, in the fourth Year of the 48th Olympiad did foreshew the Sun's Eclipse that happened in the Reign of Halyattes, and in the 170th Year after the Foundation of the City of Rome. After them, Hipparchus compiled his " Ephemerides," containing the Course and Aspects of both these Planets, for six hundred Years en- suing : comprehending also the Months according to the Reckonings of sundry Nations, the Days, the Hours, the Situation of Places, the Aspects, and Latitudes of divers Towns and Countries ; as the World will bear him witness : and that no less assuredly, than if he had been privy to Nature's Counsels. Great Persons and excellent these were, doubtless, who, above the Reach of the Capacity of mortal Men, found out the Reason of the Course of such mighty Stars and divine Powers : and whereas the Mind of Men was before at a Loss, fearing in these Eclipses of the Stars some great Violence, or the Death of the Planets, they secured them in that behalf : in which dreadful Fear stood Stesickorus and Pindarus the Poets (notwithstanding their lofty Style), and particularly at the Eclipse of the Sun, as will appear by their Poems. As for the Moon, Mortals imagine that at that Time by Charms she is enchanted, and therefore help her by dissonant ringing of Basins. In this Terror, Nicias, the General of the Athenians (as a Man igno- rant of the Cause), feared to set sail with his Fleet out of
1 The minuteness of observation displayed by these illustrious philo- sophers, from whom Pliny has borrowed his materials, appears to imply the existence of instruments of no small accuracy, though we have no account of their possessing such. Of the telescope, we have evidence that they were ignorant.
As the account given by Pliny of ancient astronomy will be read chiefly for its curiosity, we have no need to do more than refer to modern treatises on the subject for correction of what is mistaken. — Wem. Club.
48 History of Nature. [Boo* II.
the Harbour, and thus greatly distressed the State of his Country. Be ye prosperous, then, for your excellency, O noble Interpreters of the Heavens ! capable of Nature's Works, and the Devisers of that Reason whereby ye have subdued both Gods and Men. For who is he that, seeing these Things, and the ordinary Labours (since that this Term is now taken up) of the Stars, would not bear with his own Infirmity, and excuse this Necessity of being born to die ? Now, for this present, I will briefly and summarily touch those principal Points which are acknowledged concerning the said Eclipses, having lightly rendered a Reason thereof in the proper Places : for neither doth such proving and argu- ing of these Matters belong properly to our purposed Work ; neither is it less Wonder to be able to yield the Reasons and Causes of all Things than to be constant in some.
CHAPTER XIII. Of Eclipses.
IT is certain, that all Eclipses in 222 Months have their Revolutions, and return to their former Points : as also that the Sun's Eclipse never happeneth but either in the last of the old, or first of the new, Moon ; which they call the Con- junction : and that the Moon is never eclipsed but in the full, and always somewhat anticipateth the former Eclipse. Moreover, that every Year both Planets are eclipsed at cer- tain Days and Hours under the Earth. Neither be these Eclipses seen in all Places when they are above the Earth, by Reason sometimes of cloudy Weather, but more often, for that the Globe of the Earth hindereth the Sight of the Con- vexity of the Heaven. Within these two hundred Years it was found out by the Sagacity of Hipparchus, that the Moon sometime was eclipsed twice in five Months' Space, and the Sun likewise in seven. Also that the Sun and Moon twice in thirty Days were darkened above the Earth : though this was not seen equally in all Quarters, but by Men in divers Places : and that which is most surprising in this Wonder, is, that when it is agreed that the Moon's Light is dimmed
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 49
by the Shadow of the Earth, at one Time this Eclipse hap- peneth in the West, and at another in the East : as also, by what Reason it happeneth, that seeing after the Sun is up, that Shadow which hideth the Light of the Moon must needs be under the Earth : it fell out once, that the Moon was eclipsed in the West, and both Planets were seen at once above the Ground. For that in twelve Days both these Lights were missing, and neither Sun nor Moon were seen : it happened in our Time, when both the Vespasians (Emperors) were Consuls, the Father the third Time, and the Son the second.
CHAPTER XIV. Of the Moons Motion.
IT is clear that the Moon, always in her increasing, hath her Horns turned from the Sun toward the East : but in her decrease, contrariwise westward ; and also that she shineth (the first Day of her Appearance) three quarters and the twenty-fourth Part of one Hour, and so riseth in Proportion the second Day forward unto the full : likewise decreasing in the same Manner to the Change. She is also always hidden in the Change within fourteen Degrees of the Sun. By which Argument we collect, that the Magnitude of the other Planets is greater than that of the Moon, because they ap- pear when they be but seven Degrees off. But the Cause why they shew less, is their Altitude : like the fixed Stars, which by Reason of the Sun's Brightness are not seen in the Daytime : whereas, indeed, they shine as well by Day as Night: and that is manifestly proved by Eclipses of the Sun, and by exceeding deep Pits1, for so they are to be seen by Daylight.
1 In the absence or imperfection of optical instruments, this expedient was necessarily resorted to, for the purpose here stated ; but the improve- ment of the telescope has superseded this contrivance. There was for- merly, at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, a well of this kind, a hundred feet in depth, with a winding staircase of stone leading to the bottom ; it is now arched over. — Wern. Club.
D
50 History of Nature. [Boox II.
CHAPTER XV.
General Rules concerning the Motions and Lights of other
Planets.
THOSE three Planets which we say are above the Sun, are hidden when they go their Course with him. They rise in the Morning, and never depart farther than eleven De- grees. Afterwards meeting with his Rays, they are covered : and in their triple Aspect retrograde, they make their Morn- ing Stations 120 Degrees off, which are called the first : and by and by, in a contrary Aspect, 180 Degrees off, they rise in the Evening, and appear as Evening Stars. In like Sort approaching from another Side within 120 Degrees, they make their evening Station, which also they call the second, until he overtake them within twelve Degrees ; and so hide them : and these are called the Evening Settings. The Planet Mars, as he is nearer to the Sun, feeleth the Sun- beams by a quadrant Aspect, from ninety Degrees : where- upon that Motion took the Name called the first and second Nonagenary, from both Risings. The same Planet keepeth this stationary Residence six Months in the Signs : whereas otherwise, of his own Nature, he would do it but two Months. But the other Planets in both Stations continue not four Months each. The other two inferior Planets are hidden after the same Manner in the evening Conjunction : and leaving the Sun in as many Degrees, they make their morn- ing Rising : and from the farthest Bounds of their Distance, they follow after the Sun : and after they have once over- taken him, they set again in the Morning, and so outgo him. And by and by keeping the same Distance, in the Evening they rise again unto the same Limits which we named before, from whence they return to the Sun, and by the evening Setting they be hidden. The Star Venus like- wise maketh two Stations, according to the two Manners of her Appearance, Morning and Evening, when she is in far- thest Bounds of her Distance. But Mercury keepeth his Stations so small awhile, that they cannot be observed. This
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 5 1
is the Order, as well of the Appearances of the Planets as of their Occultations and their mere Motion, enfolded within many strange Wonders. For they change their Magnitudes and Colours, and sometimes they approach to the North, sometimes they go back toward the South, and, all on a sud- den, they appear one while nearer to the Earth, and another while to the Heaven : wherein, if we shall deliver many Points otherwise than former Writers, yet we confess, that for these Matters we are beholden unto them, who first made Demonstration of seeking out the Ways thereto : and there- fore let no Man despair of profiting and going forward in Knowledge from Age to Age. For, these strange Motions fall out upon many Causes. The first is by Reason of those Circles in the Stars, which the Greeks call Absides : for we are compelled to use the Greek Terms. Each one of the Planets hath a particular Circle by itself, and these different from those of the starry Heaven : because the Earth from those two Points which they call Poles, is the Centre of the Heaven, as also of the Zodiac, situated obliquely between them. All which Things are certainly known to be so be- yond Question by the Compass. And therefore from every Centre there arise their own Absides, and so they have diverse Circuits and different Motions, because of necessity the interior Absides must be shorter.
CHAPTER XVI.
Why the same Planets seem sometimes higher, and sometimes
lower.
THE highest Absides, therefore, from the Centre of the Earth are of Saturn, in the Sign Scorpio : of Jupiter in Virgo : of Mars in Leo : of the Sun in Gemini : of Venus in Sagittarius: of Mercury in Capricorn: and in the Middle of the said Signs : and contrariwise the said Planets in the same Degrees of the opposite Signs are lowest and nearest to the Centre of the Earth. So it happeneth that they seem to move more slowly when they go their highest Circuit : not for that natural Motions do either hasten or slacken, which
52 History of Nature. [Boon. ii.
be certain and several to every one, but because the Lines which are drawn from the Top of the Absis must needs approach each other about the Centre, as the Spokes in Wheels : and the same Motion, by Reason of the Nearness of the Centre, seemeth in one Place greater, in another less. The other Cause of their Sublimities is, for that in other Signs they have the Absides elevated highest from the Centre of their own eccentric Circles. Thus Saturn is in the greatest Height in the 20th Degree of Libra, Jupiter in the 15th of Cancer, Mars in the 28th of Capricorn, the Sun in the 29th of Aries, Venus in the 1 6th of Pisces, Mercury in the 15th of Virgo, and the Moon in the 4th of Taurus. The third Reason of their Altitude is not taken from their Circles, but understood by the Convexity of the Sky, for that these Planets seem to the Eye, as they rise and fall, to mount up or settle downward through the air. To this is united an- other Cause also, which is, the Zodiac Obliquity and Latitude of the Planets, in Regard of the Ecliptic : for through it the Stars which we called wandering do take their Course. Neither is there any Place inhabited upon Earth, but that which lieth under it. For all the Rest without the Poles are desert. Only the Planet Venus goeth beyond the Circle of the Zodiac, two Degrees : which is supposed to be the effi- cient Cause, that certain living Creatures are bred even in the desert Parts of the World. The Moon likewise rangeth throughout all the Breadth of it, but never goeth out of it. Next after these the Star Mercury hath the largest Scope in the Zodiac, but yet so, as of twelve Degrees (for that is the Breadth thereof) he wandereth but eight, and those not equally, but two in the midst, four above, and two beneath. Then the Sun in the midst, goeth always between the two Extremities of the Zodiac ; but in his declining Course he seemeth to wind unequally, after the Manner of Serpents. Mars leaveth the ecliptic Line four half Degrees, Jupiter two Degrees and a half, Saturn two, like as the Sun. Thus you see the Manner of the Latitudes, as they descend south- ward, or ascend northward. And upon this is the Reason grounded of the third Opinion of them, who imagine that
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 53
the Planets do rise and mount from the Earth upward into Heaven. For very many have thought, although untruly, that they climb in this Manner. But to the End that they may be confuted, we must lay open an immense Subtlety, which containeth all those Causes and Reasons abovesaid. First, therefore, this is admitted, that these Stars in their Evening Setting are nearest to the Earth, both in Latitude and Altitude : and when they be farthest from the Earth, as well in Latitude as Elevation, they appear in the Morning before the Sun : as also that then they are Stationaries in the middle Points of the Latitudes, which they call Ecliptics. Likewise it is acknowledged, that so long as the Planets are near to the Earth, their Motion increaseth : and as they de- part on hi«:h it decreaseth. And this Reason is confirmed principally by the Elevations of the Moon. And it is beyond a Doubt, that every Planet in its Morning Rising riseth every Day higher than the former. The superior three above the Sun diminish from their first Stations unto the second. Which being so, it will plainly appear, that every Planet rising before the Sun ascendeth to the Latitudes : so that from the Time they begin, their Motion increaseth by little and little more sparely. But in the first Stations, they are at the highest Altitude : for then first the Numbers begin to be withdrawn, and the Planets to go backward ; whereof a particular Reason may be given in this Manner : the Planets being smitten in that Part whereof we spoke, they are both restrained by the triangular Beams or trine Aspect of the Sun, to hold on a direct Course, and are raised up aloft by the fiery Power of the said Sun. This cannot im- mediately be understood by our Eyesight : and so they are supposed to stand, and hence the Name of Stations is de- rived. Then proceedeth forward the Violence of the Sun's Beams, and the Vapour thereof, by Repercussion, forceth them to go backward. And much more is this perceived in their Evening Rising, when the Sun is wholly against them, and they be driven to the very Top of their Absides, and so not seen at all, because they are at the highest, and are carried on by their least Motion, which is so much the
54 History of Nature. [ BOOK II.
less, when it happeneth in the highest Signs of their Absides. From the evening Rising the Latitude descendeth, for now the Motion less diminisheth, but yet increaseth not before the second Stations : because they are forced to descend by Rea- son of the Sunbeams coming from the other Side ; and the same Force beareth them downward to the Earth, which by the former triangular Aspect raised them aloft toward Hea- ven. Of so much Importance is it whether these Beams come from beneath or above. The same happeneth much more in the Evening Setting. This is an Explanation of the Motions of the superior Planets; but the Theory of the rest is more difficult, and hath by no Man before us been delivered.
CHAPTER XVII.
General Rules concerning the Planets.
FIRST, therefore, let us set down the Cause why Venus never departeth from the Sun more than forty-six Degrees, and Mercury not above twenty-three : and why oftentimes they retire back unto the Sun within that Space. To be resolved in this Point, we must remark, that both of them have their Absides turned opposite to the rest, as being seated under the Sun : and so much of their Circles is under- neath, as the forenamed were above ; and therefore farther off they cannot be, because the Curvature of their Absides in that Place hath no greater Longitude. Therefore both Margins of their Absides, by a like Proportion, keep Mean, and their Course is limited : but the short Spaces of their Longitudes they compensate by the wandering of their Lati- tudes. But what is the Reason that they reach not always to forty-six Degrees, and to twenty-three? They do so truly: but here the Explanation fails. For it is apparent, that their Absides also move, because they never overpass the Sun. And therefore when their Margins from either Side are per- ceived to fall upon the very Point, then the Planets also are understood to reach unto their longest Distances : but when their Margins be short so many Degrees, the Stars them- selves are thought to return more speedily in their Retro-
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 55
gradation than in their direct Course forward, though their utmost Extremity is ever the same. And from hence is the Reason understood of the contrary Motions of these two Planets. For the superior Planets move most swiftly in the Evening Setting, but these most slowly. They be highest above the Earth, when they move slowest ; and these, when they go swiftest : for as in the former the Nearness of the Centre hasteneth them, so, in these, the Extremity of the Circle : they, from their Morning Rising, begin to slacken their Celerity ; but these to increase it : they return back from their Morning Station to their Evening Mansion ; but Venus, contrariwise, is retrograde from the Evening Station to that of the Morning. But, she from the Morning Rising beginneth to climb the Latitude : but to follow the Altitude and the Sun from the Morning Station : as being most swift and at the highest in the Morning Setting. Moreover she beginneth to digress in Latitude, and to diminish her Motion, from the Morning Rising : but to be retrograde, and to digress in Altitude, from the Evening Station. Again, the Planet Mercury rising in the Morning, beginneth both Ways to climb, but to digress in Latitude from the Evening Rising : and when the Sun hath overtaken him within the Distance of fifteen Degrees, he standeth still for four Days almost immovable. Presently, he descendeth from his Altitude, and goeth back from the Evening Setting to that of the Morning. This Star only, and the Moon, descend in as many Days as they ascend. But Venus ascendeth up to her Station in fifteen Days and a little more. Again, Saturn and Jupiter are twice as long descending, and Mars four Times. So great Variety is in their Nature, but the Reason thereof is evident. For they which go against the Vapour of the Sun do also descend with Difficulty. Many Secrets more of Nature, and Laws whereunto she is obedient, might be shewn about these Things. As, for Example: the Planet Mars, whose Course, of all others, can be least observed, never maketh Station but in quadrate Aspect : and Jupiter, in triangular Aspect ; and very seldom separated from the Sun sixty Degrees, which Number maketh six angled Forms of
56 History of Nature. [BooK II.
the Heaven (that is, it is the sixth Part of the Heaven) : neither doth Jupiter shew his rising in any, save only two Signs, Cancer and Leo. The Planet Mercury seldom hath his Evening Rising in Pisces, but very often in Virgo ; and the Morning Rising in Libra. In like Manner, the Morning Rising is in Aquarius, but very seldom in Leo. Neither becometh he retrograde in Taurus and Gemini : and in Cancer, not under the twenty-fifth Degree. As for the Moon, she entereth not twice in Conjunction with the Sun in any other Sign but Gemini : and sometime hath no Con- junction at all, and that only in Sagittarius. As for the last and first of the Moon, to be seen in the same Day or Night, happeneth in no other Sign but in Aries, and few Men have had the Chance to see it. And hereupon came Linceus to be so famous for his Eyesight. Also, the Planets Saturn and Mars appear not in the Heaven at the most 170 Days: Jupiter 36, or at least ten Days wanting : Venus 69, or when least, 52 : Mercury 13, or at least, 17.
CHAPTER XVIII. What is the Cause that the Planets alter their Colours ?
THE Reason of the Planet's Altitudes is it that tetnpereth their Colours, for they take the Likeness of the Air, into which they enter ; and the Circle of another Planet's Motion coloureth them as they approach either Way, ascending or descending. The colder setteth a pale Colour, the hotter a red, and the windy a fearful Hue. Only the Points and Conjunctions of iheAbsides, and the utmost Circumferences, shew a dark black. Each Planet hath a several Colour; Saturn is white, Jupiter clear and bright, Mars a fiery red, Venus glowing, when Lucifer; when Occidental, or Vesper, resplendent ; Mercury sparkling, the Moon pleasant, the Sun when he riseth, burning, afterwards radiating1. Upon
1 Many of the colours here mentioned are only optical deceptions, but that of the planet Mars must proceed from something inherent in the planet itself, or the atmosphere by which it is surrounded ; for while
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 57
these Causes the Sight is entangled, and discovereth those Stars also which are fixed in the Sky. For one while a Number of them appear about the Half-moon, when in a clear and calm Night she gently beautlfieth them ; and at another they are seen but here and there, insomuch that we may wonder how they are fled upon the full Moon, which hideth them ; or when the Beams either of the Sun or other abovesaid have dazzled our Sight. Yea, the Moon herself perceiveth the Sun's Beams, as they come upon her : for those Rays that come sidelong, according to the Convexity of the Sky, give but an obscure Light to the Moon, in Com- parison of them that fall directly with straight Angles. And, therefore, in the quadrangular Aspect of the Sun she ap- peareth divided in Half; in the triangular she is well near environed, but her Circle is half empty ; but in Opposition she appeareth full. And again, as she is in the Wane, she representeth the same Forms, decreasing by Quarters as she increased : with like Aspects as the other three Planets above the Sun.
CHAPTER XIX.
The Reason of the Suns Motion, and the Inequality of Days.
THE Sun himself hath four Differences in his Course : twice in the Year, in Spring and Autumn, making the Night equal to the Day ; for then he falleth on the Centre of the Earth, in the eighth Degree of Aries and Libra. Twice likewise he exchangeth the Compass of his Race : to lengthen the Day from the Bruma, or Midwinter, in the eighth De- gree of Capricorn; and again to lengthen the Night from the summer Solstice, being in as many Degrees of Cancer. The Cause of unequal Days is the Obliquity of the Zodiac: when the one Half of the World is at all Times above and under the Earth. But (hose Signs which mount upright in their
it reflects to us a red tinge, the light it obtains from the sun is the same with that which comes to us from the sun, and in which the prismatic rays produce a colourless mixture.— Wern. Club.
58 History of Nature. [BooK II.
Rising, hold Light in a longer Tract, and make the Days longer: whereas they which arise obliquely pass away in shorter Time.
CHAPTER XX.
Why Lightnings are attributed to Jupiter.
MOST Men are ignorant of that Secret which, by great Study of the Heavens, Men of deep Learning have found out : namely, that it is the Fires of the three uppermost Planets, which, falling to the Earth, carry the Name of Lightnings ; but those especially which are seated in the midst, because participating in the excessive Cold and Mois- ture from the upper Circle, and the immoderate Heat from the lower, by this Means he dischargeth the Superfluity : and hereupon it is commonly said, that Jupiter darteth Lightnings1. Therefore, as out of burning Wood a Coal of Fire flieth forth with a Crack, so from a Star is spit out this celestial Fire, carrying with it Presages of future Things : so that it sheweth Divine Operations, even in these Portions which are cast away as superfluous. And this most com- monly happeneth when the Air is troubled; either because the collected Moisture stirreth that Abundance to fall ; or because it is disquieted, as it were, with a Birth from a pregnant Star.
1 Much of the religious system of the ancients was founded on the persuasion that every appearance of lightning and thunder, as well as other aerial phenomena, were direct manifestations of Divine interposition in the affairs of men ; and a college of officers (augurs) was appointed to observe, record, report, and explain such appearances, for the guidance of the state in its most important proceedings. From a slight expression of Pliny in the course of this chapter, it appears that he hesitated to deny this popular idea in a direct manner : in apprehension, perhaps, of laying himself open to the charge of infidelity. But by implication, he expresses his disbelief of what was so generally credited; for the ascribing to the natural effect of Jupiter as a planet, what was believed by the priests and the state to be a voluntary action of Jupiter, the supreme deity, can be regarded as little better than a subterfuge. For a natural explanation of thunder and lightning, such as it is, the reader is referred to chapter xliii. of this book ; and for other curious particulars, to the chapters l.-lv. — Wern. Club.
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 59
CHAPTER XXI. The Distances of the Planets.
MANY have endeavoured to find out the Distance and Elevation of the Planets from the Earth, and have set down in Writing, that the Sun is distant from the Moon eighteen Degrees, as the Moon is also from the Earth. But Pytha- goras, a Man of much Sagacity, hath collected, that there are 126,000 Stadia1 from the Earth to the Moon, and a double Distance from her to the Sun, and from thence to the twelve Signs three Times so much. Of which Opinion was also our countryman, Gallus Sulpitius.
CHAPTER XXII. Of the Music of the Planets.
BUT Pythagoras at the same Time uses the Terms of Music, by calling the Space between the Earth and the Moon a Tone ; saying, that from her to Mercury is Half a Tone : and from him to Venus about the same Space. But from her to the Sun so much and a Half more : but from the Sun to Mars a Tone, that is to say, as much as from the Earth to the Moon. From him to Jupiter Haifa Tone: likewise from him to Saturn Half a Tone : and so from thence to the Zodiac so much and a Half more. Thus are composed seven Tunes, which Harmony they call Diapason; that is to say, the Universality of Consent. In this, Saturn rnoveth by the Doric Tune ; Mercury by Phthongus, Jupiter by the Phrygian, and the Rest likewise : a Subtlety more pleasant than needful2.
1 The Stadium differed in different countries ; but the standard may be fixed at a furlong ; as may be seen in chapter xxiii. One hundred and twenty-five paces make a stadium. In the larger numbers, therefore, it has been sometimes judged best to translate the equivalent expressions into miles. — Wern. Club.
2 Ideas of the harmony of creation seem to have entered deeply into the opinions of Pythagoras, on the system of creation, and especially on
60
History of Nature.
[BooK II.
CHAPTER XXIII. The Geometry of the World.
A STADIUM maketh of our Paces 125, that is to say, 625 Feet. Posidonius saith, that from the Earth it is no less than forty Stadia to that Height wherein thick Weather, Winds, and Clouds are formed. Above this, the Air is pure, clear, and light, without any troubled Darkness. But from the cloudy Region to the Moon is 2,000,000 Stadia : from thence to the Sun, 5000. By means of which Interval it cometh to pass, that so exceeding great as the Sun is, he burneth not
the order and distances of the planets, the motions of which he appears to have compared to the graceful and measured dances of the ancients to the sound of the harp. But, as often happens, when philosophers confine their views of Nature to a single aspect, what has a shadow of truth in itself becomes, when thus interpreted, egregious trifling. The supposition enounced is, that not only are the motions performed according to musical time, but the intervals between the chords (of each planet's path) are properly measured by their relative tones. The following diagram, taken from the notes to Dalechamp's edition of Pliny, will more clearly repre- sent the ideas of this eminent Greek philosopher : —
12THESPH,
TERRA THE EARTH
The tone or unit of Pythagoras is taken for 125,000 stadia, or 15,625 miles. — Wern. Club.
BOOK If.] History of Nature. 61
the Earth. Many there be, however, who have taught that the Clouds are elevated to the Height of 900 Stadia. These Points are undiscovered, and beyond Man's Reach ; but they may now be delivered to others, as they have been taught : in which, notwithstanding, one infallible Reason of a geome- trical Collection cannot be rejected, if a man would search deep into these Matters. Neither need a Man to seek an exact Measure hereof (for to desire that is a foolish Idleness), but only to make an Estimate of Probability. For, whereas it is clear by the Course of the Sun, that the Circle through which he passeth containeth three hundred, threescore, and almost six Degrees ; and it is a Rule that the Diameter formeth a third Part of the Circumference, and little less than a seventh Part of a third : it is plain, that deducting one Half thereof (because the Earth, situated in the Centre, cometh between), about the sixth Part of this great Circuit which he maketh about the Earth (so far as our Mind doth comprehend), is the very Height from the Earth up to the Sun, but the twelfth Part to the Moon, because she runneth so much a shorter Circuit than the Sun ; whereby it ap- peareth, that she is in the Midst between the Earth and the Sun. It is a Wonder to see how far the Presumption of the Heart of Man will proceed when instigated by some little Success, as in the abovenamed Matter. The Reason whereof ministereth plenteous Occasion of Impudency, for they who dared to give a Guess at the Space between the Sun and the Earth are so bold as to do the like from thence to Heaven. For, presuming that the Sun is in the Midst, they have at their Fingers' Ends the very Measure of the whole World. For how many seven Parts the Diameter hath, so many twenty-two Parts hath the whole Circle : as if they had got- ten the certain Measure of the Heaven by the Plumb-line. The Egyptians, according to the Reckoning which Petosiris and Necepsos have invented, do collect, that every Degree in the Circle of the Moon, which is the least (as hath been said) of all other, containeth thirty-three Stadia, and somewhat more; in Saturn^ the greatest of all, double as much ; and in the Sun, which we said was the midst, the Half of both Mea-
62 History of Nature. [BooK II.
sures. And this Computation hath very great Importance, for he that will reckon the Distances between the Circle of Saturn and the Zodiac, by this Calculation shall multiply an infinite Number of Stadia.
CHAPTER XXIV. Of Sadden Stars.
THERE remain yet a few Points concerning the World : for in the very Heaven there be Stars that suddenly appear, whereof there are many Kinds1.
CHAPTER XXV.
Of Comets and Celestial Prodigies , their Nature, Situation, and Kinds.
THESE Stars which the Greeks call Cometas, our Romans term Crinitas (hairy) : dreadful, with bloody Hair, and shagged like the Bush of Hair upon the Top of the Head. The same Greeks call those Stars Pogonias*, which from the lower Part have a Mane hanging down like a long Beard. Those
1 This important fact in astronomy, that stars have suddenly appeared, remained for a time visible in a fixed position, and then have either be- come of less apparent brightness or disappeared altogether, is established by the observations of modern as well as ancient astronomers ; and to ascertain beyond doubt whether such a phenomenon might be repeated, was the first motive for which a map of the heavens and a catalogue of the known stars were constructed. Hipparchus (chap, xxvi.) is the first that is known to have observed this phenomenon ; a detection of the occurrence is no slight proof of the minuteness of inquiry of the ancient astronomers. But it is to be remarked, that Pliny classes meteors and shooting stars, not only with comets, but also among the more permanent or fixed stars. — Wern. Club.
2 The various names and comparisons here applied to what, for the most part, are mere meteoric appearances have probably a reference to the classification by which the augurs divided them, for the purposes of divination ; for certainly a strong imagination is required to discern any likeness between these aerial appearances and those material objects from which they derive their names. — Wern. Club.
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 63
named Acontice, shake like a Spear, signifying great Swift- ness. This was it whereof Tiberius Ccesar, the Emperor, wrote an excellent Poem in his fifth Consulship ; the last that ever was seen to this Day. The same, if they be shorter and sharp-pointed at the Top, are called Xiphias, which are the palest of all, and glittering like a Sword, but without any Rays: which another Kind of them, named .Disceus (resem- bling a Disc or Quoit, whereof it beareth the Name, but in Colour like to Amber), putteth forth here and there out of its Margin. Pitheus is in the Form of Tuns environed in the Cavity of a smoky Light. Ceratias resembleth a Horn : and such an one appeared when Greece fought the Battle of Salamis. Lampadias is like to burning Torches : and Hip- peus to Horses' Manes, very swift in Motion, and revolving in a Globe. There is also a white Comet with silver Hair, so bright and shining that it can hardly be looked at ; and in Man's Shape it sheweth the very Image of a God. More- over, there be blazing Stars that become all shaggy, com- passed round with a hairy Fringe like a Mane. One of these, appearing in the Form a Mane, changed into that of a Spear, in the hundred and eighth Olympiad, and the three hundred and ninety-eighth Year from the Foundation of Rome. It hath been observed, that the shortest Time of their Appear- ance is seven Days, and the longest eighty Days. Some of them move like the Planets ; others are immovably fixed. Almost all are seen under the very North Star ; some in no certain Part thereof, but especially in that white which hath taken the Name of the Milky1 Way. Aristotle saith2, that
1 Galaxy.
3 The author is here referring to those appearances which are now denominated shooting stars ; and which, in ancient times, were believed to be the very things the modern name denotes. St. John refers, figura- tively, to this idea (Book of Revelation, vi. 13): " And the stars of heaven fell unto the earth." Modern opinion has varied greatly with regard to the nature and cause of these appearances ; and the diversity of explanation is a proof how little satisfactory any of them is judged to be. There have been times, chiefly in the autumn, and at long intervals, when these meteors have been particularly abundant, and it appears that Aristotle refers to such a luminous shower ; the rarity of which may be
64 History of Nature. [BooK II.
many are seen together; a Thing that no Man but he hath known, so far as I can learn. They signify boisterous Winds, and very hot Weather. They are seen also in Winter, and about the South Pole : but in that Place without any Beams. A terrible one likewise was seen by the People in Ethiopia and Egypt, which the King who reigned in that Age, named Typhon. It resembled Fire, and was twisted like a Wreath, hideous to the Sight ; and not to be counted a Star, but truly a Ball of Fire. Sometimes the Planets and other Stars are spread over with Hairs ; but a Comet J is never seen in the West Part of the Heaven.
A fearful Star, for the most Part, this Comet is, and not easily expiated2 : as it appeared by the late civil Troubles when Octavius was Consul : as also a second Time by the War of Pompey and Ccesar. And in our Days about the Time that Claudius Ccesar was poisoned, and left the Empire to Domitius Nero ; in the Time of whose Reign there was another almost continually seen, and always terrible. It is thought to be material for Presage, to observe into what Quarters it shooteth, or what Star's Power and Influence it receiveth : also what Similitudes it resernbleth, and in what Parts it first shineth out. For if it be like unto Flutes ( Tibice}, it portendeth somewhat to Musicians : if it appear in the obscene Organs of the Signs, it threatens filthy Per-
concluded from Pliny's incredulity. Modern theory would refer this abundance of shooting stars to a very limited period of the month of No- vember ; but on the only occasion in which the Editor was an observer of a very remarkable quantity, the observation was made on the second or third day of October ; when, in a ride of more than two hours, the sky was never free from them ; although no more than three were visible at any one time. — Wern. Club.
1 Dalechamp remarks, that in this observation Pliny has mistaken the meaning of Aristotle, whom he is copying. The latter says, that a comet disappears, or is dissipated, before it sinks so low as the horizon.— Wern. Club.
2 This expiation was the business of the priests ; and in the affair of a comet could only be judged to have taken effect when the awful manifest- ation had disappeared: and consequently not until after a considerable period. — Wern. Club.
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 65
sons. It regards Men of Talents and Learning, if it put forth a triangular or four-square Figure, with even Angles, to any Situations of the fixed Stars. It sprinkleth Poison, if seen in the Head of the Dragon, either North or South.
In one only Place of the whole World, namely, in a Temple at Rome, a Comet is worshipped : even that which by Divus Augustus Ccesar himself was judged fortunate to him: who, when it began to appear, acted in Person as Overseer in those Games which he made to Venus Genetrix, not long after the Death of his father, Ccesar, in the College by him erected. For, that Joy of his he testified in these Words : In those very Days of my Games, there was seen a Comet for seven Days together, in that Region of the Sky which is under the North Star. It arose about the eleventh Hour of the Day, bright and clear, and evidently seen in all Lands. By that Star it was signified (as the common Sort believed) that the Soul of (Julius) Csesar was received among the Divine powers of the immortal Gods. In which regard, that Mark of a Star was set on the Head of the Statue of Julius Caesar, which soon after we dedicated in the Forum. These Words he published abroad : but in a more inward Joy to himself, he interpreted that this Comet1 was made for
1 It is a strong proof of the popular bias at that time, as well as of the political tact of Augustus, that he was so far able to dissipate the appre- hensions usually entertained on the appearance of a comet, as to convert the phenomenon into a prognostic of especial good to his government ; and to associate with it, what he wished them to believe of the Divine adoption of his deceased uncle, the Dictator. The latter had, indeed, al- ready given him some examples of the art of overruling a portent, when its understood meaning did not correspond with his wishes ; and Suetonius observes, that no ominous presage could ever deter or divert him from the prosecution of his designs. That this celestial phenomenon, which appeared about an hour before sunset, and was seen for seven successive days, excited much attention, appears from Ovid (" Metamorphoses," b. xv.), who speaks of it as if he wished to avoid the dreaded name of Comet, a word which, in the original, Pliny also does not use : — " Dumque tulit, lumen capere, atque ignescere sensit, Emisitque sinu. Luna volat altius ilia, Flammiferumque trahens spatioso limite crinem Stella micat."
66 History of Nature. [BooK II.
him, and that himself was born in it. And if we may con- fess a Truth, a happy Presage that was to the whole World. Some there he who believe that these Stars be perpetual, and go their Course round ; but are not seen, unless they be left
" (She) bore it upwards to its native skies : Glowing with newborn fire she saw it rise : Forth springing from her bosom, up it flew, And kindling as it soar'd, a (sparkling star it) grew ; Above the lunar sphere it took its flight, And shot behind it a long trail of light."
But the particular object of Augustus seems to have been to connect this appearance of a star with his family in their claim of Divine honour, as being directly descended from the goddess Venus, whose particular ensign this was. Dalechamp mentions a Roman coin, bearing on the obverse the head and inscription of the deified Caesar, and, on the reverse, a temple of Venus, with a star, and a statue of Caesar in the augural dress, and an
(From a Coin in the British Museum.)
altar for offerings and vows, with the inscription, " Divo Julio." It was because of this alleged consanguinity to the goddess, that at his funeral the Repository was made in the form of the temple of this divinity. The origin of this story of the star of Venus may be traced to a Phoenician or Trojan source ; for we find, in the Fragments of Sanchoniatho, the fol- lowing account : — " But travelling about the world, she found a star fall- ing from the sky ; which she, taking up, consecrated in the Holy Island Tyre. And the Phoenicians say, that Astarte is she who is amongst the Greeks called Aphrodite:' — (Bishop Cumberland's Trans, p. 36.) This Tyrian or Trojan deity was the Marine Venus, and is to be distinguished from Venus Urania, the heavenly, the greatest ; who, according to Cicero, (N. D. iii. 23.) and other authority, was the Syrian Astarte, and the Ashteroth of sacred Scripture ; whose ensigns were : on her head, the horns of a bull ; about her, thunderbolts ; and round her, many stars. Lucian, describing her statue, which he had seen, says : " She had a splen- did stone on her head, which was called xvx»b, which in the night gave much light to the temple, but shone weakly in the day-time, and looked like fire. Nor were these, the Roman deities Venus and Juno, the only powers that were designated by a star. The prophet Amos (chap. v. 26)
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 67
by the Sun. Others, again, are of opinion, that they are pro- duced casually by some Humour and the Power of Fire, and thereby do consume away.
CHAPTER XXVI.
The Opinion of Hipparchus concerning the Stars. Also, historical Examples of Torches, Lamps, Beams, Fiery Darts, Opening of the Firmament.
HIPPARCHUS, the aforesaid Philosopher (a man never sufficiently praised, as being he that more than any other proved the Affinity of Stars with Men ; affirming also, that our Souls were Parcel of Heaven), discovered and observed a new Star produced in his Time, and by the Motion thereof on the Day it first shone, he was led into a doubt, whether it happened not very often that new Stars should arise ? and whether those Stars also moved not, which we imagine to be fixed ? The same Man went so far, that he attempted (a Thing even hard for God to perform) to deliver unto Pos- terity the exact Number of the Stars. He brought the said Stars within the Compass of Rule, by devising certain In- struments to take their several Places, and set out their Magnitudes : that thereby it might be easily discerned, not only whether the old died, and new were born, but also whether they moved, and which Way they took their Course? likewise, whether they increased or decreased? Thus he left the Inheritance of the Sky unto all Men, if any one haply could be found able to enter upon it as lawful Heir.
There be also certain flaming Torches shining out in the Sky, though they are never seen but when they fall. Such an one was that which, at the Time that Germanicus Ccesar exhibited a Show of Gladiators, passed at Noontide in the
refers to a male deity, that, so early as the days of Moses, was worshipped in a portable shrine by the people of Israel, and by them probably derived from Egypt. A star thus became associated with the idea of Divine benignity ; and how widely so, appears from the history of the Magi, who came from the East to Jerusalem, to seek out the Desire of all Nations, in pursuance of a prophecy that must have been of the highest antiquity. — Wern. Club.
68 History of Nature. [BooK II.
Sight of all the People. And there are two Sorts of them. One is Lampades, which they call plain Torches ; and the other, Bolides, or Lances, such as the Mutinians saw in their Calamity. They differ, in that those Lamps or Torches form long Trains, of which the forepart only is on Fire. But Bolis burneth all over, and draweth a longer Tail. There shine out, after the same Manner, certain Beams, which the Greeks call Docus ; which appeared when the Lacede- monians, being vanquished in a Sea-fight, lost the Dominion of Greece. The Firmament also is seen to open ; and this they name Chasma.
CHAPTER XXVII.
Of the strange Colours of the Shy.
THERE appeareth in the Sky also a Resemblance of Blood1, and (than which Nothing is more dreadful to Mortals) a burning, falling from Heaven to Earth : as it happened in the third Year of the hundred and seventh Olympiad, when King Philip terrified all Greece. And these Things I suppose to come at certain Times by Course of Nature, like other Things; and not, as the most Part
1 Showers of blood have been recorded in chronicles of various ages ; and in those turbulent times it was never difficult to find some public evil which such unwonted phenomena might be supposed to have fore- told. By modern inquiry these appearances have been ascribed to the excrements of a mighty swarm of butterflies — to the extraordinary abun- dance of an animalcula, called Oscellatoria Vubesuns — and to the red vegetable Protococcus Nivalis, swept up by winds from the snow, on which it naturally grows. None of these explanations, however, appear to an- swer so completely to Pliny's account, as the following; to which the Editor was once a witness. On the 15th of February, 1837, when the weather had long been damp, misty, and rather windy — the direction of the wind being South of West — at a quarter of an hour after five in the evening, there came in a mist, of a bright red colour ; which attracted attention, through a window, by the glare of light it diffused. On pro- ceeding to examine it in the open air, it was observed to have become of a pink colour ; and presently passing into violet, it settled into a grey ; in which tint it remained until the evening hid it from view. No refraction of sunbeams can be allowed to account for this appearance ; for the sun had long before been hidden by intervening hills from the valley in which this beautiful coloured mist appeared.— Wern. Club.
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 69
think, of sundry Causes, which the Wit of ingenious Men is able to devise. They have, indeed, been Forerunners of ex- ceeding great Miseries ; but I suppose those Calamities to have happened, not because these Appearances were seen, but these were procreated to foretell the Accidents that ensued afterward. Now, it is because they fall out so seldom, that the Reason of them is hidden, as is the Case with the Rising of Planets abovesaid, the Eclipses, and many other Things.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
Of the Flame of Heaven.
LIKEWISE there are seen Stars with the Sun1 all Day long : yea, and very often about the Compass of the Sun, other Flames, like unto Garlands of Ears of Corn : also, Circles of various Colours, such as those were when Augustus C&sar, in the Prime of his Youth, entered the City of Rome after the Decease of his Father, to take upon him his great Name.
CHAPTER XXIX.
Of Celestial Crowns.2
ALSO the same Garlands appear about the Moon, and the brighter Stars which are fixed in the Firmament. Round
1 The only star seen near the sun at mid-day is the planet Venus : — " No stars beside their radiance can display In Phoebus' presence, the dread lord of day ; E'en Cynthia's self, the regent of the night, Is quite obscur'd by his emergent light ; But Venus only, as if more divine, With Phoebus dares in partnership to shine."
Wern. Club.
3 None of the appearances in this and the following chapters, to the 37th, can be regarded as unusual ; and the explanation of them is to be found in the fact, of the refraction of the light by peculiar conditions of the air. Records of those things would scarcely have been found in the books of the augurs, if some political object had not been mixed with the report of the occurrences. It is well known that during the Republican days of Rome, the reckoning of dates by the years of the consuls was the common order of chronology. The consulship of L. Opimius and Q. Fabius Maximus was in the 630th year of Rome, and 123 years before
70 History of Nature. [Boox II.
about the Sun there was seen an Arch, when Lu. Opimius and Q. Fabius were Consuls ; and a Circle, when L. Porcius and M. Acilius were Consuls.
CHAPTER XXX. Of Sudden Circles.
THERE appeared a Circle of red Colour, when L. Julius and P. Rutilius were Consuls. Moreover, there are strange Eclipses of the Sun, continuing longer than ordinary ; which happened when Ccesar the Dictator was slain. In the Wars of Antony also, the Sun continued almost a whole Year, with a pale and wan Colour.
CHAPTER XXXI. Many Suns.
AGAIN, many Suns are seen at once, neither above nor beneath the Body of the true Sun, but obliquely: never near, nor directly against, the Earth ; neither in the Night, but when the Sun either riseth or setteth. Once they are reported to have been seen at Noon-day in the Bosphorus, and they con- tinued from Morning to the Evening. Three Suns together our Ancestors have often beheld ; as, for instance, when Sp. Posthumius with Q. Mutius, Q. Martins with M. Porcius, M. Antonius with P. Dolabella, and Mar. Lepidus with L. Plancus, were Consuls. And our Age hath seen the like in the Time of Divus Cl. Ccesar s Sovereignty and joint-Consul- ship, with Cornelius Orfitus, his Colleague. More than three we never to this Day find to have been seen together.
the Christian era. That the former of these consuls was capable of any violence or fraud, to secure political preponderance, appears from his his- tory in connexion with the Gracchi. He was openly accused of forging portents ; and when one of his lictors had knocked down Tiberius Grac- chus, whose person as tribune was sacred, in the riots that followed he offered a reward, of its weight in gold, for the head of his opponent. The bribe was successful : the head was found to weigh 171bs. 8oz. ; and to shew his pious gratitude for the result, as well, perhaps, as to divert public attention, he built a temple to Concord.— Wern. Club.
BOOK I L] History of Nature. 7 1
CHAPTER XXXII. Many Moons.
THREE Moons also appeared at once, when Cn. Domitius and C. Fannius were Consuls ; and these most Men call Night Suns.
CHAPTER XXXIII.
Daylight in the Night.
OUT of the Firmament by Night, there was seen a Light1, when C. Coelius and Cn. Papyrius were Consuls ; and often- times besides, so as the Night seemed as light as the Day.
CHAPTER XXXIV. Burning Shields.
A BURNING Shield ran sparkling from the West to the East, at the Sun's Setting, when L. Valerius and C. Marius were Consuls.
CHAPTER XXXV.
A strange Sight in the Shy.
BY Report there was once seen, and never but once, when Cn. Octavius and C. Scribonius were Consuls, a Spark to fall from a Star : and as it approached the Earth it waxed greater, and after it came to the Bigness of the Moon, it shone out and gave Light, as in a cloudy Day : then, being retired again into the Sky, it became a burning Lamp (Lampas). This, Licinius Syllanus, the Pro-consul, saw, together with his Attendants.
1 This remarkable phenomenon is rarely noticed in modern times, and is in itself rare ; but one or two instances have been related by living witnesses. On one occasion, in a very dark night, two or three indivi- duals, scarcely able to grope their way, were surprised at finding them- selves able to see every object as clearly as in a moderate daylight. They were so much astonished and alarmed at the sudden brightness, that, being engaged in an exploit, in which they had no desire of recognition, they were glad to hurry off with hasty expedition.— Wern. Club.
72 History of Nature. [BooK II.
CHAPTER XXXVI. The extraordinary Shooting of Stars in the Sky.
STARS are also seen to shoot hither and thither, but never to any purpose : for, from the same Quarter where they appear, there rise terrible Winds, and after them Tem- pests both by Sea and Land.
CHAPTER XXXVII. Of the Stars called Castor and Pollux1.
I HAVE seen myself, in the Camp, from the Sentinels in the Night-watch, the Resemblance of Lightning to fix on the Spears set before the Rampart. They settle also upon the Yards, and other Parts of the Ship, at Sea : making a Kind of vocal Sound, and shifting their Places as Birds do which fly from Bough to Bough. They are dangerous when they come singly, for they sink those Ships on which they alight ;
1 Luminous meteors are mostly seen at night ; since daylight is too powerful to allow them to be seen. They have not been studied as the subject deserves ; and hence the futility of the explanations generally given to their causes. There is little doubt, that they differ greatly in nature. Some are undoubtedly electric; as may be judged from their sudden explosion, sometimes with signs of great violence. The appear- ances termed Castor and Pollux, and among modern sailors Corbisant, or Corpo Santo, is exceedingly rare on land, and in the British seas ; but common in warmer latitudes than Britain. Light of, perhaps, the same nature, is sometimes seen on the ears of animals, as the horse, when tra- velling in stormy weather. Pliny speaks of being himself an eye-witness to the settling of meteors on the military spears ; and there is a record of a similar appearance in the sixth volume (p. 38) of Hearne's edition of Leland's Itinerary: "In the yere of our Lord 1098, Corborant, admiral to the Soudan of Perce, was faught with at Antioche, and discumfited by the Christianes. The night cumming on yn the chace of this bataile, and waxing dark, the Christianes beying 4 miles from Antioche, God willing the saufte of the Christianes, shewid a white starre or molette of fy ve pointes on the Christen host, which to every manne's sighte did lighte and arrest upon the standard of Alboy the 3rd, there shining excessively." — Wern. Club.
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 73
or they set them on Fire if they fall upon the Bottom of the Keel. But if the Pair appear, they are salutary, and foretel a prosperous Voyage ; for by their coming, it is supposed that the dreadful and threatening Meteor called Helena, is driven away. And therefore it is, that Men assign this mighty Power to Castor and Pollux, and invocate them as Gods at Sea. Men's Heads, also, in the Evening are seen to shine round about ; which presageth some great Matter. Of all these Things there is no certain Reason to be given ; but they are hidden in the Majesty of Nature.
CHAPTER XXXVIII. Of the Air.
HITHERTO we have treated of the World itself, and the Stars. It remaineth now to speak of other memorable Things observed in the Sky. For even that Part also have our Forefathers called Cesium, or the Sky, which otherwise they name the Air : even all that Portion which seeming like a void and empty Place, yieldeth this vital Spirit whereby all Things do live. This Region is seated beneath the Moon, and far under that Planet (as I observe it is, in Manner, by all Men agreed upon). And mingling together an infinite Portion of the superior celestial Nature of Air, with very much of earthly Vapours, it doth participate con- fusedly of both. From hence proceed Clouds, Thunders, and those terrible Lightnings. From hence come Hail, Frosts, Rain, Storms, and Whirlwinds : from hence arise most of the Calamities of mortal Men, and the continual War that Nature maketh with herself. For these gross Exhalations, as they mount upward to the Heaven, are beaten back by the Violence of the Stars : and the same again draw up to them those Matters, which of their own Accord ascend not. For thus we see, that Showers of Rain fall, Mists arise, Rivers are dried up, Hail-storms came down amain, the Sunbeams scorch the ground, and drive it every where to the midst : but the same again unbroken, and not loosing their Force, rebound and take up with them whatso-
74 History of Nature. [BoOK II.
ever they are able. Vapours fall from aloft, and return again on high: forcible Winds come empty, but return with a Booty. So many living Creatures draw their Breath from above : but the same laboureth contrariwise, and the Earth infuseth into the Air a Spirit as if it were empty. Thus, while Nature goeth to and fro, as forced by some Engine, by the Swiftness of the Heaven the Fire of Discord is kindled. Neither can she stand to the Fight, but being continually carried away she is rolled about, and as she spreadeth about the Earth, with an immeasurable Globe of the Heaven, so ever and anon through the Clouds she frameth another Sky. And this is that Region where the Winds reign. And there- fore their Kingdom principally is there where they execute their Forces. For Thunderbolts and Lightnings most Men attribute to their Violence. Nay, and so it is supposed that sometimes it raineth Stones, which may be taken up first by the Wind ; and many similar Appearances. Wherefore many Matters besides are to be treated of together.
CHAPTER XXXIX. Of Ordinary Sedsons.
IT is manifest that of Seasons, as also of other Things, some Causes be certain ; others, casual ; or, such as yet the Reason thereof is unknown. For who doubteth that Sum- mers and Winters, and those alternative Seasons which we observe by yearly Course, are occasioned by the Motion of the Planets? As, therefore, the Sun's Nature is understood by tempering and ordering the Year, so the rest of the Stars have every one their peculiar Power, and the same effectual to perform their own Nature. Some are fruitful to bring forth Moisture, that is turned into liquid Rain : others to yield an Humour either congealed into Frosts, or gathered and thickened into Snow, or else frozen into Hail : some afford Winds ; others Warmth : some hot and scorching Vapours ; some, Dews ; and others, Cold. Neither ought these Stars to be esteemed no more than they shew in Sight, seeing that none of them is less than the Moon ; as may
BOOK 1 1 .] History of Nature. 75
appear by the Reason of their exceeding Height. All of them, then, every one in its own Motion, exercise their several Natures : which appeareth manifestly by Saturn especially, who setteth open the Gates for Rain and Showers to pass. And not only the seven Wandering Stars possess this Power, but many of them also that are fixed in the Fir- mament ; so often as they be either driven by the Approach of those Planets, or provoked by the Casting and Influence of their Beams : like as we find it happeneth in the seven Stars called Suculce, which the Grecians, of Rain, name Hyades (because they ever bring foul Weather). Howbeit some of their own Nature, and at certain set Times, do cause Rain ; as the Rising of the Kids. The Star Arcturus very rarely appeareth without some tempestuous Hail1.
CHAPTER XL. The Power of the Dog- Star.
WHO knoweth not, that when the Dog-Star ariseth, the Heat of the Sun is fiery and burning? the effects of which Star are felt exceeding much upon the Earth. The Seas at his Rising do rage, the Wines in Cellars are troubled, stand- ing Waters are moved. A wild Beast there is in Egypt, called Orix~, which the Egyptians say, doth stand full against
1 It is scarcely necessary to warn the modern reader, that throughout these observations on the weather, an influence is ascribed to the rising of certain stars, from no better cause than the coincidence of the occurrences. —Wern. Club.
2 Pliny mentions this animal in book x. c. 73 ; and again in book xi. c. 46 ; but modern naturalists have failed to identify it with any creature known at the present time. Indeed, there is reason to believe that more than one creature has been thus designated by the ancients ; for it has been described as having only one horn; which would make it either a species of rhinoceros, or the animal resembling a stag or horse, so often spoken of under the name of Unicorn. It has also been compared to an ox ; and four horns have been ascribed to it. But, more precisely, it is said to be white, with horns and a beard ; which renders it probable that it was of the goat kind. As the religion of the ancient Heathens was merely ceremonial, the imputing to the creature, in the practice of sneezing, an act of adoration to Anubis, or the Dog- Star, one of the chief deities of the
76 History of Nature. [BooK II.
the Dog-Star when it riseth, looking wistly upon it, and tes- tifieth by sneezing, a Kind of Worship. As for Dogs, no Man doubteth but all the Time of the canicular Days they are most ready to run mad.
CHAPTER XLI.
That the Stars have their several Influences in sundry Parts of the Signs, and at divers Times.
MOREOVER1, the Parts of certain Signs have their peculiar Force, as appeareth in the autumnal Equinox, and in Mid- Winter ; at which Time we perceive that the Sun maketh Tempests. And this is proved, not only by Rains and Storms,
Egyptians, will appear less absurd than at the first mention would appear. For a similar reason Pliny ascribes religion to elephants, and even poultry.
In his 28th book, the Author (ch. 2) has some observations on the superstition of the Romans, relative to the act of sneezing ; and it is not a little remarkable, that a similar practice, of imprecating a bless- ing in such case, is not even now uncommon among ourselves. — Wern. Club.
1 In this chapter there is a confusion of cause and effect that is diffi- cult to unravel ; and which can only be accounted for by involving what are undoubtedly natural influences — in modern times easily explained — with occult causes, the bounds of which the ancients were not able to define. The influence of the sun's heat on currents of air, constituting winds and tempests, and even its simple action on the texture of a membrane, are thus confounded with the powers which the Signs of the Zodiac were supposed to exert on the functions of the organs or re- gions of the human body. According to this philosopy, each of the twelve signs exerted a peculiar influence on a distinct portion ; beginning with the head, which was governed by Aries; and proceeding downward by regular spaces, each opposite sign in the Annual Circle became the monarch of its season, until the Twins, opposite to Aries, displayed their power over the feet. To the reproach of modern science, these imaginary influences, which derived their origin in popular opinion, from a supposed sympathetic connexion of the spirit pervading these signs — a portion of the great soul of the world (Note to ch. 1), and therefore a portion of a very ancient idolatry — maintains its place in the popular almanacs, published under the superintendence of a public company especially instituted for the promotion of an improved literature. — Wern. Club.
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 77
but by many Experiments in Men's Bodies, and Accidents to Plants in the Country. For some Men are struck by the Planet, and blasted : others are troubled at certain Times in their Bowels, Sinews, Head, and Mind. The Olive Tree, the White Poplar, and Willows, turn their Leaves about at Midsummer, at the Solstice. And contrariwise, in Mid- winter, the Herb Pennyroyal flowereth fresh, even as it hangs dry within the House. At which Time all Parch- ments are so stretched with the Wind that they burst. A Man might marvel hereat who marketh not by daily Expe- rience, that one Herb called Heliotropium1, looketh toward the Sun, ever as he goeth, turning with him at all hours, notwithstanding he be shadowed under a Cloud. It is cer- tain also, that the Bodies of Oysters, Mussels, Cockles, and all Shell-fishes, grow and waste by the Power of the Moon ; and some have found out by diligent Search, that the Fibres in the Livers of Rats and Mice answer in Number to the Days of the Moon's Age : also that the very little Creature, the Emmet, feeleth the Power of this Planet, and always in the Change of the Moon ceaseth from Work. It is the more Shame to Man to be ignorant, especially seeing that he must confess, that some labouring Beasts have certain Diseases in their Eyes, which with the Moon do grow and decay. How- beit the excessive Greatness of the Heaven and exceeding Height thereof, divided as it is into seventy-two Signs, make for him, and serve for his Excuse. These Signs are the Resemblances of Things, or living Creatures, into which the skilful Astronomers have digested -the Firmament. For Ex- ample, in the Tail of Taurus there be seven, which they have named Veryilice*; in the Forehead other seven called SuculcB : and Bootes who followeth after the great Bear (Septentriones).
1 This plant is again referred to (b. xxii. c. 21) as a good country- man's weather-glass. It is a question whether it belong to the genus Heliotropium of Linnaeus, or be not rather the Caltha PalustriSj or Marsh Mary gold. — Wern. Club.
3 Better known by the name of Pleiades. — Wern. Club.
78 History of Nature. [BooK It.
CHAPTER XLIL The Causes of Rain, Showers, Winds, and Clouds.
I CANNOT deny, but without these Causes there arise Rains and Winds : for it is certain there is exhaled from the Earth a Mist, sometimes moist, at other Times smoky, by Reason of hot Vapours. Also, that Clouds are produced by Vapours which are gone up on high, or else of the Air gathered into a watery Liquor : that they be thick, and of a bodily Consistence, we collect by no doubtful Argument, considering that they overshadow the Sun, which otherwise may be seen through Water; as they know well that dive to any good Depth,
CHAPTER XLIII. Of Thunder and Lightning.1
I WOULD not deny, therefore, that the fiery Impressions from Stars above, may fall upon these Clouds, such as we oftentimes see to shoot in clear and fair Weather : by the forcible Stroke whereof, good Reason it is. that the Air should be mightily shaken, seeing that Darts when they are discharged, make a Noise as they fly. But when they en- counter a Cloud, there ariseth a Vapour with a dissonant Sound (as when a red-hot Iron maketh an Hissing when thrust into Water), and Smoke rolls up in Waves. Hence Storms are bred. And if this Flatus, or Vapour, do struggle within the Cloud, Thunder is given out ; if it break through still burning, then flieth out the Thunderbolt : if it be a
1 An attempt to explain the cause of thunder and lightning could scarcely be otherwise than futile, in the entire absence of a knowledge of the existence of such a matter as electricity. But any attempt at a natural explanation was an effort of courage, and far in advance of the popular opinion. On this account the Author is entitled to pardon, when, at the conclusion of the chapter he finds himself disposed to make some conces- sion, in admitting it to be possible, that some of these phenomena were premonitory, and direct from the gods. — Wern. Club.
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 79
longer Time in struggling, then Lightning-flashes are seen. With these the Cloud is cloven ; with the other, burst in sunder. The Thunders are the Blows given by the Fires beating hard upon the Clouds : and therefore presently the fiery Rifts of those Clouds do flash and shine. It is possible, also, that the Wind, elevated from the Earth, being repelled, and kept down by the Stars, and so restrained within a Cloud, may thunder, while Nature choketh the rumbling Sound all the while it striveth ; but sendeth forth a Crash when it breaketh out, as we see in a Bladder puffed up with Wind. Likewise it may be, that the same Wind or Spirit is set on Fire by Attrition, as it violently passeth headlong down. It may also be stricken by the Conflict of the Clouds, as if two Stones hit one against another ; and so the Flashes sparkle forth. But all these are Accidents. And from hence come those insignificant and vain Lightnings, which have no natural Cause. With these are Mountains and Seas smitten : and of this Kind be all other Explosions that do no Hurt to living Creatures. Those that come from above, and of fixed Causes, yea, and from their proper Stars, foretel future Events. In like Manner, it may be that the Winds, or rather Blasts, proceed from a dry Exhalation of the Earth, void of all Moisture : neither will I deny that they arise from Waters breathing out an Air, which neither can thicken into a Mist, nor gather into Clouds : also they may be driven by the Impulsion of the Sun, because the Wind is conceived to be Nothing else but the flowing of the Air, and that by many means. For some we see to rise out of Rivers, Snows, and Seas, even when they be still and calm : as also others out of the Earth, which Winds they name Altani. And those verily when they come back again from the Sea, are called Tropcei: if they go onward, Apogcei.
CHAPTER XLIV. What is the Reason of the Resounding of the Echo.
BUT the Windings of Hills, and their close Turnings, their many Tops, their Ridges also bending like an Elbow,
80 History of Nature. [BooK II.
and arched, as it were, into Shoulders, together with the Hollows of Vallies, do cut unequally the Air that reboundeth from them : which is the Cause of reciprocal Voices called Echoes, answering one another in many Places.
CHAPTER XLV. Of Winds again.
THERE are, again, certain Caves1 which breed Winds with- out end : such as that one which is in the Edge of Dalmatia, gaping with a wide Mouth, and leading to a deep Cavern : into which, if there be cast any Matter of light Weight, be the Day never so calm, there ariseth presently a Tempest like a Whirlwind. The Place's Name is Senta. Moreover, in the Province Cyrenaica there is reported to be a Rock con- secrated to the South-wind, which without Profanation may not be touched with Man's Hand ; but if it be, presently the South-wind doth arise and cast up Heaps of Sand. Also in many Houses there be hollow Places devised by Man's Hand for the Receipt of Wind ; which being enclosed with Shade, gather their Blasts. Whereby we may see how all Winds have a Cause. But great Difference there is between such Blasts and Winds. As for these, they be settled, and conti- nually blowing ; which, not some particular Places, but whole Lands do feel ; which are not light Gales nor stormy Puffs of the Sea, named Aurce and Procellce, but properly
1 That there is an intimate connexion between the interior of the earth and the atmosphere, operating in the production or direction of the nature or force of winds, is exceedingly probable ; although the particular instances here given are either imaginary, or strangely misinterpreted. A simple change in the pressure of the atmosphere — a meteorological phenomenon of which the ancients were ignorant, from not being aware that air possessed positive weight — will account for many of these sudden gusts from caverns ; and for those hollow murmurs that have been popu- larly remarked in hilly countries, before the approach of a storm ; and the utility of these outbursts will appear when we remember, that with- out them, poisonous exhalations, as marsh miasmata, and carbonic acid gas, would be suffered to accumulate, to the destruction of a neighbour- hood.— Wern. Club.
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 81
called Winds, by the masculine Name Venti : which, whether they arise by the continual Motion of the Heaven, and the contrary Course of the Planets ; or whether this Wind be that Spirit of Nature that engendereth all Things, wandering to and fro, as it were, in some Womb ; or rather the Air, beaten and driven by the unlike Influences of the Planets, and the Multiplicity of their Beams : or whether all Winds come from their own nearer Stars ; or rather fall from them that be fixed in the Firmament : plain it is, that they are guided by an ordinary Law of Nature, not altogether unknown, although it be not yet thoroughly known.
CHAPTER XLVI. The Natures and Observations of the Winds.
MORE than twenty of the old Greek Writers have re- corded their Observations of the Winds. I marvel so much the more, that the World being so at Discord, and divided into Kingdoms, that is to say, dismembered ; so many Men have employed their Care to seek after these Things, so diffi- cult to be found out ; and the more especially in Time of Wars, and amid those Places where was no safe Abode ; and especially when Pirates, those common Enemies to Mankind, held well near all Passages of Communication : I marvel, also, that at this Day each Man in his own Tract of Country obtaineth more Knowledge of some Things by their Com- mentaries, who never set Foot there, than he doth by the Skill and Information of home-born Inhabitants ; whereas now in Time of such blessed and joyous Peace, and under a Prince who taketh such Delight in the Progress of the State and of all good Arts, no new Thing is learned by farther Inquisition ; nay, nor so much as the Inventions of old Wri- ters are thoroughly understood. And verily it cannot be said, that greater Rewards were in those Days given, consi- dering that the Bounty of Fortune was dispersed : and in truth, most of these learned Men sought out these Secrets for no other Regard than to do good to Posterity. But now Men's Customs are waxed old and decay : and notwith-
F
82 History of Nature. [BooK II.
standing that the Fruit of Learning be as great as ever it was, yet Men are become idle in this behalf. The Seas are open to all, an infinite Multitude of Sailors have discovered all Coasts whatsoever ; they sail through and arrive fami- liarly at every Shore ; but all is for Gain, nothing for the Sake of Knowledge. Their Minds altogether blinded, and bent upon nothing but Covetousness, never consider that the same might with more Safety be performed by Science. And therefore, seeing there be so many thousand Sailors that hazard themselves on the Seas, I will treat of the Winds more curiously than, perhaps, would otherwise be necessary to the present Work.
CHAPTER XLVII. Many Sorts of Winds.
THE Ancients observed four Winds1 only, according to so many Quarters of the World (and therefore Homer nameth no more) : a feeble Reason this, as soon after it was judged. The Age ensuing added eight more, and they were on the other Side in their Conceit, too subtle and concise. The modern Sailors have found a Mean between both : and they put unto that short Number of the first, four Winds and no more ; which they took out of the latter. Therefore every Quarter of the Heaven hath two Winds to itself. From the equinoctial Sun-rising bloweth the East Wind, Sub- solanus: from the Rising thereof in Midwinter the South-east, Vulturnus. The former of these two the Greeks call Apeliotes, and the latter Eurus. From the Midday riseth the South Wind : and from the Sun-setting in Midwinter the South-west, Africus. They also name these two, Notus and Libs. From the equinoctial going down of the Sun, the West Wind,
1 The impression of this precise number of winds appears to have been popular ; and is referred to in the Book of Revelation by St. John, vii. 1 : " I saw four angels standing on the four corners of the earth, holding the four winds of the earth." Pliny evidently supposes that the winds were not simply determined according to the quarter from which they blew, but by separate and inherent qualities of heat, moisture, violence, health, or sickness. — Wern. Club.
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 83
JFavonius, cometh : but from that in Summer, the North- west, Corns: and by the Greeks they are termed Zephyrus and Argestes. From the North bloweth the North Wind, Sep- tentrio: between which and the Sunrising in Summer is the North-east Wind, Aquilo, named Aparctias and Boreas by the Greeks. A greater Reckoning than this for Number is brought in by some, who have thrust in four more between : namely, Thracias between the North and the Summer Setting of the Sun ; in like Manner Ccecias, in the midst between the North-east, Aquilo, and that of the Sunrising in the equi- noctial, Sub-solanus. Also, after the Sunrising in Summer, Phceniceas in the midst, between the South-east and the South. Last of all, between the South and the South-west, Lybo- notus, just in the midst, compounded of them both, namely, between the Meridian and the Sun-setting in Winter. But here they did not end. For others have set one more, called Mese, between the North-east Wind Boreas and Ccecias: also JSuronotuSj between the South and South-west Winds. Besides all these, there be some Winds peculiar to every Nation, and which pass not beyond one certain Region : as, namely, Scyros among the Athenians, declining a little from Argestes; a Wind unknown to other Parts of Greece. In some other Place it is more aloft, and the same then is called Olympias (as coming from the Mountain Olympus). But the usual Manner of Speech understandeth by all these Names Ar- gestes only. Some call Ccecias by the Name of Hellespontias, and give the same Winds in sundry Places divers Names. In the Province, likewise, of Narbonne, the most notorious Wind is Circius, and for violence inferior to none, driving directly before it, very often, the Current at Ostia into the Ligurian Sea. The same Wind is not only unknown in all other Parts of the Heaven, but reacheth not so much as to Vienna, a City in the same Province. As great and bois- terous a Wind as this is otherwise, yet it meets with a Re- straint before it come thither, and is kept within narrow Bounds by the Opposition of a small Hill. Fabianus also avoucheth, that the South Winds enter not so far as into Egypt. Whereby the Law of Nature sheweth itself plainly, that even Winds have their Times and Limits appointed.
84 History of Nature. [BooK II.
To proceed, then, the Spring openeth the Sea for Sailors: in the Beginning whereof, the West Winds mitigate the Win- ter Weather at the Time when the Sun is in the 25th Degree of Aquarius, and that is the sixth Day before the Ides of February. And this Order holdeth for the most Part with all other Winds, which I will set down one after another : so that in every Leap Year we anticipate and reckon one Day sooner, and then again keep the same Rule throughout all the four Years following. Some call Favonius (which begin- neth to blow about the seventh Day before the Calends of March) by the Name of Chelidonius, upon the Sight of the first Swallows1: but many name it Orinthias, coming the seventy-first Day after the shortest Day in Winter ; by occa- sion of the coming of Birds : which Wind bloweth for nine Days. Opposite to Favonius is the Wind which we called Sub-solanus. Unto this Wind is attributed the Rising of the Vergilice, or Seven Stars, in as many Degrees of Taurus, six Days before the Ides of May ; which Time is a southerly Constitution : and to this Wind the North is contrary. Moreover, in the hottest Season of the Summer the Dog-star ariseth, when the Sun entereth into the first Degree of Leo, which commonly is the fifteenth Day before the Calends of August. Before the Rising of this Star for eight Days' Space, or thereabout, the North-east Winds blow ; which the Greeks call Prodromi, or Forerunners. And two Days after it is risen, the same Winds hold still more stiffly for the Space of forty Days, which they name Etesia. The Sun's
1 Ovid (" Fasti ") says, on the day which is equivalent to about the 25th of February:—
" Fallimur ? an veris praenuntia venit hirundo ? Et metuit, nequa versa recurrat hyems ? "
" Am I deceived ? is that the swallow's wing ? That flits along, the herald of the spring. Fearful of cold, she still seeks shelter here ; And dreads that winter may reclaim the year."
In Sardinia it is noted on the last day of the same month, in the " Calendar of the Transactions of the Royal Academy of Brussels." But these are early appearances ; and in general this bird arrives in Italy in the first ten days of March.— Wern. Club.
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 85
Vapour, redoubled by the Hotness of that Star, is thought to be assuaged by them : and no Winds keep their set Times better than they. Next after them come the South Winds again, which are usually up, until the Star Arcturus riseth, and that is eleven Days before the autumnal Equinox. With it entereth Corns, and thus Corns beginneth the Autumn ; and to this Vulturnus is contrary. After that Equinox about four-and-forty Days, the Vergilice go down and begin Win- ter, which Season usually falleth upon the third Day before the Ides of November. This is the Winter North-east Wind, which is far unlike to that in Summer, opposite and contrary to Africus. Seven Days before the Midwinter Day, and as much after, the Sea is allayed and calm for the Sitting and Hatching of the Birds Halciones1, from which these Days took the Name Alcionis: the Time behind belongs to Winter. And yet these boisterous Seasons, full of Tempests, shut not up the Sea : for Pirates at first forced Men, with Peril of Death, to run headlong upon their Death, and to hazard themselves in Winter Seas ; and now Covetousness compels them to do the like.
The coldest Winds of all other are those which, we said, blow from the North, and together with them their Neigh- bour, Corns. These Winds allay all others, and drive away Clouds. Moist Winds are Africus, and especially the South Wind of Italy, called Auster. Men report also, that Ccecias in Pontus gathereth to itself Clouds. Corns and Vulturnus are dry, but only when they cease. The North-east and the North produce Snow. The North Wind also bringeth Hail, as doth Corns. The South Wind is exceeding hot. Vulturnus and Favonius be warm. They also be drier than the East :
1 Ovid relates the fable of the origin of the Halcyon, or Alcyon, " Metamorphoses," book xi. fable 10; and Pliny describes the bird in his book x. c. 32. 2Elian also speaks of it, book i. c. 36 ; and he describes the wonders of the nest, b. ix. c. 17, in a manner which the ancients gene- rally appear to have regarded as substantially true; but it is scarcely necessary to remark, that modern observation has not corroborated this belief in any particular. In book xxxii. c. 8, Pliny speaks of a medicine which was supposed to be prepared from the nest of the Alcyon, or King- fisher.— Wern. Club.
86 History of Nature. [BOOK II.
and generally all Winds from the North and West are drier than from the South and East. Of all Winds the Northern is most healthful : the Southern Wind is noisome, and the rather when it is dry ; haply, because that when it is moist it is the colder. During the Time that it bloweth, living- Creatures are thought to be less hungry. The Etesice give over ordinarily in the Night, and arise at the third hour of the Day. In Spain and Asia they blow from the East : but in Pontus, from the North : in other Quarters, from the South. They blow also after the Midwinter, when they be called OrinthicB ; but those are more mild, and continue fewer Days. Two there be that change their Nature with their Place : the South Wind in Africa bringeth fair Weather, and the North Wind there is cloudy. All Winds keep their Course in Order for the more Part, or else when one ceaseth the contrary beginneth. When some are laid and the next to them arise, they go about from the left Hand to the right, according to the Sun. Of their Manner and Order monthly, the fourth Day after the Change of the Moon doth most commonly determine. The same Winds will serve to sail contrary Ways, by means of setting out the Sails : so as many Times in the Night, Ships in sailing run one against another. The South Wind raiseth greater Billows than the North : for that the South Wind ariseth below, from the Bottom of the Sea ; the other descends from on high. And, therefore, after Southern Winds, Earthquakes are most hurtful. The South Wind in the Night Time is more boisterous, the Northern Wind in the Day. The Winds blowing from the East con- tinue longer than those from the West. The Northern Winds give over commonly with an odd Number : which Observa- tion serveth to good use in many other Parts of natural Things, and therefore the male Winds are judged by the odd Number. The Sun both raiseth and also allayeth the Winds. At rising and setting he causeth them to blow : at Noontide he represseth them in Summer. And therefore at Mid-day or Midnight commonly the Winds are allayed ; for both Cold and Heat, if they be immoderate, do consume them. Also, Rain doth lay the Winds : and most commonly from thence they are looked for to blow, where Clouds break and lay
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 87
open the Sky. And Eudoxus is of opinion (if we list to ob- serve the least Revolutions) that after the End of every fourth Year, not only all Winds, but, for the most Part, other Tempests and Constitutions of the Weather, return again to the same Course as before. And always the Lustrum1 or Com- putation of the five Years, beginneth at the Leap Year, when the Dog-star doth arise. And thus much concerning general Winds.
CHAPTER XLVIII.
Of Sudden Blasts.
Now will we speak of sudden Blasts : which being raised (as hath been said before) by Exhalations of the Earth, and cast down again, in the meanwhile appear of many Fashions, enclosed within a thin Course of Clouds. For such as be wan- dering and rushing in Manner of Land-floods (as some Men were of opinion, as we have shewed), bring forth Thunder and Lightning. But if they come with a greater Force and Violence, and cleave a dry Cloud asunder, they breed a Storm, which of the Greeks is called Ecnephias: but if the Breach be not great, so that the Wind be constrained to re- volve in his Descent without Fire, that is to say, Lightning, it makes a Whirlwind called Typhon, that is to say, the vibrated Ecnephias. This snatches with it a Piece broken out of a congealed cold Cloud, turning and rolling it round, and with that Weight inaketh its own Fall more heavy, and changeth from Place to Place with a vehement Whirling. It is the greatest Danger that Sailors have, breaking not only their Yards, but also wrecking the very Ships to twisted Fragments : and yet a small Matter is the Remedy for it, namely, the casting of Vinegar out against it as it cometh ; which is of very cold Nature. The same Storm beating upon a Thing is itself smitten back again with Violence, and snatcheth up whatever it meeteth in the Way aloft into the Sky, carrying it back, and swallowing it up on high. But if it break out from a greater Hole of the said Cloud, by it so
1 This space of time came round at the beginning of every fifth year ; at which period, originally, the census was taken, and the taxes fixed until the recurrence of the same period.— Wern. Club.
88 History of Nature. [BOOK II.
borne down, and yet not altogether so broad, as the above- named Storm Procella doth, nor without a Crack, they call this boisterous Wind Turbo, which overthroweth all that is near it. The same, if it be more hot and catching Fire as it rageth, is named Prester; burning and laying along whatsoever it encountereth.
CHAPTER XLIX.
Other prodigious Kinds of Tempests.
No Typhon cometh from the North, nor any Ecnephias with Snow, or while Snow lieth on the Ground. If this tem- pestuous Wind when it broke the Cloud, burned fiercely, having Fire of its own before, and catched it not afterward, it is true Lightning; and diifereth from Prester only as Flame from a Coal of Fire. Again, Prester spreadeth widely with a Flash ; the other gathereth into a Globe with Violence. Vor- tex differeth from Turben in flying back : and as much as a Crash from a Crack. The Storm Procella differs from them both in Breadth, and rather scattereth than breaketh the Cloud. There riseth also a dark Mist, resembling a mon- strous Beast ; and this is ever a terrible Cloud to Sailors. Another, likewise, is called a Pillar1, when the Humour is so thick and congealed that it standeth compact of itself. Of the same Sort also is that Cloud which draweth Water to it, as it were, into a long Pipe.
CHAPTER L. In what Lands Lightnings fall not.
IK Winter and Summer seldom are there any Lightnings, because of contrary Causes : for in Winter the Air is con- densed, and thickened with a deeper Course of Clouds : and all the Exhalations from the Earth being chilled and frozen hard, extinguish what fiery Vapour soever otherwise they receive : which is the Reason that Scythia, and other frozen Countries
1 The Author clearly means what, in modern times, is denominated a Water-spout : a phenomenon not uncommon in the Mediterranean Sea, and in other warm climates ; but exceedingly rare, if at all occurring, in northern regions. — Wern. Club.
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 89
thereabout, are free from Lightnings. And Egypt1, likewise, from a contrary Cause, is exempt from Lightnings, the Rea- son being its excessive Heat : for the hot and dry Exhalations of the Earth gather into very slender, thin, and weak Clouds. But in the Spring and Autumn, Lightnings are more rife ; because in both those Seasons the Causes as well of Summer as Winter are corrupt. And this is the Reason that Light- nings are common in Italy ; for the Air being more mov- able, by Reason of a milder Winter and a cloudy Summer, is always of the Temperature of Spring or Autumn. In those Parts, also, of Italy, which lie off from the North, and in- cline to Warmth (as, namely, in the Tract about Rome and Campania), there is Lightning in Winter and Summer alike, which happeneth in no other Part thereof.
CHAPTER LI. Sundry Sorts of Lightnings, and Wonders thereof.
VERY many Kinds of Lightning are set down by Authors. Those that come dry burn not, but only disperse. They that come moist do not burn, but blast and embrown. A third Kind there is, which they call Bright and Clear; and that is of a wonderful Nature, whereby Tuns are drawn dry, and their Sides, Hoops, and Heads never touched, nor any other Token thereof is left behind. Gold, Copper, and Silver2 are
1 The circumstance that Egypt is naturally exempt from lightning, must have greatly heightened the terrors of the Seventh Plague with which God visited this land in the days of the Exodus. But though very rare, thunder and lightning are not unknown in Egypt, at least in modern times. Thevenot mentions a man who was killed by light- ning at Cairo, when he was there ; — but such a circumstance had never been known before. Rain, and even hail, have also been seen; but all these phenomena are less severe than in other countries. — Wern. Club.
2 The facts here mentioned must have appeared as unaccountable as stupendous, before the modern discoveries of Franklin and others, relative to the attractions of the electric fluid : the existence of which, as an agent of Nature, was not dreamt of in the philosophy of Pliny and the ancient observers. — Wern. Club.
90 History of Nature. [BoOK II.
melted in the Bags, and the Bags themselves unscorcbed ; and not even the Wax of the Seal defaced. Martia, a noble Lady of Rome, being great with Child, was struck with Lightning : the Child she went with was killed within her, and she survived without any Harm. Among the Catiline Prodigies it is found upon Record, that M. Herennius (a Counsellor of the incorporate Town Pompeianum) was in a fair and clear Day smitten with Lightning.
CHAPTER LII. Of Observations touching Lightning.
IT is held in the Writings of the ancient Tuscans1, that there be nine Gods that send forth Lightnings, and those of eleven Sorts : for Jupiter (say they) casteth three at once. The Romans have observed two of them, and no more; attri- buting those in the Day-time to Jupiter, and those of the Night to Summanus or Pluto. And these verily be more rare, for the Cause before-named ; namely, the Coldness of the Air above. In Etruria, they suppose that some Lightnings break out of the Earth, which they call Infera, or Infernal ; and such be made in Midwinter. And these they take to be earthly, and of all most mischievous and exe- crable : neither be those general and universal Lightnings, nor proceeding from the Stars, but from a very near and more troubled Cause. And this is an evident Argument for Distinction, that all such as fall from the upper Sky strike obliquely : but those which they call earthly, smite straight. But the Reason why these are thought to issue from the Earth is, because they fall from out of a Matter nearer to the Earth ; forasmuch as they leave no Marks of a Stroke
1 This people was famed for the study of prognostications from natural appearances : an art they had probably derived from Egypt or Assyria, and which the neighbouring nations learned from them. It consisted in minutely observing every unusual occurrence, and in deducing thence, according to rules known only to the proper authorities, the will of the gods, or the indications of a fixed necessity. This science is farther spoken of in the seventh book. — Wern. Club.
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 91
behind: which are occasioned by Force not from beneath, but coming full against. Such as have searched more closely into these Matters are of opinion that these Lightnings come from the Planet Saturn, as the burning Lightning from Mars; and with such Lightning was Volsinii (a very wealthy City of the Tuscans), entirely burnt to Ashes. The Tuscans call those Lightnings familiar which presage the Fortune of some Race, and are significant during their whole Life ; and such are they that come first to any Man, after he is newly entered into his own Family. However, their Judg- ment is, that these private Lightnings do not portend for above ten Years : unless they happen either upon the Day of first Marriage, or on a Birth-day. Public Lightnings be not of Force above thirty Years, except they chance at the very Time that Towns or Colonies be erected and planted.
CHAPTER LIII. Of calling out Lightnings.
IT appeareth upon Record in Chronicles, that by certain Sacrifices and Prayers1, Lightnings may be either compelled
1 There are many proofs of imposture in these ancient ceremonies ; but when modern science is able to produce some of the effects ascribed to these Etrurian priests, it seems just to conclude that they may have pos- sessed the secret of a method of drawing the electric fluid from the sky. The danger attending a failure in the requisite proceedings, as in the case of Tullius Hostilius, would necessarily confine the practice to an instructed few ; whose credit for sanctity would, therefore, be highly exalted. Ovid, in his third book of the " Fasti," obscurely intimates the acquaintance of Numa with such arts : —
" Jupiter hue veniet, valida perductus ab arte . . .
.... quid agant, quae carmina dicant, Quoque trahant superis sedibus arte Jovem."
" To thee, by powerful art compelled, Shall Jupiter approach . . .
.... And then they tell
What deeds, what powerful charms, the Man must use, To draw the God compell'd from seats above."
The secret consisted in Numa's being a scholar of Pythagoras, and studying " Quae sit rerum Natura."
Wern. Club.
92 History of Nature. [BooK II.
or obtained by Entreaty. There is an ancient Report in Etruria, that such a Lightning was procured by Entreaty, when there entered into the City Volsinii (after all the Terri- tory about it was destroyed) a Monster, which they named Volta. Also, that another was called forth by P or senna, their King. Moreover, L. Piso (a Writer of good Credit) reporteth in his first Book of Annals, that Numa before him performed the same Act many a Time : and when Tullius Hostilius would have imitated him (for that he observed not all the Ceremonies accordingly), he was himself struck with Lightning. And for this Purpose, we have sacred Groves, Altars, and Sacrifices. And among the Jupiters surnamed Statores, Tonantes, and Peretrii, we have heard that one also was called Elicius. Men's Opinions are various con- cerning this Point, and every Man according to his own Liking. To believe that Nature may be compelled, is a very audacious Opinion : but it is as senseless on the other Side to make her Benefits of no effect ; considering that in the Interpretation of Lightning, Science hath thus far proceeded as to foretell when they will come at a prescribed Day : and whether they will frustrate the Dangers pronounced, or rather open other Destinies, which lie hidden in innumerable public and private Experiments of both Kinds. And there- fore (since it hath so pleased Nature) let some of these Things be certain, others doubtful : some proved, and others con- demned. As for us, we will not omit the Rest which in these Matters are worth Remembrance.
CHAPTER LIV. General Rules of Lightning.
THAT the Lightning is seen before the Thunderclap is heard, although they come indeed jointly together, is cer- tain. And no Wonder, for Light is more rapid than Sound. And yet Nature doth so modulate, that the Stroke and Sound shall accord together. But when there is a Noise1,
1 Ovid refers to this also, as the popular opinion. But silent lightning in a clear sky was judged to be unaccountable, except as coming from the gods. Hence Horace, though disposed to the doctrines of Epicurus, found
BOOK 1 1 .] History of Nature. 93
it is a Sign of the Lightning proceeding of some natural Cause, and not sent by some God : and yet a Breath cometh before the Thunderbolt : and hereupon it is, that every Thing is shaken and blasted before it is smitten : neither is any Man struck, who either saw the Lightning before, or heard the Thunderclap. Those Lightnings that are on the left Hand are supposed to be prosperous, for that the East is the left Side of the World : but the Coming thereof is not so much regarded as the Return : whether it be that the Fire leap back after the Stroke given ; or whether after the Deed done and Fire spent, the Spirit abovesaid retire back again. In that respect the Tuscans have divided the Heaven into sixteen Parts. The first is from the North to the Sun's Rising in the Equinoctial Line : the second, to the Meridian Line, or the South : the third, to the Sun-setting in the Equinoctial : and the fourth taketh up all the Rest from the said West to the North Star. These Quarters again they have parted each into four Regions : of which eight from the Sun-rising they called the Left ; and as many again from the contrary Part, the Right. Those Lightnings are most dreadful which from the Sun-setting reach into the North : and therefore it is of much importance from whence Light- nings come, and whither they go : the best Thing observed in them, is when they return into the easterly Parts. And, therefore, when they come from that principal Part of the Sky, and return again into the same, it portends the highest Good : and such was the Sign given (by report) to Sylla the Dictator. In all other Parts of the World, they be less fortunate or dreadful. They believe that there be Light- nings, which to utter abroad is held unlawful ; as also is to give Ear unto them, unless they be declared either to Parents or to a Friend. How great is the Folly of this Observation was found at Rome upon the blasting of Juno's Temple by Scaurus, the Consul, who soon after was President of the Senate. It lightneth without Thunder, more in the Night
his confidence staggered by this phenomenon ; and Suetonius informs us, that it was viewed by Titus as a portent of evil to himself, just before his death; and his spirits became proportionally depressed. — Wern. Club.
94 History of Nature. [BoOK II.
than by Day. Of all Creatures, Man only it doth not always kill ; the Rest it despatcheth instantly. This Honour we see Nature hath given to him ; whereas many great Beasts sur- pass him in Strength. All other Creatures smitten with Lightning fall down upon the contrary Side ; Man only (un- less he turn upon the Parts stricken) dieth not. Those that are smitten from above upon the Head, sink down directly. He that is struck watching, is found dead with his Eyes close shut: but whoever is smitten sleeping, is found with his Eyes open. A Man thus coming by his Death, may not by Law be burned : Religion hath taught that he ought to be buried in the Earth. No living Creature is set on Fire by Light- ning, unless it is breathless first. The Wounds of them that be smitten with Lightning are colder than all the Body besides.
CHAPTER LV.
What Things are not Smitten with Lightning.
OF all those Things which grow out of the Earth, Light- ning blasteth not the Bay-tree ; nor doth it enter at any Time above five Feet deep into the Ground : and, therefore, Men fearful of Lightning, suppose the deeper Caves to be the most safe : or else Booths made of Skins of Beasts, which they call Sea-Calves1; for of all Creatures in the Sea, this alone is not subject to the Stroke of Lightning : like as of all Birds, the Eagle (which for this Cause is feigned to be the Armour-bearer of Jupiter, for this Kind of Weapon). In Italy, between Tarracina arid the Temple of Feronia, they gave over in Time of War to build Towers ; for not one of them escaped being overthrown with Lightning.
1 Seals (Phocae) are the creatures here intended ; and, probably, not any particular species. Suetonius informs us, that Augustus Caesar, who was greatly afraid of thunder, was accustomed to carry the skin of a seal along with him, wherever he went. Tiberius always wore a crown of bay-leaves on his head, with the same object. — Wern. Club.
BOOK II.] History of Nature. 95
CHAPTER LVI.
Of strange and prodigious Rain1, of Milk, Blood, Flesh, Iron, Wool, Tiles, and Bricks.
BESIDES these Things in this lower Region under Hea- ven, we find recorded on Monuments that it rained Milk and Blood when M. Acilius and C. Porcius were Consuls. And many Times beside it rained Flesh ; as, namely, whilst L. Volumnius and Serv. Sulpitius were Consuls : and what of it the Fowls of the Air carried not away, never putrified. In like Manner, it rained Iron in Lucania, the Year before that in which M. Crassus was slain by the Parthians; and
1 A coloured mist has been mentioned, in a note to chap, xxvii. Ruysch mentions a flight of butterflies in 1543, which sprinkled the herbage, roofs of houses, and human clothing, with drops of their dung, like blood. A similar circumstance in England, recorded by Pennius, was supposed to have presaged the plague. There are sufficient modern proofs that living fishes, frogs, and other creatures or materials, have fallen in showers : in the former instance, remote from the sea or any great river. These things can only be explained by supposing them to have been first taken up by some whirlwind, or sudden gust ; and it is not unlikely that the ashes of a volcano were the materials of some of these showers. Ovid, by poetic license, accumulates all the bad omens on record or in tradition, hi the alarming prognostications of the death of Julius Caesar (" Meta- morphoses," b. xv.) ; and it may be a principal reason why Pliny specifies the times of these occurrences, to shew that Ovid's narrative is only a poetic fiction.
The following translation of a paragraph in the " Museum Wormi- anum" (p. 17, De Terris Miracvlusis), is a specimen of the manner in which such extraordinary events were regarded, even at a very modern date : — " In the year 1619, when the preposterous fashion of neck-bands, kerchiefs, and other female ornaments of linen, dyed of cerulean blue, in- vaded Denmark, and in spite of the remonstrances of the ministers of God obstinately persisted, by adding pride to luxury, Almighty God, that he might by all means declare how abhorrent this sin was to him, and recall mortals to repentance by a miracle, in many places of Scania rained down abundantly a kind of earth of a blue colour, very similar to a sort sold by the dealers in spices. A small quantity of this was given to me at the time by my good friend, Dr. Fincking, professor of medicine at Copenhagen, &c." It probably proceeded from Hecla. — Wern. Club.
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together with him all the Lucani his Soldiers, of whom there were many in his Army. That which came down in this Rain resembled in some sort Sponges : and the Aruspices gave Warning to take Heed of Wounds from above. But in the Year that L. Paulus and C. Marcellus were Consuls, it rained Wool about the Castle Carissa, near to which, a Year after, T. Annius Milo was slain. At the Time that the same Mito pleaded his own Cause at the Bar, there fell a Rain of Tiles and Bricks, as is related in the Records of that Year.
CHAPTER LVII.
Of the Rustling of Armour, and the Sound of Trumpets heard from Heaven.
IN the Time of the Cimbrian Wars, we have been told that Armour was heard to rustle, and the Trumpet to sound, out of Heaven. And this happened very often, both before and after those Wars. But in the third Consulship of Marius, the Amerines and Tudertes saw Men in Arms in the Sky1, rushing one against another, from the East and West ; and those of the West were discomfited. That the very Firmament itself should be on Fire is no Wonder, for often it hath been seen when Clouds have caught any great deal of Fire.
CHAPTER LVIII.
Of Stones falling from the Sky*.
THE Greeks greatly celebrate Anaxagoras Clazomenius, who, by the Learning that he had in Astronomy, foretold in
1 This was probably the Aurora Borealis, or Northern Lights; a phenomenon rarely seen so far to the South. It is, perhaps, the same that is referred to by Josephus, in his narrative of the terrors sent by God before the fatal siege of Jerusalem. The account of what was seen in the county of Cumberland, immediately preceding the invasion of England by the Pretender, will shew how nearly aerial appearances may approach to realities. — Wern. Club.
2 For a long time the fall from the sky, of what are denominated Meteorolites, was deemed too preposterous to be believed ; but since the
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the second Year of the Seventy-eighth Olympiad, what Time a Stone would fall from the Sun : and the same happened accordingly, in the Daytime, in a Part of Thracia, near the River .ZEgos ; which Stone is shewed at this Day as big as a Wain-load, carrying a burnt Colour : at which Time a Comet also burned by Night. Which if any Man believe that it was fore-signified, he must needs also confess, that this fore- telling by Anaxagoras was more miraculous than the Thing itself: and that it destroyed the Knowledge of Nature's Works, and confounds all Things, if we should believe that either the Sun were a Stone, or that ever any Stone were in it. But, that Stones fall often, no Man will make any doubt- In the public Place of Exercise in Abydos, there is one at this Day upon the same Cause preserved, and held in great Reverence : it is but of small size, yet it is reported to be the same that Anaxagoras foretold to be about to fall in the midst of the Earth. There is one revered also at Cassandria, which was called Potidsea, a Colony from thence deducted. I myself have seen another in the Territory of the Vocantians, which was brought thither but a little before.
CHAPTER LIX. Of the Rainbow.
THOSE which we call Rainbows, are seen often without any Wonder, or betokening Portent : for they foretel not so much
facts are no longer doubted, the instances recorded by Pliny become valuable evidences of their antiquity. A still more ancient instance is found in the Book of Joshua, x. 11, where, in the conquest of Canaan, the Lord threw down great stones from heaven on the enemy, and dis- comfited them. The miraculous nature of this last transaction does not remove it from the class of natural occurrences ; for Nature itself is only an instrument in the hands of its Creator. With regard to the prognos- tication of Anaxagoras, it can only be taken to signify the high reputation of this philosopber ; which led the public to believe that they could not attribute too much to his insight into the occurrences of Nature. There is reason to suppose that some of the images which were said to have fallen down from Jupiter (Acts of the Apostles, xix. 35) were derived from tbis source. — Wern. Club.
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as rainy or fair Days, in a Manner that we can trust them. But it is manifest that the Sunbeams striking upon an hollow Cloud, when their Edge is repelled, are beaten back against the Sun : and thus ariseth a Variety of Colours by the Mix- ture of Clouds, Air, and fiery Light. Certainly, they never are known but opposite to the Sun ; nor at any Time other- wise than in Form of a Semicircle ; nor yet in the Night Season, although Aristotle saith1 there was a Rainbow seen by Night : however he confesseth, that it could not possibly be but at the full of the Moon. They happen for the most Part in Winter, chiefly from the Autumnal Equinox, as the Days decrease. But as Days grow longer after the Spring Equinox, they be not seen, no more than about the Summer Solstice, when the Days are longest. But in Bruma, that is to say, when they be shortest, they appear often. The same appear aloft when the Sun is low ; and below, when he is aloft. Also, they be of narrower Compass when the Sun either riseth or setteth, but their Body spreadeth broad : and at Noon they are narrower, but wider in Circumference. In Summer they be not seen about Noon, but after the Autumnal Equinox at all hours ; and never more than two at once. The Rest of the same Nature, I see few Men do make any doubt of.
CHAPTER LX. Of Hail , Snow, Frost, Mist, and Dew.
HAIL is formed of Rain, congealed into Ice : and Snow of the same Humour grown together, but not so hard. Frost is made of Dew frozen. In Winter Snows fall, and not Hail. It haileth oftener in the Daytime than in the Night ; yet Hail sooner melteth by far than Snow. Mists be not seen either in Summer, or in very cold Weather. Dews shew not either in Frost or in hot Seasons, neither when there is Wind ; but
1 A rainbow by night is so far from being rare, that it is only the difference of climate that will explain why Aristotle and Pliny speak so doubtfully about it. It is usually void of colour. — Wern. Club.
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only after a calm and clear Night. Frosts dry up moisture ; for when the Ice is thawed the like Proportion of Water is not found.
CHAPTER LXI.
Of the Shapes of Clouds.
A VARIETY of Colours and Shapes are seen in Clouds, according as the Fire intermingled therein is either more or less.
CHAPTER LXII. Of the Properties of Weather in various Places.
MOREOVER there are many Properties of the Weather peculiar to certain Places. The Nights in Africa be dewy in Winter; in Italy, about Locri and the Lake Velinus, there is not a Day but a Rainbow is seen. At Rhodes and Syracuse, the Air is never so cloudy, but one Hour or other the Sun shineth out. But such Things as these shall be related more fitly in due Place. Thus much of the Air.
CHAPTER LXIII. Of the Nature of the Earth.
THE Earth followeth next : unto which alone of all Parts of the World, for her especial Benefits, we have given the reverend Name of Mother1. For like as the Heaven is the
1 The earth was so commonly termed Mother by Greek and Roman writers, in prose and verse, that it is unnecessary to refer to particular in- stances. And it is not to be regarded as merely a poetic metaphor or idle declamation, for it was their belief that the earliest origin of mankind was from the ground, by an inherent property ; as explained by Lucre- tius in his Second Book on the " Nature of Things : " so that each primi- tive nation arose from its own soil. And even the renewal of the earth with inhabitants after the flood, from the stones cast by Deucalion and Pyrrha, was not popularly regarded as a fable ; although it is probable that a mystical meaning was also supposed to be couched in the narrative. But by Pliny this idea of maternity was extended more widely through his adoption of the Pythagorean notion of the earth's being a living
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(Mother) of God, even so is she of Men. She it is that taketh us when we are coming into the World, nourisheth us when we are new born : and once being come abroad, ever sustaiueth us: and at the last, when we are rejected of all the World besides, she embraceth us : then most of all, like a kind Mother, she covereth us all over in her Bosom : by no Merit more sacred than by it, wherewith she maketh us sacred !; even bearing our Tombs and Titles, continuing our Name, and extending our Memory against the Shortness of our Age: whose last Power we, in our Anger, wish to be heavy unto our Enemy2, and yet she is heavy to none; as if we were ignorant that she alone is never angry with any Man. Waters ascend into Clouds; they harden into Hail, swell into Waves, and hasten headlong into Torrents. The Air is thickened into Clouds, and rageth with Storms. But She is bountiful, mild, and indulgent ; ready at all Times to attend, as a Handmaid, upon the Good of Mortals. See what she breeds being forced ! nay, what she yieldeth of her own accord ! what odoriferous Smells, and pleasant Tastes ! what Juices, what soft Things, what Colours ! how faithfully doth she repay, with Usury, that which was credited out unto her ! Finally, what Things doth she nourish for our sake ! for hurtful Creatures, when the vital Breath was to blame in giving them Life, she could not refuse to receive, after they
being; and as such, feeling and producing, by a kind of intelligence, all the effects of pleasure or pain that can be ascribed to a sensitive being. — Wern. Club.
1 To few things were the ancients more sensitive than to the honour or unhappiness of interment after death. In various parts of the sacred Scriptures the exposure of the inanimate body is threatened as a dreadful calamity ; as in the instance of Goliath to David (1 Sam. xvii. 44) ; and its infliction was felt to be a reproach, by both Israelites and Philistines, in the case of Saul (1 Sam. xxxi. 12, 13). The instance of Elpenor, in the eleventh book of the " Odyssey," and of Antigone, in the celebrated Greek play of " Sophocles," are proofs how strongly the same feeling existed in Greece. An ancient law of the Romans said : " Where the body is interred, let the spot be sacred." — Wern. Club.
a " Sit tibi terra levis" was the earnestly expressed wish of the Romans