•so

REESE LIBRARY

OF THE

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.

Received Accessions No.±

Shelf No. __

SELECT EXTRA-TROPICAL PLANTS

READILY ELIGIBLE FOR

INDUSTRIAL CULTURE OR NATURALISATION,

WITH INDICATIONS OF THEIR NATIVE COUNTRIES AND SOME OF THEIR USES.

BY

BARON FERD. VON MUELLER,

S^^^i^

*/ V OF TTIT)- ''r^S.

UNIVERSITY

" Omnia enim in usus suos creata SU»***^-SYRACH. xxxix. 21, 26.

INDIAN EDITION.

CALCUTTA :

OFFICE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT OF GOVERNMENT PRINTING;

1880.

CALCUTTA :

PRINTED BY THE SUPERINTENDENT Of GOVERNMENT PRINTING, 8, HASTINGS STREET.

TO

COLONEL THE HONOURABLE SIR ANDREW CLARKE,

K.C.M.G., C.B., C.I.E.,

FIRST COMMISSIONER OF PUBLIC WORKS OF INDIA, AN ENLIGHTENED AND GENEROUS PATRON OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS,

THIS VOLUME IS

v

RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED.

PREFACE.

TN the volumes issued by the Victorian Acclimation Society from -^ 1871 to 1878 five contributions have appeared concerning such industrial plants as are available for culture in extra-tropical countries or in high mountain-regions within the tropics. These writings were mainly offered with a view of promoting the intro- duction and diffusion of the very many kinds of plants which in temperate geographic latitudes may be extensively reared in forests, on fields or pastures. The work thus originated, however, became accessible merely to the members of the Society, while frequent calls arose for these or some similar data not only throughout the Australian communities, but also abroad. The whole has therefore now been reissued in a rearranged and largely supplemented form, and in this instance for use in Upper India under the auspices of the Central Government at Calcutta, which honoured me in reprinting this work with its present numerous additions ; and it devolves on me to add that this reissue met with the ready concurrence of the Honourable Sir Bryan O'Loghlen, Bart., Acting Chief Secretary of Victoria. As stated in the preface to the original essays, they did not claim completeness either as a specific index or as a series of notes on the respective technologic applicability of the plants enumerated. But what these writings perhaps may aspire to is the aim of bringing together, closely arrayed, some condensed data in popular language on all the principal utilitarian plants hitherto known to prosper in extra- tropical zones. Information of this kind is widely scattered through many and often voluminous works in several languages, yet such volumes apply chiefly to countries with a climatic zone

Vi PREFACE.

*

far more narrow than that of the colony for which these pages originally were mostly written. Only a few of the books which it was desirable to consult were at my command; hence the necessity of successive further supplements, even irrespective of needful references to future discoveries, because in the progress of geographic, medical, technologic, and chemical inquiries many new plants of utilitarian value are likely to be disclosed, and new uses of known plants to be elucidated. Thus, for instance, among the trees and shrubs or herbs and grasses occurring in the middle and higher altitudinal zones of Africa, or nearer to us of New Guinea and the Sunda Islands, many specific forms may be expected to occur, which we could transfer to other extra- tropical countries or to mountains in equinoctial regions. Indeed, the writer would modestly hope that his local efforts may prove to be of usefulness also in other parts of the globe, and in this hope he is cheered by the generous action of an enlightened American, Mr. Ellwood Cooper, the Principal of the Santa Barbara College of California, who deemed the publications, first offered for Australian use, also worthy of reissue in America. Moreover, gradual or partial reprints appeared also in weekly journals of Sydney and San Francisco and some other periodicals. It was stated before that the rapid progress of tillage almost throughout all colonial dominions is causing more and more a desire for general and particular indica- tions of such plants, which a colder clime excludes from the north- ern countries, where many of the colonists spent their youth ; and it must be clear to any reflecting mind that in all warmer latitudes, as compared with the Middle-European zones, a vastly enlarged scope exists for cultural choice of plants. Indicative as these notes merely are, yet they may thus facilitate the selection. More exten- sive information can then be followed up in larger works extant elsewhere, or which authorship may call forth for local requirements in other countries. The writer should even not be disinclined, under fair support and encouragement, to issue collateral to the present volume also another, exclusively devoted to the industrial plants of the hotter zones for the promotion of tropical culture, particularly in our Australian continent. Considerable difficulty was experi-

PEEFACE. Vll

enced in drawing the limits of the remarks admissible into the present pages, because a certain plant may be important only under particular climatic conditions and cultural applications, or it may have been overrated in regard to the copiousness and relative value of its yield. Thus it was not alway easy to sift the chaff from the grain when these notes were gathered ; they might under less rigorous restrictions indeed have been indefinitely extended; and although the author for more than twenty years has been watching for industrial tests the plants introduced by him into the Melbourne Botanic Garden, he had still to a very large extent to rely implicitly on the experience of other observers elsewhere. Here also it may at once be stated that in all instances when calculations of measurements and weights were quoted, such repre- sent the maximum always, as far as hitherto on record. To draw prominent attention to the primarily important among the very many hundreds of plants referred to in these pages, the leading species have been designated with an asterisk. It has not been easy in numerous instances to trace the first sources of that inform- ation on utilitarian plants which we find recorded in the various volumes of phytologic or technologic literature; many original observations are, however, contained in the writings of Bernardin, Bentley, Brandis, Brockhaus, Candolle, Chambers, Collins, Drury, Flueckiger, Asa Gray, Grisebach, Hanbury, Hooker, King, Lange- thal, Lawson, Lindley, Lorentz, Loudon, Martius, Masters, Meehan, Michaux, Nuttall, Oliver, Pereira, Philippi, Porcher, Eosenthal, Roxburgh, Seemann, Simmonds, Stewart, Trimen, Wittstein, and also some others to whose names reference is made cursorily in the text. The volumes of the Agricultural Department of Washington, of the Austrian Apotheker-Verein, of the Journal of Applied Science, of the Bulletin de la Societe d'Acclimation de France, and of several other periodicals, have likewise afforded data utilised on this occasion.

In grouping together, at the close of this volume, all the genera enumerated, according to the products which they yield, facility is afforded for tracing out any series of plants about which special economic information may be sought, or which may prominently

PREFACE.

engage at any time the attention of the cultivator, the manufac- turer, or the artisan. Again, in placing together in index-form the respective industrial plants according to their geographic distribu- tion, as has likewise been done in the concluding pages, it is rendered easy to order or obtain from abroad the plants of such other countries with which any settlers or colonists may be in relation through commercial, literary, or other intercourse. Lists like the present may aid also in naming the plants and their pro- ducts with scientific correctness in establishments of economic horticulture or in technologic or other educational collections. If the line of demarkation between the plants admissible into this list and those which should have been excluded has occasionally been extended in favour of the latter, then it must be pleaded that the final value of any particular species for a peculiar want, locality, or treatment cannot often be fully foretold. Many plants of primary importance for rural requirements alluded to now have long since been secured by the intelligent early pioneers of immigra- tion, who timely strove to enrich also the cultural resources of their adopted country ; and in the seefforts the writer, so far as his public or private means did ever permit, has endeavoured for the past quarter of a century to take an honourable share. But although such plants are introduced, they are not in all instances as yet widely diffused, nor in all desirable localities tested. For the sake of completeness even the most ordinary cultural plants have not been passed, as the opportunity seemed an apt one to offer a few cursory remarks on their value. The writer entertains a hope that a copy of this plain volume will be placed in the library of any State schools, to serve educational purposes also by occasional and perhaps frequent reference to these pages. The increased ease of communication, which has latterly arisen between nearly all parts of the globe, places us now also in a fair position for independent efforts to suggest or promote introductions of new vegetable treasures from unexplored regions, or to submit neglected plants of promising value to unbiassed original tests. It may merely be instanced that, after the lapse of more than three centuries since the conquest of Mexico, only the most scanty information is

PREFACE. ix

extant on the timber of that empire, and that of several thousand tropical grasses not many dozen have been tried with chemical exactitude for pastoral purposes. For inquiries of such kind every civilised State is striving to afford in well-planned, thoughtfully directed, anM generously supported special scientific establishments the needful aid, not merely for adding to the prosperity, comfort, and enjoyment of the present generation, but also with an antici- pation of earning the gratitude of prosperity ; and this as a rule is done with a sensitive jealousy to maintain also thereby for scientific dignity and industrial development the fair fame of the country. Friendly consideration will recognise that a desire to arouse more and more such a spirit for emulation has much inspired the writer to offer these pages, he trusting that enlightened statesmanship far and wide will foster this aim in the liberal and circumspect manner evinced by the Government of the Indian Empire.

Melbourne, December 1878.

SELECT PLANTS READILY ELIGIBLE FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES.

<

Aberia Caffra, Hooker. T

The Kai Apple of Natal and Caffncria. This tall shrub serves for hedges. The rather large fruits are edible, and can be converted into preserves. Allied South African species are A. Zeyheri and A. tristis (Sender).

Acacia acuminata, Bentham.

A kind of Myall from Western Australia, attaining a height of 40 feet. The scent of the wood comparable to that of raspberries. It is the best of West Australian woods for charcoal. The stems much sought after for fence posts, very lasting, even when young. A similar tree with hard and scented wood is A. Doratoxylon (A. Cunn.).

Acacia Arabica, Willdenow.

North and Central Africa, also in South- West Asia, growing in dry, calcareous soil. This small tree can be utilised for thorny hedges, as also A. Seyal (Delile) and A. tortilis (Forskael) . They all furnish the best gum arabic for medi- cinal and technical purposes. The lac insect lives also on the foliage, and thus in Sind the lac is mainly yielded by this tree. The stem attains a circumference of 10 feet. The astringent pods are valuable for tanning, also the bark, which is known as "Baboot" bark; the wood, known as " Sunt/' is very durable if water-seasoned, extensively used for wheels, well- curbs, and many kinds of implements, also for the knees and planks of boats. A. gummifera (Willd.) and A. Ehrenbergiana (Hayne) are among the species, which yield gum arabic in North Africa. A. latronum (Willdenow) and A. modesta (Wallich) form thorny hedges in India (Brandis).

2 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

Acacia armata, R. Brown.

Extra- tropical Australia. The Kangaroo Thorn. Much grown for hedges, though less manageable than various other hedge plants. Important for covering coast sand with an unap- proachable prickly vegetation.

Acacia Catechu, Willdenow.

India, Africa, up to 3,000 feet. Tree of 40 feet height. The extract prepared from the bark and heartwood is the catechu of medicine or cutch of tannery. Pure cutch is worth about £25 per ton ; 4 tons of bark will produce 1 ton of cutch or terra japonica. A. Suma (Kurz) is closely allied.

Acacia Cavenia, Hooker and Arnott.

The Espino of the present inhabitants of Chili, the Cavan of the former population. A small tree with exceedingly hard wood, resisting underground moisture. The plant is well adapted for hedges. The pods, called Quirinca, serve as cattle food (Dr. Philippi) . The husks contain 32 per cent, tannin (Sievers), valuable as a dye material.

Acacia Cebil, Grisebach.

La Plata States. This is one of the most useful of all trees there, on account of its bark, which is exceedingly rich in tannic acid ; well worthy of introduction here ; also as an ornamental tree. Numerous other Acacia), particularly the Australian species, deserve yet tests for tannin.

Acacia concinna, Candolle.

India. Praised by Dr. Cleghorn as a valuable hedge shrub. The pod contains saponin. So is likewise A. latronum (Willd.), a hedge bush.

Acacia decurrens. Willdenow, var. mollissima.* (A. moUissima, Willd.)

The Black Wattle. From the eastern part of South Australia, through Victoria and New South Wales, to the southern part of Queensland; in open plains a small or middle-sized tree, in deep forest recesses a lofty tree of singularly rapid growth. Its wood can be used for staves and many other purposes, and it supplies an excellent firewood, but a chief use would be to afford the first shelter, in treeless localities, for raising forests. Its bark, rich in tannin, and its gum, not dissimilar to gum- arabic, render this tree highly important. The English price of the bark ranges generally from £8 to £11. In Melbourne

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 3

it averages about £5 per ton. It varies, so far as experiments made in my laboratory have shown, in its contents of tannin from 30 to 54 per cent, in bark artificially dried. In the mercantile bark the percentage is somewhat less, according to the state of its dryness — it retaining about 10 per cent, moisture, li Ibs. of Black Wattle bark gives 1 Ib. of leather, whereas 5 Ibs. of English Oak bark are requisite for the same results, but the tannic principle of both is not absolutely identical. Melbourne tanners consider a ton of Black Wattle bark suffi- cient to tan 25 to 30 hides ; it is best adapted for sole leather and other so-called heavy goods. The leather is fully as dura- ble as that tanned with oak bark and nearly as good in colour. Bark carefully stored for a season improves in tanning power 10 to 15 per cent. From experiments made under the author's direction it appears that no appreciable difference exists in the percentage of tannin in Wattle bark, whether obtained in the dry or in the wet season. The tannin of this Acacia yields a grey precipitate with the oxyde salts of iron, and a violet colour with sub-oxydes ; it is completely thrown down from a strong aqueous solution by means of concentrated sulphuric acid. The bark improves by age and desiccation, and yields about 40 per cent, of catechu, rather more than half of which is tannic acid. Bichromate of potash added in a minute quan- tity to the boiling solution of mimosa- tannin produces a ruby- red liquid, fit for dye purposes : and this solution gives, with the salts of sub-oxyde of iron, black pigments ; and with the salts of the full oxyde of iron, red-brown dyes. As far back as 1823 a fluid extract of Wattle bark was shipped to London, fetching then the extraordinary price of £50 per ton, one ton of bark yielding 4 cwt. of extract of tar consistence (Simmons) , thus saving much freight and cartage. For cutch or terra japonica the infusion is carefully evaporated by gentle heat. The estimation of tannic acid in Acacia barks is effected most expeditiously by filtering the aqueous decoction of the bark after cooling, by evaporating and then re-dissolving the resi- due in alcohol and determining the weight of the tannic prin- ciple obtained by evaporating the filtered alcoholic solution to perfect dryness.

The cultivation of the Black Wattle is extremely easy, being effected by sowing either broadcast or in rows. Seeds can be obtained in Melbourne at about 5 shillings per Ib., which con- tains from 30,000 to 50,000 grains ; they are known to retain their vitality for several years. Seeds should be soaked in warm water before sowing. Any bare, barren, unutilised place might most remuneratively be sown with this Wattle Acacia ; the return would be in from 5 to 10 years, Full-grown trees,

4 'SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

which supply also the best quality, yield as much <as 1 cwt. of bark. Mr. Dickinson states that he has seen 10 cwt. of bark obtained from a single tree of gigantic dimensions. The rate of growth of the tree is about 1 inch in diameter of stem annu- ally. It is content with the poorest and driest or sandy soil, although in more fertile ground it shows greater rapidity of growth. This Acacia is perhaps the most important of all tan-yielding trees of the warm temperate zones, for its strength in tannic acid, its rapidity of growth, its contented- ness with almost any soil, for the ease with which it can be reared and for its early yield of tanner's bark, and indeed also gum and stave- wood.

The variety dealbata (Acacia dealbata, Link) is generally known amongst Australian colonists as Silver "Wattle. It prefers for its habitation humid river-banks, and attains there a height of sometimes 150 feet, supplying a clear and tough timber used by coopers and other artisans, but principally serving as select fuel of great heating power. The bark of this variety is much thinner and greatly inferior to the Black Wattle in quality, yielding only about half the quantity of tanning principle. It is chiefly employed for lighter leather. This tree is distinguished from the Black Wattle by the sil- very or rather ashy hue of its young foliage ; it flowers early

* in spring, ripening its seeds in about 5 months, while the Black Wattle blossoms late in spring or at the beginning of summer, and its seeds do not mature before about 14 months.

Acacia falcata, Willdenow.

East Australia. One of the best of trees for raising a woody vegetation on drift-sand, as particularly proved at the Cape of Good Hope. Important also for its bark in tanneries.

Acacia Farnesiana, Willdenow.

Dioscorides' small Acacia. Indigenous to South Asia ; found westward as far as Japan ; a native also of the warmer parts of Australia, as far south as the Darling River ; found spon- taneously in tropical and sub-tropical America, but apparently not in tropical Africa. Professor Fraas has recognised in this Acacia the ancient plant. The scented flowers are much sought after for perfumery. This may also be utilised as a hedge plant, and a kind of gum-arabic may be obtained from it.

Acacia fasciculifera, F. v. Mueller.

South Queensland. Seventy feet high, branches pendent. Desirable for culture on account of the excellence of its easily- worked dark wood.

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 5

Acacia glaucescens, Willdenow.

Queensland and New South Wales. Extreme height about 60 feet. A kind of Myall, with hard, dark, prettily grained, but less scented wood than that of some other species.

Acacia harpophylla, F. v. Mueller.

Southern Queensland, where this tree, according to Mr. Thozet, furnishes a considerable share of the mercantile wattle bark for tanning purposes. Wood, according to Mr. O'Shanesy, brown, hard, heavy and elastic, used by the natives for spears. Mr. Thozet observes that the tree attains sometimes a height of 90 feet, growing naturally on sand lands, almost to the exclusion of other trees and shrubs, furnishing wood of a violet odour, splitting freely and used for fancy turnery. The tree yields also considerable quantities of gum.

Acacia homalophylla, Cunningham.

The Victorian Myall, extending into the deserts of New South Wales. The dark-brown wood is much sought for turners' work on account of its solidity and fragrance; perhaps its most extensive use is in the manufacture of tobacco pipes. Never a tall tree.

Acacia horrida, Willdenow.

The Doornboom or Karra-Doorn of South Africa. A formid- able hedge bush with thorns often 3 inches long, readily available for impenetrable hedge copses. It exudes also a good kind of gum, but often of amber colour : so A. Giraffse, Burchell, which attains a great age ; the trunk assumes a large, size, furnishing a wood of great hardness.

Acacia implexa, Bentham.

Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland. A tree of middle size, content with poor soil. Wood firm and close, dark brown with yellowish stripes; much in demand for turnery, cog- wheels, and other purposes which need tenacity and strength (Dickinson). Bark available for tanneries.

Acacia longifolia, Willdenow.

South-Eastern Australia. This tree is introduced into this list inasmuch as the very bushy variety known as A. SophoraB (R. Brown) renders most important services in subduing loose coast-sand ; it should therefore be disseminated on extensively bare sand-shores. To the recommendations of this bush can be added that it grows so quickly. The bark .of A. longifolia is

6 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTUB.E

only half as good as that of A. decurrens for tanning, and used chiefly for sheep-skins. TLe tree is, however, also of quick growth — 20 to 30 feet in 5 to 6 years (Hartmann).

Acacia macrantha, Bentham.

From Mexico to Argentina ; also in the Galapagos group. This tree, usually small, provides the " Cuji-pods " for tanning (Simmonds) .

Acacia melanoxylon, R. Brown.*

The well-known Blackwood of our river flats and moist forest valleys, passing also under the inappropriate name of Light Wood. In irrigated glens of deep soil the tree will attain a height of 80 feet, with a stem several feet in diameter. The wood is most valuable for furniture, railway carriages, boat- building, casks, billiard tables, pianofortes (for sound-boards and actions), and numerous other purposes. The fine-grained wood is cut into veneers. It takes a fine polish, and is con- sidered almost equal to Walnut. Our best wood for bending under steam. The air-dried bark contains from 15 to 28 per- cent, tannin. For further details refer to the volumes of the Melbourne Exhibitions of 1862 and 1867.

Acacia microbotrya, Bentham.

In the waterless interior of South- West Australia. The " Bad-jong." A comparatively tall species, which, according to Mr. Geo. Whitfield, produces often 50 Ibs. of gum from one tree in a season. The aborigines store the gum in hollow trees for winter use j it is of a pleasant, sweetish taste.

Acacia pendula, All. Cunningham.

New South Wales and Queensland. Generally in marshy tracts of the interior. One of the Myall trees.

Acacia penninervis, Sieber.

Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland. A small tree, so hardy as to occupy sub-alpine localities. The bark contains about 18 per cent, of tannin.

Acacia pycnantha, Bentham.*

Victoria and South Australia. The Golden or Green Wattle of the colonists. This tree, which attains a maximum height of about 30 feet, is second perhaps only to A. decurrens in importance for its yield of tanner's bark ; the quality of the latter is even sometimes superior to that of the Black Wattle,

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 7

but its yield is less, as the tree is smaller and the bark thinner. It is of rapid growth, content with almost any soil, but is gen- erally found in poor sandy ground near the sea-coast, and thus also important for binding rolling sand. Experiments instituted by me have proved the artificially dried bark to contain from 30 to 45 per cent, tanning principle, full-grown sound trees supplying the best quality. The aqueous infusion of the bark can be reduced by boiling to a dry extract, which in medicinal and other respects is equal to the best Indian catechu, as derived from Acacia catechu and A. suma. It yields about 30 per cent., about half of which or more is mimosa-tannic acid. This catechu is also of great use for preserving against decay articles subject to exposure in water, such as ropes, nets, fishing- lines, &c. While, according to Mr. Simmons, the import of the bark of oaks, hemlock-spruce, into England becomes every year less, and while the import of sumach and gambir does not increase, the annual demand for tanning substance has since the last twenty years been doubled. A. pycnantha is also important for its copious yield of gum, which is in some localities advantageously collected for home consumption and also for export. By improved methods the fragrant oil of the flowers would doubtless be fixed, though its absolute isolation might be difficult and unremunerative.

Acacia retinodes, Schlechtendal.

South-East Australia. Ascertained already in 1846 by Dr. Hermann Behr to yield a good tanner's bark and much gum. This Acacia is ever-flowering, and in this respect quite excep- tional. It likes river banks, but never grows beyond the height of a small tree.

Acacia saligna, Wendland.*

South-West Australia, where it is the principal tree chosen for tanner's bark. It is a wide-spreading small tree, fit for avenues. The bark contains nearly 30 per cent, of mimosa-tannin, and is extensively used by tanners in West Australia. The tree has proved in Algeria to resist the sirocco better than most species (Dr. Bonand). A. cyanophylla (Lindley) is a closely allied species, serving the same purposes.

Acacia Seyal, Delile.

In the Libyan and Nubian deserts. This thorny tree exudes a brownish kind of gum-arabic. It is adapted for the most arid desert country. In any oasis it forms a large and shady tree. Native name " Soffar."

8 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

Acacia stenophylla, A. Cunningham,

On banks of water-courses in the interior of Australia, as far south as the Murray River. A tree with exquisite, hard, dark wood, serving like My all- wood.

Acacia Verek, Guillemin & Perrottet.

From Senegambia to Nubia. Affords the best white gum-arabic of the Nile region, and a large quantity of this commercial article. A. Etbaica (Schweinf.) and A. Stenocarpa (Hochst.) from the same region produce also a good mercantile gum.

Acanthosicyos horrida, Welwitsch.

In the deserts of Angola, Benguela, and Damarland. This thorny, cucurbitaceous, erect shrub bears fruits of orange size and colour, of pleasant acidulous taste. The seeds are also edible. The plant will live in the most arid desert land, and is one of the few which resist the scorching effects of even the sirocco.

Acer campestre, Linne.

The British Maple. Extends from Middle Europe to North Asia. Height 40 feet, in shelter and deep soil ; the yellow and purple tints of its foliage in autumn render the tree then parti* cularly beautiful. The wood is compact and fine-grained, and sought for choice furniture. The tree can be trimmed for hedge- growth. Comparatively quick of growth, and easily raised from seed. These remarks apply to many kinds of Maples.

Acer dasycarpum, Ehrhart.

The White Maple of North America. Likes rather a warmer climate than the other American Maples, and therefore parti- cularly desirable for us here. Height 50 feet ; wood pale and soft, stem sometimes 9 feet in diameter. Much praised for street-planting ; growth comparatively rapid. It produces no suckers, nor is the tree subject to disease. A most beautiful tree, with a stout stem and a magnificent crown, growing best on the banks of rivers with limpid water and a gravelly bed, but never in swampy ground, where the Red Maple takes its place. The wood is of less strength and durability than that of its congeners, but produces excellent charcoal. The tree also yields Maple-sugar, though not in such quantity as A. saccha- rinum.

Acer macrophyllum, Pursh.

Large Oregon Maple. Tree up to 90 feet high, of quick

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 9

growth ; stem attaining 1 6 feet in circumference ; wood whitish, beautifully veined. A beautiful shade-tree ; delights on banks of streams. The inner bark can be utilised for baskets and superior mats ; the wood is a substitute for hickory. The curled wood is splendid for ornamental work.

Acer Negundo, Linne.

The Box Elder of North America. A tree, deciduous like the rest of the Maples ; attains a height of about 50 feet, and is rich in saccharine sap ; according to Vasey it contains almost as much as the Sugar Maple. Proved well adapted for our coun- try. In California it is used extensively as a shade-tree. Cul- tivated, the stem attains about 8 inches in diameter in 8 years (Brewer). The wood is yellow, marked with violet and rosy veins (Simmonds).

Acer niveum, Blume.

Continental and Insular India, up on the forest ranges. This is the tallest of the Maples, attaining a height of 150 feet. Several other large Maples worthy of cultivation, particularly in parks, occur on the mountains of India.

Acer palmatum, Thunberg.

This beautiful tree, with deeply cleft leaves, is indigenous to Japan, where various varieties with red- and yellow-tinged leaves occur. Should it be an aim to bring together all the kinds of Maples, which could be easily grown in appropriate spots, then Japan alone would furnish 25 species.

Acer platanoides, Linne.

The Norway Maple, extending south to Switzerland. Up to 70 feet high. The pale wood much used by cabinet-makers. Tint of the autumn foliage golden yellow. A tree of imposing appearance, much recommended for ornamental gardening ; it gives a denser shade than most of the other Maples.

Acer pseudo-platanus, Linne.

Middle and South Europe, West Asia. The Sycamore Maple or Spurious Plane. Attains a height of over 100 feet. The wood is compact and firm, valuable for various implements, instruments, and cabinet-work ; — for instance, for mangles, presses, dishes, printing and bleaching works, beetling beams, and in foundries for patterns (Simmonds) . It furnishes like some other Maples a superior charcoal. Will admit of exposure to sea air. The sap also saccharine.

10 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

Acer rubrum, Linne.

The Red Maple of North America. A tree, attaining 80 feet ; wood close-grained. Grows well with several other Maples, even in dry, open localities, although the foliage may somewhat suffer from hot winds, but thrives most luxuriantly in swampy, fertile soil. It is valued for street-planting. The foliage turns red in autumn. The wood is of handsome appearance, used in considerable quantity for saddle-trees, yokes, chairs, and other furniture. That of old trees is sometimes cross-grained, and thus furnishes a portion of the curled Maple- wood, which is very beautiful and much in request for gun-stocks and inlay- ing. The tree yields also Maple-sugar, but, like A. dasycarpum, only in about half the quantity obtainable from A. saccharinum (Porcher) .

Acer saccharinum, Wangenheim.*

The Sugar or Rock Maple ; one of the largest of the genus. It is the national emblem of Canada. In the colder lati- tudes of North America 80 feet high. The wood is strong, tough, hard, close-grained, of rosy tinge, and when well seasoned used for axle-trees, spokes, shafts, poles, and furniture ; when knotty or curly it furnishes the Birdseye and Curly Maple- wood. In the depth of winter the trees, when tapped, will yield the saccharine fluid, which is so extensively converted into Maple- sugar, each tree yielding 2 to 4 Ibs. a year. The trees can be tapped for very many years in succession, without injury. According to Porcher, instances are on record of 33 Ibs. of sugar having been obtained from a single tree in one season. The tapping process commences towards the end of winter. The Sugar Maple is rich in potash, furnishing a large propor- tion of this article in the United States. The bark is an important constituent in several of the American dyes. The tree is particularly recommended for our Alpine regions. It bears a massive head of foliage on a slender stem. The au- tumnal colouring is superb. In the eastern states of North America the Sugar Maple is regarded as the best tree for shade- avenues. Numerous other Maples exist, among which as the tallest may be mentioned Acer Creticum, L., of South Europe, 40 feet ; A. Isevigatum, A. sterculiaceum, and A. villosum, Wallich, of Nepal, 50 feet; A. pictum, Thunb., of Japan, 30 feet.

Achillea millefolium, Linne.

Yarrow or Millfoil. Europe, Northern Asia, and North America. A perennial medicinal herb of considerable astringency, per-

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 11

vaded with essential oil, containing also a bitter principle (achillein) and a peculiar acid, which takes its name from the generic appellation of the plant.

Achillea moschata, Wulfen.

Alps of Europe. The Genipi or Iva of the Alpine inhabitants. This perennial herb ought to be transferred to our snowy moun- tains. With the allied A. nana (L.) and A. atrata (L.), it enters as a component into the aromatic medicinal Swiss tea. Many species of this genus, including the Yarrow, are whole- some to sheep. A. fragrantissima (Reichenbach) is a shrubby species from the deserts of Egypt, valuable for its medicinal flowers.

Achras sapota, Linne.

The Sapodilla Plum of West India and Central Continental America. A fine evergreen tree, producing delicious fruit. Achras Australis, a tree yielding also tolerably good fruit, occurs in New South Wales. Other sapotaceous trees, producing table-fruit, such as the Lucuma mammosa (the Marmalade Tree), Lucuma Bonplaiidi, Chrysophyllum Cainito (the Star Apple) , all from West India ; and Lucuma Cainito of Peru, might also be subjected to trial culture in our forest valleys ; so furthermore many of the trees of this order, from which gutta-percha is obtained (species of Dichopsis Tsonandra, Sideroxylon, Cacosmanthus, Bassia, Mimusops, and Imbricaria Payenia) , would prove hardy in sheltered woodlands, as they seem to need rather an equable, humid, mild clime, than the heat of the torrid zone.

Aconitum Napellus, Linne.

The Monk's Hood. In the colder, especially mountainous, parts of Europe and Northern Asia. A powerful medicinal plant of perennial growth, but sometimes only of biennial duration, variable in its forms. It was first introduced into Australia, together with a number of other Aconits, by the writer of this communication. All the species possess more or less modified medicinal qualities, as well in their herb as in their root ; but so dangerously powerful are they, that the plants can only be administered by the exercise of legitimate medical practice. Napellus root, according to Dr. Wittstein, contains three alka- loids : aconitin, napellin, and narcotin. The foliage contains also a highly acrid, volatile principle, perhaps chemically not unlike that of many other R/anunculacese. Aconitin, one of the most potent of any of the medicinal substances in existence,

12 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

can likewise be obtained from the Nepalese Aconitum ferox, and probably from several other species of the genus.

Acorus Calamus, Linne.

The Sweet Flag. Europe, Middle and North Asia, North America. A perennial pond or lake plant. The somewhat aromatic root is used as a stomachic, and also in the preparation of confectionery, in the distillation of gin and liqueurs, and in the brewing of some kinds of beer. The flavour of the root depends mainly on a peculiar volatile oil.

Acrocomia mexicana, Karwinski.

Mexico; also in the cooler regions up to 3,000 feet. (Middle temperature, 17* Celsius; Drude.) A prickly palm, 20 feet high, acccmpanied by very slender Chamsedora- Palms in the shade of Oak-forests.

Actaea spicata, Linne.

The Baneberry. On forest mountains, mainly in limestone soil of Europe, North Asia, and North America. A perennial medi- cinal herb. Its virtue depends on peculiar acrid and bitter as well as tonic principles. In North America this species, and likewise A. alba, are also praised as efficacious antidotes against ophidian poisons.

Adenostemum nitidum, Persoon.

South Chili, where this stately tree passes by the appellations Queule, Nuble, and Aracua. Wood durable and beautifully veined. Fruit edible.

Adesmia balsamica, Bertero.

The Jarilla of Chili. A small shrub, remarkable for exuding a fragrant balsam of some technic value.

JEgiceras majus, Gaertner.

South Asia, Polynesia, North and East Australia. This spuri- ous mangrove tree extends far south in New South Wales. It may be employed for staying the off -flow of mud by the tide, and for thus consolidating shores subject to inundation by sea-floods.

^Bschynomene aspera, Linne.

The Solah of tropical Asia. A large perennial erect or floating swamp-plant. Introduced from the Botanic Gardens of Mel- bourne into the tropical parts of Australia. The pith hats are

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 13

made from the young stems of this plant. It is also a sub- stitute for cork in various appliances. The Solah is of less importance for cultivation than for naturalisation.

^Ssculus flava, Aiton.

North America. This showy tree rises to 60 feet. The wood is light, soft, and porous, not inclined to split or crack in dry- ing. It is valuable for troughs, bread-trays, wooden bowls, shuttles (Simmons).

^Esculus Hippocastanum, Linne.

The Horse-Chestnut Tree. Indigenous to Central Asia. One of the most showy of deciduous trees, more particularly when during spring " it has reached the meridian of its glory, and stands forth in all the gorgeousness of leaves and blossoms." Height 60 feet. Circumference of stem up to 16 feet. It will succeed in sandy soil on sheltered spots ; the wood adapted for furniture ; the seeds a food for various domestic animals ; the bark a good tanning material. The wood remains free from insects. The tree ascends the Himalayas up to 10,000 feet. A variety is known with thornless fruits. Three species occur in Japan, and several, but none of great height, in North America and South Asia.

-ZSsculus Indica, Colebrooke.

In the Himalayas, from 3,500 to 9,000 feet. Height finally 50 feet ; trunk comparatively short, occasionally with a girth of 25 feet. Never quite without leaves. Cajn. be used like the Horse-Chestnut as an ornamental shade-tree.

Agaricus Caesareus, Schaeffer.

In the Spruce-forests of Middle and South Europe. Trials might be made to naturalise this long-famed and highly deli- cious Mushroom in our forests. It attains a width of nearly one foot, and is of a magnificent orange colour. Numerous other edible Agarics could doubtless be brought into this country by the mere dissemination of the spores at apt localities. As large or otherwise specially eligible may here be mentioned A. extinctorius L., A. melleus Vahl., A deliciosus L., A. giganteus Sowerby, A. Cardarella Fr., A. Marzuolus Fr., A. eryngii Cand., A. splendens Pers., A. odorus Bulliard, A. auricula Cand., A. oreades Bolt., A. esculentus Wulf., A. mouceron Tratt., A. socialis Cand., all from Europe, besides numerous other highly valuable species from other parts of the globe. Professor Goeppert adds as edible species sold in

14 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

Silesia and other parts of Germany : A. decorus Fries,, A, fusipes Bull, A. gambosus Fries, A. procerus Scop.rA. scorodo- nius Fries, A. silvaticus Schaef., A. virgineus Wulf,,, A. volemus Fries, besides the almost cosmopolitan A. campestris Linne. Mushroom beds are best made from horse-manure, mixed with | loam, the scattering of the spawn (spores) to be effected when the temperature of the hot-bed has become reduced to 85° F., the sowing of the mushroom fragments to be made 3 inches deep and 4 inches apart ; one inch sifted loam over the damp bed and some hay to cover the whole. After two months, mushrooms can be gathered from the bed. In Japan mushrooms are reared on decayed split logs. Puff balls are also edible and some of them delicious (Meehan) .

Agaricus flammeus, Fries.

In Cashmere a large and excellent edible mushroom (Dr. Aitchison) .

Agaricus ostreatus, Jacquin.

On trunks chiefly of deciduous trees throughout Europe. The delicious Oyster Mushroom, renowned since antiquity (Fries) .

Agave Americana, Linne.

The gigantic Aloe of Central America. It comes here into flower in about ten years. The pithy stem can be utilised for some of the purposes for which cork is usually employed, — for instance, to form the bottoms of insect-cases. The honey- sucking birds and the bees are very fond of the flowers of this prodigious plant. The leaves of this and some other Agaves, such as A. Mexicana, furnish the strong Pita-fibre, which is adapted for ropes, and even for beautiful textile fabrics. The strength of ropes of this fibre is considerably greater than that of hemp ropes, as well in as out of water. The leaves contain saponin. The sap can be converted into alcohol, and thus the " Pulque " beverage is prepared from the young flower-stem. "Where space and circumstances admit of it, impenetrable hedges may be raised in the course of some years from Agaves.

Agave rigida, Miller. (A. Ixtli, Karwinsky.)

Yucatan. The Chelem, Henequen, and Sacci of the Mexicans, furnishing the Sisal hemp. Drs. Perrine, Scott, and Engel- mann indicate several varieties of this stately plant, the fibre being therefore also variable, both in quantity and quality. The yield of fibre begins in four or five years, and lasts for half a century or more, the plant being prevented from flower- ing by cutting away its flower stalk when very young. The

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 15

leaves are from 2 to 6 feet long and 2 to 6 inches wide ; the flower-stem attains a height of 25 feet, the panicle of flowers about 8 feet long, bearing in abundance bulb-like buds. Other large species of Agave, all fibre-yielding, are A. antillarum (Descourtil) from Hayti; A. Parryi (Eugel- mann) from New Mexico ; A. Palmeri (Engelmann) from South Arizona, up to an elevation of 6,000 feet.

Agriophyllum gobicnm.

Eastern Asia. The ' ' Soulkir " of the Mongols. Przevalsky says that this plant affords a great part of the vegetable food of the Ala- Shan nomads. Several other annual salsolaceous herbs belong to the genus Agriophyllum..

Agrostis alba, Linne.

The Fiorin or White Bent-Grass. Europe, North and Middle Asia, North Africa, North America. Perennial, showing a predilection for moisture ; can be grown on peat soil. It is the Herd-Grass of the United States. It is valuable as an admixture to many other grasses, as it becomes available at the season, when some of them fail. Sinclair regards it as a pasture-grass inferior to Festuca pratensis and Dactylis glomerata, but superior to Alopecurus pratensis. The variety with long suckers (A. stolonifera) is best adapted for sandy pastures, and helps to bind shifting sand on the sea-coast, or broken soil on river banks. It has a predilection for moisture, and luxuriates even on saline wet soil or periodically inundated places, as well observed by Langethal. It is more a grass for cattle-country than for sheep pasture, but wherever it is to grow the soil must be penetrable. Its turf on coast-meadows is particularly dense and of remarkable fineness. For sowing only one-sixth of the weight of the seeds, as compared with those of the Rye- Grass, is needed.

Agrostis rubra, Linne. (A. borealisj Hartmann.)

Northern Europe, Asia and America. "A perennial grass called Bed- top, and also Herd- Grass in the 'United States of North America. Mr. Meehan places it for its value as pasture among grasses cultivated there next after Phleum pratense and Poa pratensis (the latter there called Blue Grass), and before Dactylis glomerata (the Orchard- Grass of the United States).

Agrostis scabra, Willdenow.*

The Hair-Grass of North America. Recently recommended as one of the best lawn grasses, forming a dense turf. It will grow even on poor gravelly soil, and endure drought as well

16 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

as extreme cold. Its fine roots and suckers spread rapidly, forming soon dense matted sods (according to Dr. Channing) . It starts into new growth immediately after being cut, is for its sweetness picked by pasture animals preferentially, has proved one of the best grasses for dairy ground/and sup- presses weeds like Hordeum secalinum. One bushel of seed to an acre is used for pasture-land ; two bushels suffice for lawns.

Agrostis Solandri, F. v. Mueller.

Extra-tropical Australia and New Zealand. Produces a large quantity of sweet fodder in damp localities (Bailey) .

Agrostis vulgaris, Withering.

Europe, North Africa, Middle Asia, North America. One of the perennial grasses, which disseminate themselves with celerity, even over the worst of sandy soils. Though not a tall grass, it may be destined to contribute perhaps with Aira canescens and others largely to the grazing capabilities of desert lands ; yet it will thrive also even in moist soil and Alpine regions, and is essentially a grass for sheep-country.

Ailantus glandulosa, Linne:

South East Asia. A hardy, deciduous tree, 60 feet high, of rather rapid growth and of very imposing aspect in any land- scape. Particularly valuable on account of its leaves, which afford food to a silkworm (Bombyx Cynthia] peculiar to this tree ; wood extremely durable, pale yellow, of silky lustre when planed, and therefore valued for joiners' work ; it is tougher than oak or elm, easily worked, and not liable to split or warp. In South Europe planted for avenues. For this purpose prevailingly staminate trees are not eligible on account of the strong odour of the flowers. Valuable also for reclaiming coast- sands, and to this end easily propagated by suckers and frag- ments of roots according to Professor Sargent. The growth of the tree is quick even in poor soil, but more so in somewhat calcareous bottoms. Thrives on chalk (Vasey). Professor Meehan states that it interposes the spread of the rosebug, to which the tree is destructive.

Aira csespitosa, Linne.

Widely dispersed over the globe. A rough fodder grass, best utilised for laying dry any moist meadows.

Albizzia bigemina, F. v. Mueller. (PithecoloUum bigeminum, Martius.)

India, up to Sikkim and Nepal, ascending in Ceylon to 4,000

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 17

feet. Available for our forests on account of its peculiar dark and hard wood. Another congener, A. subcoriacea (Pithecolo- bium subeoriaeeum, Thwaites) , from the mountains of India is deserving, with numerous other tall species, of cultivation.

Albizzia dulcis, F. v. Mueller. (PitkecoloUum dulce, Bentham.)

Mexico. A valuable hedge plant. The sweet pulp of the pod is wholesome.

Albizzia Julibrissin, Durazzim.

From the Caucasus to Japan. A favourite ornamental shade- acaeia in South Europe.

Albizzia latisiliqua, F. v. Mueller. (Lysiloma latuitiqua, Bentham.)

Tropical America. A large spreading tree ; diameter of trunk to 3 feet ; wood excellent for select cabinet-work, excelling, according to Nuttall, the Mahogany in its variable shining tints, which appear like watered satin ; it is white, hard, and close-grained.

Albizzia Lebbek, Bentham.

The Siris Acacia of South and Middle Asia, North Africa. Available as a shade tree. It produces also a good deal of gum.

Albizzia lophantha, Benth. (Acacia lophantha, Willdenow.)

South- West Australia. One of the most rapidly growing trees for copses and first temporary shelter in exposed localities, but never attaining to the size of a real tree. It produces seeds abundantly, which germinate most easily. For the most desolated places, especially in desert tracts, it is of great importance to create quickly shade, shelter, and copious vegeta- tion. Cattle browse on the leaves. The bark contains only about 8 per cent, mimosa-tannin ; but Mr. Rummel found in the dry root about 10 per cent, of saponin, valuable in silk and wool factories. Saponin also occurs in Xylia dolabriformis of South Asia. In Australia found better still than the Broom- bush for shelter of new forest plantations in open sand- lands.

Albizzia Saman, F. v. Mueller. (PithecoloUum Saman, Bentham.) Mexico. A lofty tree, particularly valuable for wet saline country. The pulpy pods are edible.

Albizzia stipulata, Bentham.

South Asia to the Himalayas and China. An umbrageous tree of easy culture.

18 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

Alchemilla vulgaris, Linne.

Europe, West Asia, Arctic North America, Alpine Australia. This perennial herb is important for moist dairy pastures. The same can be said of other congeners ; for instance, A. alpina L., from the coldest parts of Europe, North Asia, and North America; A. Capensis (Thunberg) and A. elongata (Ecklon and Zeyher) of South Africa, some Abyssinian species, as well as A. pinnata (Ruiz and Pavon) and other congeners of the Andes.

Aletris farinosa, Linne.

The Colic Root of the woodlands of North America. This pretty herb is of extreme bitterness, and can be medicinally administered as a tonic.

Aleurites cordata, R. Brown.

From Japan to Nepal, also in Bourbon. This tree for its beauty and durable wood deserves cultivation in our plantations in humid districts. The oil of the seeds serves as varnish. Perhaps, in localities free of frost, it would be of sufficiently quick growth.

Aleurites triloba, R. and G. Forster.

The Candlenut Tree, a native of the tropics of both hemispheres, which furnishes a valuable dye from its fruits, and copious oil from its seeds. I found the tree barely able to endure the winters of Melbourne.

Alibertia edulis, A. Richard.

Guiana and Brazil, southward to extra-tropic latitudes, widely dispersed through the drier regions. The fruit of this shrub is edible and known as " Marmeladinha/' A. Melloana (J. Hooker), of South Brazil, seems to serve the same purpose.

Alkanna tinctoria, Tausch.

On sandy places around the Mediterranean Sea. It yields the Alkanna root used for dyeing oleaginous and other substances. It might be naturalised. Can be grown in almost pure sand.

Allium Canadense, Kalm.

North American Garlic. Could be cultivated or naturalised on moist meadows for the sake of its top bulbs, which are much sought for pickles of superior flavour.

Allium roseum, Linne.

Countries on the Mediterranean Sea, This, with Allium

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 19

Neapolitanum (Cyrillo), one of its companions, yields edible roots, according to Heldreich.

Allium Schaenoprasum, Linne.

The Chives. Europe, Northern Asia, and North America. Available for salads and condiments. This species of Allium seems not yet so generally adopted in our culinary cultivation as Allium Ascalonicum (the Shallot), A. Cepa (the ordinary Onion), A. fistulosum (the Welsh Onion), A. Porrum (the Leek), and A. sativum (the Garlic). A. Scorodoprasum, or the Sand Leek of Europe and North Africa, resembles both Garlic and Shallot. A. Ampeloprasum is the British Leek, which extends over Middle and South Europe and West Asia, called in culture the Summer Leek, a variety of which is the Early Pearl Leek.

Alnus glutinosa, Gaertner.

The ordinary Alder. Throughout Europe and extra-tropical Asia, up to 70 feet high ; well adapted for river banks, recom- mended by Wessely for wet valleys in coast-sand; wood soft and light, turning red, furnishing one of the best char- coals for gunpowder; it is also durable under water, and adapted for turners'' and joiners' work. The wood is also well suited for pump-trees and other underground work, as it will harden almost like stone. The tree is valuable for the utilis- ation of bog-land. A. incana (Willd.) extends to North America ; it is of smaller size. The bark of several Alders is of great medicinal value, and a decoction will give to cloth saturated with lye an indelible orange colour (Porcher) ; it contains a peculiar tannic principle. American Alder extract has come into use for tanning ; it renders skins particularly firm, mellow, and well coloured (Eaton) . The bark contains 36 per cent, tannin (Muspratt) . A. Oregana, Nuttall, of California and Oregon, rises to a height of 80 feet.

Alnus nepalensis, D. Don.

Himalayas, between 3,000 and 9,000 feet. Reaches a height of 60 feet. With another Himalayan Alder, A. nitida (Endlicher), it can be grown along streams for the sake of its wood.

Aloe dichotoma, Linne, fil.

Damara and Namaqua-land. This species attains a height of 30 feet, and expands occasionally with its branches so far as to give a circumference of 40 feet. The stem is remarkably

20 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

smooth, with a girth sometimes of 12 feet. It is a yellow flowering species. A. Bainesii (Baker & Dyer) is almost as gigantic as the foregoing. Both doubtless yield medical gum- resin like many others. A. Barberae, which is closely related to A. Zeyheri, attains in Caffraria a height of 40 feet, with a stem 16 feet in circumference at 3 feet from the ground.

Aloe ferox, Miller.

South Africa. This species yields the best Cape Aloe, as observed by Dr. 'Pappe. The simply inspissated juice of the leaves of the various species of this genus constitutes the Aloe drug. It is best obtained by using neither heat nor pressure for extracting the sap. By re-dissolving the aqueous part in cold water, and reducing the liquid through boiling to dryness the extract of aloes is prepared. All species are highly valu- able, and can be used, irrespective of their medicinal import- ance, to beautify any rocky or otherwise arid spot.

Aloe linguiformis, Miller.

South Africa. According to Thunberg, from this species the purest gum-resin is obtained.

Aloe plicatilis, Miller.

South Africa. The drug of this species acts milder than that of A. ferox.

Aloe purpurascens, Haworth.

South Africa. Another of the plants which furnish the Cape aloe of commerce. The South African Aloe arborescens (Miller) and A. Commelyni (Willdenow) are also drawn into use for aloe, according to Baillon, Saunders, and Hanbury.

Aloe socotrina, Lamarck, (d. vera, Linne.)

Hills of the Island of Socotra. Extending as a native plant along the Red Sea and the shores of India. Also cultivated in Barbadoes and elsewhere, thus yielding the Socotrin aloe and Moka aloe.

Aloe spicata, Thunberg.

South Africa. This also provides Cape aloe. It is an exceed- ingly handsome plant.

Aloe vulgaris, Lamarck.

The Yellow-flowered Aloe. Countries around the Mediter- ranean Sea, also Canary Islands, on the sandy or rocky sea-

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 21

coast. Such places could also here readily be utilised for this and allied plants. Dr. Sibthorp identified this species with the A\6r) of Dioscorides ; hence it is not probable that A. vulgaris is simultaneously also of American origin, although it is cultivated in the Antilles, and furnishes from thence the main supply of the Barbadoes aloe. In East India this species also seemingly only exists in a cultivated state. Haworth found the leaves of this and of A. striata softer and more succulent than those of any other aloe. It is said to be the only species with yellow flowers among those early known. It is also this species only which Professor Willkomm and Professor Parlatore record as truly wild in Spain and Italy.

Aloe Zeyheri, Harvey.

South Africa. A magnificent, very tall species ; doubtless valuable like the rest.

Aloexylon Agallochum, Loureiro,

Cochin- China, on the highest mountains. The precious aloe wood, so famed for its balsamic fragrance and medicinal pro- perties, is derived from this tree.

Alopecurus bulbosus, Linne.

Middle and South Europe. An important grass for salt marshes.

Alopecurus geniculatus,

Europe, Asia, North Africa. A good fodder-grass for swampy ground ; easily naturalised.

Alopecurus pratensis, Linne.*

Meadow Foxtail-Grass. Europe, North Africa, North and Middle Asia. One of the best of perennial pasture-grasses. It attains to its full perfection only after a few years of growth, as noticed by Sinclair. For this reason it is not equal to Dactylis glomerata for the purpose of changing crops. Other- wise it is more nutritious than the latter, although the annual return in Britain proved less. Sheep thrive well on it. Sinclair and others found that this grass, when exclusively combined with white clover, will support from the second season five ewes and five lambs on an acre of sandy loam. But this grass, to thrive well, needs land not altogether dry. In all permanent artificial pastures this Alopecurus should form one of the prin- cipal ingredients, because it is so lasting and so nutritive. In our Alpine regions it would also prove prolific, and might

2 '2 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

convert many places there gradually into summer pastures. It is early flowering, and likes the presence of lime in the soil.

Alstonia constricta, F. v. Mueller.

Warmer parts of East Australia, particularly in the dry inland districts. The bark of this small tree is aromatic bitter, and regarded as valuable in ague, also as a general tonic. It is allied to the Dita bark of India and North-Eastern Australia from Alstonia scholaris, R. Brown, and produces a peculiar alkaloid, alstonin (Baron von Mueller and L. Hummel). See Wittstein's Organic Constituents of Plants (edit. Muell. 1878, p. 330).

Alstrcemeria pallida, Graham.

Chili. Palatable starch can be obtained from the root of this plant, which, for its loveliness alone, deserves a place in any garden. The tubers of others of the numerous Alstrcemerias can doubtless be utilised in a similar technic manner.

Althaea officinalis, Linne.

The Real Marsh-Mallow. Europe, North Africa, North and Middle Asia. A tall perennial herb, with handsome flowers. The mucilaginous root and also the foliage are used for medi- cinal purposes. The plant succeeds best on damp, somewhat saline soil.

Amarantus Blitum, Linne.

South Europe, North Africa, South-West Asia. This annual herb is a favourite plant among allied ones for spinage ; but not only species of this genus, but also many other Amaran- tacese serve as culinary herbs. The dried plant contains 10 to 12 per cent, nitrate of potash. It arrives at maturity in two to three months, producing on good soil about 4 tons per acre, equal to about 400 Ibs. saltpetre. A. cruentus L., A. hypochondri- acus L., and A. caudatus L., are cultivated in Ceylon. A. fru- mentaceus, Hamilt., is closely allied to the first one mentioned, and attains 6 feet on slopes of mountains, when cultivated in South India for food-grain. The leaves serve as a vegetable.

Amarantus paniculatus, Linne.

In tropical countries of Asia and also America. An annual herb, yielding half a pound of floury nutritious seeds on a square yard of ground in three months, according to Roxburgh, Extensively cultivated in India.

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 23

AmelancMer Botryapium, Candolle.

The Grape-Pear of North America. This handsome fruit tree attains a height of 30 feet. The purplish or almost black fruits are small, but of pleasant subacid taste, and ripen early in the season. It bears abundantly, so much so that Mr. Adams of Ohio calculated the yield at 300 bushels per acre annually, if the variety oblongifolia is chosen. It is the Dwarf June-berry of North America. This bush or tree will live in sandsoil ; but it is one of those hardy kinds particularly eligible for our Alps.

Amyris terebinthifolia, Tenore.

Brazil. Is perfectly hardy in Victoria and is content in dry ground without any irrigation; It proved one of the best among the smaller avenue trees, is beautifully spreading and umbrageous, and probably of medicinal value.

Anacyclus Pyrethrum, Candolle.

Countries near the Mediterranean Sea. The root of this perennial herb is used medicinally.

Andropogon argenteus, Candolle.

Pronounced by Leybold to be one of the best fodder-grasses of the Cordilleras of Chili.

Andropogon australis, Sprengel. (Sorghum plumosum, Beauvois.) Tropical and also eastern extra-tropic Australia as far south as Gippsland. Brought under notice by Mr. Ch. Moore as an admirable perennial pasture-grass. The allied A. tropicus, Sprengel (Sorghum fulvum, Beauv.), of tropical Australia, South Asia, China, and Japan, serves similar purposes.

Andropogon avenaceus, Michaux. (Sorghum avenaceum, Willd.) North and Central America. This tall perennial grass lives in dry, sandy soil, and should here be tried for growth of fodder.

Andropogon bicolor, Roxburgh.

Warmer parts of Asia. One of the annual tall Sorghums. It ripens its seeds in three or four months from the time of sowing, the produce in good soil being often upwards of one hundredfold. It is a wholesome grain.

Andropogon Calamus, Royle.

Central India. The Sweet Calamus of the Ancients. From

24 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

this species the Gingergrass Oil of Nemaur is distilled, an article much used in perfumery.

Andropogon cernuus, Roxburgh.* (Sorghum cernuum, Willd.) One of the Guinea-Corns. India, where it is much culti- vated, and so also in other tropical countries. It is perennial, and forms the " staff of life" of the mountaineers beyond Bengal, It reaches a height of 15 feet, with leaves over 3 feet long. The thick stems are rooting at the lower joints, and cattle are very fond of them. The grain is white. The specific limits of the various Sorghums are not well ascertained.

Andropogon citratus, Candolle.

The Lemon Grass of India. It yields an essential oil for perfumery ; besides it is occasionally used for tea. This applies as well to Andropogon Nardus, L., and some allied grasses.

Andropogon erianthoides, F. v. Mueller.

Eastern Sub-tropical Australia. Mr. Bailey observes of this perennial grass that " it would be difficult to find a grass superior for fodder to this ; it produces a heavy crop of rich, sweet, succulent herbage ; it spreads freely from roots and seeds, and shoots again when fed down."

Andropogon falcatus, Steudel.

India and Queensland. Considered by Mr. Bailey a good lawn-grass, of dwarf, compact growth, and of bright verdure.

Andropogon Gryllos, Linne.

In the warm, temperate, and the hot zone of the eastern hemi- sphere. A useful fodder-grass (Bailey) .

Andropogon Haleppensis, Sibthorp,

South Europe, warmer parts of Asia and North Africa. Praised already by Theophrastos more than 2,000 years ago. Not easily repressed in wet ground. A rich perennial grass, cultivated often under the name of Cuba Grass. It yields a large hay crop, as it may be cut half a dozen times in a season, should the land be rich. All kinds of stock have a predilection for this grass. It will mat the soil with its deep and spread- ing roots ; hence it should be kept from cultivated fields. In Victoria hardy up to 2,000 feet elevation.

Andropogon Ivarancusa, Roxburgh.

One of the fragrant grasses of North India, much used like A. Schoenanthus.

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 25

Andropogon Martini, Roxburgh. (A.flexuosus, Nees.)

Tropical Asia and Australia. The fragant Citronella Oil is distilled in Ceylon and elsewhere from the leaves of this species. General Martin observed that cattle are voraciously fond of this grass ; but it imparts its fragrance to meat and milk. Regarded by Munro a variety of A. Schoenanthas.

Andropogon muricatus, Retzius.

India. A swamp-grass, with delightfully fragrant roots. Ac- cording to Dr. G. King, the fragrant Indian mats are made of this grass.

Andropogon nutans, Linne. (Sorghum nutans, Gray.)

North America. A tall, nutritious, perennial grass, content with dry and barren soil.

Andropogon pertusus, Willdenow.

South Asia, Tropical and Sub-tropical Australia. Perennial. Mr. Nixon, of Benalla, regards it as one of the best grasses to withstand long droughts, while it will bear any amount of feeding. It endures cold better than some other Andropogons of Queensland, according to Mr. Bailey's observations.

Andropogon refractus, R. Brown.

North and East Australia, Polynesia. Mr. Bailey observes of this perennial grass, that it is equally excellent for pastures and hay, and that it produces a heavy crop during summer; the root is fragrant.

Andropogon saccharatuSj Roxburgh.* (Sorghum saccharatum, Pers.)

Tropical Asia. The Broom Corn. A tall annual species, splendid as a fodder-grass. Produces of all grasses, except the Teosinte, the heaviest fodder-crop in warm climes. From the saccharine juice sugar is obtainable. A sample of such, prepared from plants of the Melbourne Botanic Garden, was shown at the Exhibition of 1862. This Sorghum furnishes also material for a well-known kind of brooms. A variety or a closely allied species yields the Caffir Corn (A. Caffrorum, Kunth). The plant can be advantageously utilised for pre- paring treacle. For this purpose the sap is expressed at the time of flowering, and simply evaporated ; the yield is about 100 gallons from the acre. In 1860 nearly seven millions of gallons of sorghum treacle were produced in the United States. The stem can be used as a culinary vegetable.

26 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

Andropogon schcenanthus, Lhme.

South Asia and Tropical Australia. A scented grass, allied to the Indian oil-yielding- Andropogons. The medicinal Siri oil is prepared from the root. A similar species occurs in arid places of the interior of North Australia.

Andropogon sericeus, ft. Brown.

Hotter regions of Australia, even in desert tracts, also extend- ing to New Caledonia and the Philippine Islands. A fattening perennial pasture-grass, worthy of praise.

Andropogon Sorghum, Brotero.* (Sorghum vulgar e, Persoon.)

The large Indian Millet or Guinea-Corn, or the Durra. Warmer parts of Asia. A tall annual plant. The grains can be converted into bread, porridge, and other preparations of food. It is a very prolific corn — Sir John Hearsay counted 12,700 seeds on one plant — and particularly valuable for green fodder. The panicles are used for carpet-brooms, the fibrous roots for velvet-brushes. A kind of beer called " Merisa " is prepared from the seed. Many others of the numerous species of Andropogon, from both hemispheres, deserve our attention.

Anemone Pulsatilla,

Europe and Northern Asia. On limestone soil. This pretty perennial herb is of some medicinal importance.

Angophora intermedia, Candolle.

South-East Australia. This is one of the best of the Ango- phoras, attaining a height of 50 feet, and growing with the rapidity of a Eucalyptus, but being more close and shady in its foliage. It would be one of our best trees to line public roads and to effect shelter-plantations.

Angophora subvelutina, F. v. Mueller.

Queensland and New South Wales. The tallest of the species; attains a height of 100 feet. The wood is light and tough, soft while green, very hard when dry, used for wheel-naves, bullock-yokes, handles, &c. ; it burns well and contains a large proportion of potash (Hartmann) . According to Messrs. Bailey and Kirton, as much as two gallons of liquid kino can sometimes be obtained from a single tree of Ango- phora lanceolata.

Anona Cherimolia, Miller.

Tropical and Sub-tropical South America. This shrub or tree

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 27

might be tried in the frostless forest-valleys, where humidity and rich soil will prove favourable to its growth. It yields the Cherimoyer fruit. The flowers are very fragrant.

Anthemis nobilis, Linne.

The true Camomile. Middle and South Europe, North Africa. A well-known medicinal plant, frequently used as edgings for garden plots. Flowers in their normal state are preferable for medicinal use to those in which the ray flowers are produced in increased numbers. They contain a peculiar volatile oil and two acids similar to angelic and valerianic acid.

Anthemis tinctoria, Linne.

Middle and South Europe,, Orient. An annual herb. The flowers contain a yellow dye.

Anthistiria avenacea, F. v. Mueller.

New South Wales and Queensland. A nutritious, perennial pasture-grass. Called by Mr. Bailey " one of the most pro- ductive grasses of Australia '," it produces a large amount of bottom-fodder, but it has also the advantage of being a pro- lific seeder.

Anthistiria ciliata, Linne, fil. (AntJmtiria Austratis, R. Brown.) The well-known Kangaroo Grass, not confined to Australia, but stretching through Southern Asia also, and through the whole of Africa. It is mentioned here, because its growth should be encouraged by every means. There are several spe- cies of Anthistiria deserving introduction and naturalisation in warm, temperate or tropic climes.

Anthoxanthum odoratum, Linne.

The scented Vernal Grass. Europe, North and Middle Asia, North Africa. Perennial, and not of great value as a fattening grass, yet always desired for the flavour which it imparts to hay. Perhaps for this purpose the scented Andropogons might serve here also. On deep and moist soils it attains its greatest perfection. It is much used for mixing among permanent

frasses on pastures, where it will continue long in season, fc would live well in our Alps. The lamellar crystaline Cuma- rin is the principle on which the odour of Anthoxanthum depends.

Anthriscus Cerefolium, Hoffmann.

Europe and West Asia. The Chervil. An annual culinary

28 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

plant, its herbage used as an aromatic condiment, but the root seemingly deleterious.

Anthyllis vulneraria, Linne.

The Kidney Vetch. All Europe, North Africa, West Asia. This perennial herb serves as sheep fodder, and is particularly recommended for calcareous soils. It would also live on our Alps.

Apios tuberosa, Moench.

North America. A climber, with somewhat milky juice. The mealy tubers are edible.

Apium graveolens, Linne.

The Celery. Europe, North Africa, North and Middle Asia. It is here merely inserted with a view of pointing out that, it might be readily naturalised on our sea-shores.

Apium prostratum, La Billardiere.

The Australian Celery. Extra-tropical Australia, New Zea- land, Extra-tropical South America. This also can be utilised as a culinary vegetable.

Apocynum cannabinum, Linne.

On river-banks in North America. A perennial herb. This is recorded among plants yielding a textile fibre.

Aponogeton crispus, Thunberg.

From India to New South Wales. The tuberous roots of this water-herb are amylaceous and of excellent taste, though not large. The same remarks apply to A. monostachyus, Linne, fil.

Aponogeton distachyos, Thunberg.

South Africa. This curious water-plant might be naturalised in our ditches, swamps, and lakes, for the sake of its edible tubers. The scented flowering portion affords spinage.

Aquilaria Agallocha, Roxburgh.

On the mountains of Silhet and Assam. A tree of immense size. It furnishes the fragrant calambac or agallochum- wood, known also as aggur or tuggur or the aloe-wood of commerce, famed since ancient times. The odorous portion is only partially distributed through the stem. This wood is also of medicinal value.

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES, 29

Arachis hypogaea, Linne.*

The Earth-Nut, Pea-Nut, or Ground-Nut . Brazil. The seeds of this annual herb are consumed in a roasted state, or used for pressing from them a palatable oil. The plant is a very productive one, and yields a very quick return. It ranks also as a valuable fodder-herb ; the hay is very nutritious, much increasing the milk of cows. A light somewhat calcareous soil is best fitted for its growth. On such soil 50 bushels may be obtained from the acre.

Aralia cordata, Thunberg.

China. The young shoots provide an excellent culinary vege- table.

Araucaria Bidwilli, Hooker.*

Bunya-Bunya. Southern Queensland. A tree 150 feet in height, with a fine-grained, hard, and durable wood, particu- larly valuable for furniture ; it shows its beautiful veins best when polished. The seeds are large and edible. Mr. Hart- mann observed trees 250 feet high.

Araucaria Brasiliensis, A. Richard.*

Brazilian Pine. South Brazil. A tree 180 feet high, pro- ducing edible seeds. Dr. Saldanhada Gama reports that it makes splendid boards, masts and spars, and that the sap yields a good deal of turpentine. Except a few palms (Mau- ritia, Attalea, Copernicia) this seems the only tree which in Tropical South America forms forests by itself (Martius) .

Araucaria Cookii, R. Brown.

In New Caledonia, where it forms large forests. Height of tree 200 feet.

Araucaria Cunninghami, Aiton.

Moreton Bay Pine. East Australia, between 14° and 32° south latitude extending also to New Guinea, according to Dr. Beccari. The tree attains a height of 200 feet and a stem 6 feet in diameter. The timber is fine-grained, strong, and durable, if not exposed to alternately dry and wet influences ; it is susceptible of a high polish, and thus competes with satin wood and birds-eye maple (Queensland Exhibition, 1877). Value in Brisbane £2-15 to £3-10 per 1,000 superficial feet.

Araucaria excelsa, R. Brown.

Norfolk Island Pine. A magnificent tree, sometimes 220 feet

30 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

high, with a stem attaining 10 feet in diameter. The timber is useful for ship-building and many other purposes.

Araucaria imbricata, Pavon.*

Chili and Patagonia. The male tree attains only a height of 50 feet, but the female reaches 150 feet. It furnishes a hard and durable timber, as well as an abundance of edible seeds, which constitute a main article of food of the natives. Eighteen good trees will yield enough for a man's sustenance all the year round. The wood is yellowish white, full of beautiful veins, and capable of being polished and worked with facility. It is admirably adapted for ship-building. The resin is pale and smells like frankincense (Lawson).

Araucaria Rulei, F. v. Mueller.

New Caledonia. A magnificent tree with large shining foli- age, doubtless not merely of decorative, but also of utilitarian value. A closely-allied species, A. Muelleri (Brogniart), comes with A. Balansse and A. montana from the same island. The New Guinea Araucarias should also be introduced.

Arbutus Menziesii, Pursh.

North-West America. An evergreen tree, attaining a height of 150 feet. It belongs to the coast tract exclusively. Wood exceedingly hard. The tree requires a deep loamy soil (Bolan- der) ; it would here be valuable at least as a highly ornamental garden plant.

Archangelica officinalis, Hoffmann.

Arctic zone and mountain regions of Europe. The stalks are used for confectionery ; the roots are of medicinal use. Only in our Alps would this herb fully establish its value. The root is biennial and used in the distillation of some cordials.

Arctostaphylos uva ursi, Sprengel.

Alpine and Arctic Europe, North Asia and North America. A medicinal small shrub, which here could best be reared in the heath-moors of Alpine regions.

Arenga saccharifera, La Billardiere.

India. This Palm attains a height of 40 feet. The black fibres of the leaf -stalks adapted for cables and ropes intended to resist wet very long. The juice converted into toddy or sugar; the young kernels made with syrup into preserves. This Palm dies as soon as it has produced its fruit ; the stem

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 31

then becomes hollow and is used for spouts and troughs of great durability. The pith supplies sago, about 150 Ibs. from a tree, according to Roxburgh. An Arenga occurs as far south as Japan.

Argania sideroxylon, Roemer and Schultes.

The Argan Tree. Western Barbary, on dry hills. Its growth is generally slow; but it is a tree of longevity. Though comparatively low in stature, its foliage occasionally spreads to a circumference of 220 feet. It sends out suckers from the root. The fruits serve as food for cattle in Morocco ; but here the kernels would be more likely to be utilised by pressing an oil from them. Height of tree exceptionally 70 feet.

Aristida prodigiosa, Welwitsch.*

Angola, on the driest sand-hills. A perennial fodder-grass, of which the discoverer speaks in glowing terms of praise. In the West African desert country, in places bare of almost all other vegetation, zebras, antelopes and hares resort with avidity to this grass ; it affords in the dry season there, also, almost the only fodder for domestic grazing animals. Moreover, this seems to indicate that the closely cognate A. plumosa, L., and A. ciliata, Desf., of the countries at or near the Mediter- ranean Sea, might likewise be encouraged in their natural or for cultural growth. All feathery grasses are, besides, among the most lovely for minor decorative purposes or designs, and this may also be said of the Australian plumous Stipa elegant- ij La Billardiere.

Aristolochia Indica, Linne.

Tropical Asia and Polynesia. A perennial climber ; the leaves famed as an alexipharmic. Can only be grown in places free from frost.

Aristolochia recurvilabra, Hance.

The green Putchuck of China. A medicinal plant, largely obtained at Ningpo. The present value of its export is from £20,000 to 30,000 annually.

Aristolochia serpentaria, Linne.

The Snake-Root of North America. The root of this trailing herb is valuable in medicine ; it contains a peculiar volatile oil. Several other Aristolochise deserve culture for medicinal pur- poses, — for instance, Aristolochia ovalifolia (the Guaco) and A. anguicida, from the mountains of Central America.

32 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

Aristotelia Macqui, L'Heritier.

Chili. The berries of this shrub, though small, have the pleasant taste of bilberries, and are largely consumed in Chili. The plant would thrive in our forest valleys.

Arnica montana, Linne.

Colder parts of Europe. This pretty herb is perennial, and of medicinal value. It is eligible for our sub-alpine regions. The active principles are : arnicin, volatile oil, caproic and caprylic acid.

Arracacha xanthorrhiza, Bancroft.

Mountain regions of Central America. An umbelliferous herb. The roots are nutritious and palatable. There are yellow, purple and pale varieties*

Artemisia Absinthium, Linne.

The Wormwood. Europe, North and Middle Asia, and North Africa. A perennial herb, valuable as a tonic and anthelmin- thic. Several other species of Artemisia deserve cultivation for medicinal purposes. Active principles : Absinthin, an oily substance indurating to a crystalline mass, a volatile oil peculiar to the species.

Artemisia Cina, Berg.

Kurdistan. This herb furnishes the genuine Santonica seeds (or rather flowers and fruits) as a vermifuge of long-estab- lished use. Some other Asiatic species yield a similar drug.

Artemisia Dracunculus, Linne.

The Tarragon or Estragon. North Asia. A perennial herb, used as a condiment. Its flavour rests on two volatile oils, one of them peculiar to the plant.

Artemisia Mutellina, Villars.

Alps of Europe. This aromatic, somewhat woody plant de- serves to be established in our snowy regions.

Artemisia Pontica, Linne.

Middle and South Europe, West Asia. More aromatic and less bitter than the ordinary wormwood. Many other species of this genus deserve attention of the culturist.

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 33

|

Artocarpus incisa, G. Forster.*

The Tahiti Bread- Fruit Tree. It stretches in the Sandwich island through cultivation almost beyond the tropics. The oldest name of this well-known and remarkable tree is that given in 1776 by R. & G. Forster, viz., A. communis. Accord- ing to Dr. Seemann's excellent account seedless varieties exist and others with entire leaves and smooth and variously shaped and sized fruits, others again ripening earlier, others later, so that ripe bread-fruit is obtainable more or less abundantly throughout the year. The fruit is simply boiled or baked or converted into more complicated kinds of food. The very fibrous bark can be beaten into a sort of rough cloth. The light would serve for canoes. The exudation issuing from cuts made into the stem is in use for closing the seams of canoes.

Artocarpus integrifolia, Linne*.

India. The famous Jack-Tree, ascending like the allied A. Lakoocha (Roxburgh) to 4,000 feet.

Arundinaria falcata, Nees.

The Ringal or Ningala Bamboo of the Himalayas, at elevations from 3,500 to 10,000 feet, forming close and dense thickets. Foliage pale green. It rises to the height of 40 feet ; the canes durable, attaining a diameter of only 4 inches, applied to manifold useful purposes. This bamboo does not necessarily require moisture. It is as hardy as the Pampas Grass and can be propagated even in an English clime in the open air from cuttings. In reference to various bamboos refer to the Gardener's Chronicle of December 1876, also the Bulletin de la Societe d'Acclimation de Paris, 1878. The closely allied Jur- boota Bamboo of Nepal, which occurs only in the cold altitudes of from 7, 000 to 10,000 feet, differs in solitary stems, not growing in clumps. The Tham or Kaptur Bamboo is from a still colder zone, at from 8,500 to 11,500 feet, only 500 feet or less below the inferior limits of perpetual glaciers (Major Madden) .

Arundinaria Japonica, Siebold and Zuccarini.

Japan, attains a height of from 6 to 12 feet. Hardy in the south of England (Dr. Shapter).

Arundinaria macrosperma, Michaux.

Southern States of North America, particularly on the Missis- sippi. This bamboo-like reed forms there the canebrakes. It

34 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

%

requires to be replanted after flowering in the course of years. Height, 20 feet.

Arundo Ampelodesmos, Cyrillo.

South Europe, North Africa. Almost as large as a Gynerium. The tough flower-stems and leaves readily available for tying.

Arundo Bengalensis, Roxburgh.

China, India. Closely allied to A. Donax. The long panicle beautifully variegated white and violet (Hance) .

Arundo conspicua, G. Forster.

New Zealand and Chatham Islands. Although not strictly an industrial plant, it is mentioned here as important for scenic effect, flowering before the still grander A. Sellowiana comes in bloom.

Arundo Donax, Linne*.

The tall evergreen lasting Bamboo Reed of South Europe and North Africa. It is one of the most important plants of its class for quickly producing a peculiar scenic effect in pic- turesque plantations, also for intercepting at once the view to unsightly objects, and for giving early shelter. The canes can be used for fishing-rods.

Arundo Karka, Roxburgh.

India, China, Japan. The Burma mats are made of the split stems of this tall reed.

Arundo Pliniana, Turra.

On the Mediterranean and Adriatic Seas. A smaller plant than A. Donax, with more slender stems and narrower leaves, but similarly evergreen, and resembling the Donax Reed also in its roots.

Arundo saccharoides. Grisebach. (Gynerium saccharoides, Hum- boldt.)

Northern parts of South America. 20 feet high. Like the following, it is conspicuously magnificent.

Arundo Sellowiana, Schultes. (Arundo dioica} Sprengel non Loureiro. Gynerium argenteum, Nees.)

The Pampas Grass of Uruguay, Paraguay, and the La Plata State. A grand autumnal-flowering reed, with gorgeous

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 35

feathery panicles. As an industrial plant it deserves here a place, because paper can be prepared from its leaves.

Asparagus acutifolius, Linne*.

In all the countries arround the Mediterranean Sea, also in the Canary Islands. Although a shrubby Asparagus, yet the root-shoots, according to Dr. Heldreich, are collected in Greece, and are tender and of excellent taste, though somewhat thin- ner than those of the ordinary herbaceous species. The shrub grows on stony rises, and the shoots are obtained without cultivation, A. aphyllus L., and A. horridus L., according to Dr. Reinhold, are utilised in the same manner, and all may probably yield an improved produce by regular and careful culture.

Asparagus albus, Linne.

Countries around the Mediterranean Sea and Canary Islands, Serves for garden hedges.

Asparagus laricinus, Burchell.

South Africa. Dr. Pappe observes of this shrubby species, that with some other kinds of that country it produces shoots of excellent tenderness and aromatic taste.

Asparagus officinalis, Linne.

Europe, North Africa, North Asia. The well-known As- paragus plant, which, if naturalised on our coast, would aid in binding the sand. The foliage contains inosit-sugar ; the shoots yield asparagin. Sea-weeds are a good additional material for forcing asparagus.

Asperula odorata, Linne.

The Woodruff. Europe, North Africa, West and North Asia. A perennial herb with highly fragrant flowers; it deserves naturalisation in forests, containing much cumarin in its flowers, and serving in Germany for preparing the "mai- trank."

Aspidosperma Quebracho, Grisebach.

Argentina. Shrub or tree, even tall, with a wood fit for xylo- graphy. The bitter bark is tannic and febrifugal (Lorentz). The bark is almost as rich as that of Acacia Cebil. The leaves contain even 27 J per cent.; both have the advantage of pro- ducing an almost colourless leather (Sievert) . R Jean states that even the Quebracho-wood contains 14 to 16 per cent, of tannic and 2 to 3 per cent, of gallic acid.

36 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

Astragalus arenarius, Linne.

Europe and Western Asia. A perennial fodder-herb for any sandy desert country. The species, numerous in various parts of Europe and Asia, in California and some other parts of the globe, deserve attention for pasture and other agro- nomic purposes.

Astragalus cephalonicus, Fischer. (A. aristatus, Sibthorp.)

Cephalonia. A small shrub, yielding a good tragacanth; and so probably also the true A. aristatus of PHeritier is pro- ducing it.

Astragalus Cicer, Linne.

Middle and South Europe and Middle Asia. A nutritious and tasty perennial herb, much sought by grazing animals. It requires, according to Langethal, deep friable grounds and, like most leguminous herbs, calcareous ingredients in the soil.

Astragalus Creticus, Lamarck.

Candia and Greece. A small bush, exuding the ordinary vermicular tragacanth. The pale is preferable to the brown sort.

Astragalus glycyphyllos, Linne*.

Europe and North Asia. Succeeds on light soil, also in forest regions. It has been recommended as a perennial substantial fodder-plant.

Astragalus gummifer, La Billardiere.

Syria and Persia. This shrub also yields a good kind of tra- gacanth.

Astragalus hypoglottis, Linne.

In the colder regions of Europe, Asia and North America. This perennial plant is regarded as a good fodder-herb on cal- careous and gravelly soil, and would likely be of importance for our Alps. Of the enormous number of supposed species of this genus (according to Boissier, not less that 750 merely in Asia Minor and the adjoining countries) many must be of value for pasture, like some of the closely-allied Australian Swainsonas, though they also may include deleterious species. A. Hornii and A. lentiginosus, A. Gray, are poisonous to cattle in California.

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 37

Astragalus Parnassi, Boissier. (A. Cyllenem, Heldreich.)

Greece. This small shrub furnishes there almost exclusively the commercial Tragacanth. It ascends to elevations of 7,000 feet, becomes therefore alpine.

Astragalus strabiliferus, Royle.

Asiatic Turkey. The brown tragacanth is collected from this species.

Astragalus venosus, Hochstetter.

From Abyssinia to Central Africa. This perennial herb is subjected to regular cultivation for fodder known as " Hamat Kochata" (Oliver).

Astragalus verus, Olivier.

Asiatic Turkey and Persia. This shrub furnishes the Takalor or Smyrna Tragacanth, or it is derived from an allied species.

Astrebla pectinata, F. v. Mueller.* (Danthoniapectinata, Lindley.) New South Wales, Queensland, North and Central Australia, in arid regions, always inland. A perennial desert grass, resist- ing drought, sought with avidity by sheep and very fattening to them and other pasture animals.

Astrebla triticoides, F. v. Mueller.* (Dantkonia triticoides,

Lindley.)

The Mitchell Grass. Of nearly the same natural distribution as the preceding, and equalling that species in value. Both so important as to deserve rearing even in their native country.

Atalantia glauca, J. Hooker.

New South Wales and Queensland. This Desert Lemon is mentioned here to draw attention to the likelihood of its im- proving in culture, and to its fitness for being grown in arid land.

Atriplex crystallinum, J. Hooker.

South-East Australia and Tasmania on the coast. This herb vegetates solely in salty coast-sands, which, like Cakile, it helps to bind, on the brink of the ocean and exposed to its spray.

Atriplex halimoides, Lindley.*

Over the greater part of the saline desert-interior of Australia, reaching the south and west coasts. A dwarf bush, with its frequent companion, A. holocarpum, among the very best for salt-bush pasture.

38 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

Atriplex hortensis, Linne.

North and Middle Asia. The Arroche. An annual spinach- plant.

Atriplex nummularmm, Lindley.

From Queensland through the desert tracts to Victoria and South Australia. One of the tallest and most fattening and wholesome of Australian pastoral salt -bushes, also highly recommendable for artificial rearing, as the spontaneously- growing plants, by close occupation of the sheep and cattle runs, have largely disappeared, and as this useful bush even in many wide tracts of Australia does not exist.

Atriplex spongiosum, F. v. Mueller.

Through a great part of Central Australia, extending to the west coast. Available like the preceding and several other native species for salt-bush culture. Unquestionably some of the shrubby extra- Australian species, particularly those of the Siberian and Californian steppes, could also be transferred advantageously to salt-bush country elsewhere, to increase its value, particularly for sheep pasture.

Atriplex vesicarium, Reward.*

In the interior of South-Eastern Australia and also in Central Australia. Perhaps the most fattening and most relished of all the dwarf pastoral salt-bushes of Australia, holding out in the utmost extremes of drought, and not scorched even by sirocco-like blazes. Its vast abundance over extensive salt- bush plains of the Australian interior, to the exclusion of almost every other bush except A. halimoides, indicates the facility with which this species disseminates itself.

Atropa Belladonna, Linne.

The Deadly Nightshade. South and Middle Europe and Western Asia. A most important perennial medicinal herb. The highly powerful atropin is derived from it, besides another alkaloid, the belladonnin.

Avena elatior, Linne.

Europe, Middle Asia, North Africa. This tall grass should not be passed altogether on this occasion, although it becomes easily irrepressible on account of its wide-creeping roots. It should here be chosen for dry and barren tracts of country, it having proved to resist occasional droughts even better than Rye-Grass. The bulk yielded by it is great ; it submits well

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 39

to depasturing, and gives two or three crops of hay annually ; it is, however, not so much relished by animals as many other grasses.

Avena fatua, Linne.

Wild Oat. Europe, North Africa, North and Middle Asia, eastward as far as Japan. The experiments of Professor Buckman indicate that our ordinary Culture Oat (Avena sativa, L.) is descended from this plant.

Avena flavescens, Linne. (TrisetumflavescenSj Beauv.)

Yellowish Oat- Grass. Europe, North Africa, Middle and North Asia, eastward as far as Japan. One of the best of perennial meadow-grasses, living on dry soil ; fitted also for our Alps. Lawson observes that it yields a considerable bulk of fine foliage, and that it is eagerly sought by sheep, but that it , thrives best intermixed with other grasses. It likes particu- larly limestone soil, where it forms a most valuable under- grass, but is not adapted for poor sand, nor will it stand well the traversing of grazing animals (Langethal) .

Avena pratensis, Linne.

Meadow Oat-Grass. Europe, North Asia. It thrives well on dry, clayey soil ; it produces a sweet fodder, but not in so great a proportion as several other less nutritious grasses. It is perennial, and well adapted for our snowy mountains, where it would readily establish itself, even on heathy moors. Re- commended by Langethal for arid ground, particularly such as contains some lime, being thus as valuable as Festuca ovina. Eligible also for meadows under a system of irriga- tion.

Avena pubescens, Linne.

Downy Oat-Grass. Europe, North and Middle Asia. A sweet perennial grass, requiring dry but good soil, containing lime. It is nutritious and prolific. One of the earliest kinds, but not well resisting traffic. Several good Oat-grasses are peculiar to North America and other parts of the globe. Their relative value as fodder-grasses is in many cases not exactly known, nor does the limit assigned to this treatise allow of their being enumerated on this occasion.

Averrhoa Carambola, Linne*.

Continental and Insular India. Sir Jos. Hooker found this small tree on the Upper Indus as far as Lahore. The fruit occurs

40 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

in a sweet and acid variety ; the former is raw available for the table, the other for preserves. That of A. Bilimbi (Linne) is of similar use, especially for tarts.

Avicennia officinalis, Linne.

From the coasts of South Asia to those of South Africa, all Australia and New Zealand. It is proposed by Dr. Herm. Behr, to plant this tree for consolidating muddy tidal shores.

Azhna tetracantha, Lamarck.

From South India to South Africa. A hedge bush, growing freely in every kind of soil.

Baccharis pilularis, Candolle.

California. This evergreen bush, like B. consanguinea, is grown for hedges, used also for garlands, wrappers of flower- bouquets, and many decorative purposes, as cut branches do not wither for a considerable time. It attains a height of 15 feet (Professor Bolander) .

Backhousia citriodora, F. v. Mueller.

South Queensland. Though only a small tree it is well worth cultivating for the fragrance of its lemon-scented foliage.

Bactris GasipaBS, Humboldt. (Guilielma speciosa, Mart.)

The Peach Palm of the Amazon River, ascending to the warm temperate regions of the Andes. Stems clustered, at- taining a height of 40 feet. Dr. Spruce describes the large bunches of fruits as possessing a thick, firm and mealy peri- carp, which, when cooked, has a flavour between potato and chestnut, but superior to either.

Bacularia Arfakiana, Beccari.

In Araucaria forests of New Guinea, up to 6,000 feet. A reed- like Palm.

Bacularia monostachya, F. v. Mueller. (Areca monostachya, Mar- tius.)

Eastern Australia, extending to extra-tropical latitudes. One of the best among small Palms for table decoration. The stems sought for walking-sticks.

Baloghia lucida, Endlicher. (Codiaum luddum, J. M.)

East Australia. A middle-sized tree. The sap from the vul- nerated trunk forms, without any admixture, a beautiful red indelible pigment.

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 41

Balsamodendron Ehrenbergi, Berg.

Deserts of Arabia. This tree yields the Myrrha resin, but perhaps some other species may produce the same substance. Professor Oliver unites this with the following species.

Balsamodendron Mukul, Hooker.

Scinde and Beluchistan. Yields the Bdellium resin.

Balsamodendron Opobalsanmm, Kunth. (B. Gileadense, Kunth.) Arabia and Nubia. This species furnishes Mekka or Gilead Balsam. B. Capense (Sonder) is a closely allied species from extra-tropical South Africa. Many other Balsam shrubs de- serve introduction.

Bambusa arundinacea, "Roxburgh.*

The Thorny Bamboo of India. It likes rich, moist soil, aud delights on river banks. It is of less height than Bam- busa vulgaris ; it also sends up from the root numerous stems, but with bending branches, thorny at the joints. According to Kurz it will thrive in a climate too dry for B. Tulda and B. vulgaris. The seeds of this and some other Bamboos are useful as food for fowls.

Bambusa aspera, Poiret.

Indian Archipelagus. Attains a height of 120 feet. Stems very strong and thick. This species ascends to elevations of 4,000 feet.

Bambusa Blumeana, Schultes.

Insular India. This Bamboo, with its spiny buds and de- pendent branchlets, is, according to Kurz, one of the best for cattle-proof live hedges among the Asiatic species. In con- tinental India B. nana and B. arundinacea are much used for the same purpose. Periodic trimming is required.

Bambusa flexuosa, Munro.

China. Only 12 feet high, but very hardy, having resisted in South France a temperature of — 13° Gels. = + 8° F. (Geoffroy de St. Hilaire.)

Bambusa spinosa, Roxburgh.*

Bengal. A Bamboo attaining 100 feet in height. The cen- tral cavity of the canes is of less width than in most other species ; thus the strength for many technic purposes is in- creased.

42 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

Bambusa vulgaris, Wendland.*

The large unarmed Bamboo of Bengal. It attains a height of 70 feet, and stems may attain even a length of 40 feet in one season, though the growth is slower in cooler climes. It has proved to be capable of resisting the occasional night-frost of the lowlands of Victoria. It is the best for building bamboo houses. Immersion in water for some time renders the cane still firmer. To the series of large thornless bamboos belong also Bambusa Tulda and Bambusa Balcooa of India, and Bam- busa Thouarsii from Madagascar and Bourbon. These Bam- boos are much used for various kinds of furniture, mats, implements, and other articles. Besides this, Mr. Kurz enu- merates as among the best Asiatic bamboos for building purposes : Gigantochloa aspera, G. maxima, G. atter ; while Mr. Teysmann for the same purpose notes G. apus. Kurz recommends further Bambusa arundinacea, B. Balcooa, B. Brandisii, B. polymorpha, Dendrocalamus Hamiltoni, Schizo- stachyum Blumei. In the Moluccas, according to Costa, Gigantochloa maxima, or an allied species, produces stems thick enough to serve, when slit into halves, for canoes. Bamboos serve for masts and spars of small vessels. Bambusa Balcooa was found by Wallich to grow 12 feet in 23 days. Bambusa Tulda, according to Koxburgh, has grown at first at the rate of from 20 to 70 feet in a month. Fortune noticed the growth of several Chinese bamboos to be two to two and a half feet a day. There are many other kinds of bamboo eligible among the species from China, Japan, India, tropical America, and perhaps tropical Africa. One occurs in Arnhem's Land, and one at least in North Queensland.

Baptisia tinctoria, R. Brown.

The wild Indigo of Canada and the United States. A peren- nial herb. It furnishes a fair pigment in the manner of treat- ing the best Indigoferas.

Barbaraea vulgaris, R. Brown.

In the cooler regions of all parts of the globe, ascending to Alpine zones. This herb furnishes a wholesome salad. As with other raw vegetables, particularly watercress (Nastur- tium aquaticum, Trag.), circumspect care is necessary to free such salads from possibly adherent Echinococcus-ova or other germs of entozoa, particularly in localities where hydatids prevail.

Barosma serratifolia, Willdenow.

South Africa. This shrub supplies the medicinal Bucco leaves.

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 43

B. crenulata, Hock. (Diosma crenulata, L.,) is only a variety o£ this species. Active principles : a peculiar volatile oil, a peculiar resin, and a crystalline substance called diosmin.

Basella lucida, Linne.

India. Perennial. This spinage-plant has somewhat the odour of Ocimum Basilicum ; other species serve also culinary purposes.

Basella rubra, Linne.

From South Asia to Japan. This annual or biennial herb serves as a spinage of pleasant colouration.

Batis maritima, Linne.

Central America and northward to Florida, also in the Sand- wich Islands. This halorageous shrub can be used to fix tidal sediments for the reclamation of valuable harbour-lands.

Beesha elegantissima, Hasskarl.

Java, or mountains about 4,000 feet high. Very tall and ex- ceedingly slender; the upper branches pendulous. A hardy species of Bamboo.

Benincasa cerifera, SavL

India. This annual plant produces a large edible gourd, which in an unripe state forms part of the composition of many kinds of currie.

Berberis Asiatica, Roxburgh.

Himalaya. One of the best among numerous species with edible berries. Among these may specially be mentioned B. lycium (Royle) and B. aristata (Candolle), which also yield valuable yellow dye-wood (Dr. Rosenthal).

Berberis buxifolia, Lamarck.

From Magelhaen's Straits to Chili. This bush, according to Dr. Philippi, is the best among the South American species for berries, which are comparatively large, black, hardly acid, but slightly astringent. In Valdivia and Chiloe they are fre- quently consumed.

Berberis Darwinii, Hooker.

Chiloe and South Chili. Considered one of the most hand- some of all shrubs for garden hedges. Several other evergreen Berbery shrubs serve the same purpose.

44 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

Berberis Nepalensis, Sprengel.

Himalayas, at elevations between 4,000 and 8,000 feet. The fruit of this evergreen species is edible.

Beta vulgaris, Linne.*

The Beet or Mangold Root. Middle and South Europe, Middle Asia, North Africa. This well-known perennial or biennial herb ought to engage the general and extensive atten- tion of our farming population. The herb is most valuable as a palatable and nutritious spinage ; the root is of importance not only as a culinary vegetable, but as well known, also for its content of sugar, fit to be crystallised. That of beet, indeed, is now almost exclusively consumed in Russia, Ger- many, Austria, France, Sweden, and Belgium ; and these coun- tries not only produce the beet sugar, but also export it largely to the neighbouring States. The white Sicilian Beet is mainly used for salads, spinage, and soups. The thick- ribbed variety serves like asparagus or sea-kale, dressed like rhubarb. Cereal soil, particularly such as is fit for barley, is generally adapted also for the culture of beet. The rearing of the root, and the manufacture of the sugar, can be studied from manifold works ; one has been compiled by Mr. N. Levy, of Melbourne. A deeply-stirred, drained soil, rich in lime, brings the saccharine variety of beet to the greatest perfection. The Imperial Beet yields from 12 to 20 per cent, sugar. The Castlenauderry, the Magdeburg, the Siberian Whiterib, and the Vilmorin Beet are other varieties rich in sugar. About 5 Ibs. of seeds are required for an acre. In rotation of crops, the beet takes its place best between barley and oats. In Middle Europe the yield averages 14 tons of sugar beet to the acre, and as many hundredweight of raw sugar. The mercantile value of the root, at our distilleries, ranged from 20s. to '30s. per ton. In our clime the beet harvest can be extended over a far longer time of the year than in Middle Europe. The extraction of the sap is effected generally by hydraulic pressure. The juice is purified with lime and animal coal. Excess of lime is removed by carbonic acid, and the purified and decolourized juice is evaporated in vacuum pans, with a view to prevent the extensive conversion of the crystallisable sugar into treacle. The production of beet sugar needs far less labour than that of cane sugar, and the harvest is obtained in so short a time as eight months. Beet has shown itself subject neither to alarming diseases nor to extensive attacks of insects. Beet is grown in extra-tropical zones, while the sugarcane is a plant confined to tropical and sub-tropical latitudes. Beet culture, by directly or indirectly restoring the

IN EXTEA -TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 45

refuse, ameliorates the soil to such an extent that in some parts of Germany land so utilised has risen to fourfold its former value. Beet furthermore affords one of the most fattening stable-fodders ; and thus again an ample supply of manure. In Middle Europe now about one-sixth of all the arable land is devoted to beet, yet the produce of cereals has not become reduced, while the rearing of fattened cattle has increased. Notwithstanding a heavy tax on the beet-sugar factories in Europe, the industry has proved prosperous, and assumes greater and greater dimensions. In 1865 the sugar consump- tion of Europe amounted to 31,676,497 cwt., one-third of which had been locally supplied by the beet, from over one thousand beet-sugar factories. Treacle obtained from beet is distilled for alcohol. For establishing remunerative factories on a large and paying scale, it has been suggested that farmers' companies might be formed. For ascertaining the percentage of sugar in beet, saccharometers are used. In Germany some scientific periodicals are exclusively devoted to the fostering of this industry.

Betula acuminata, Wallich.

Himalaya, between 3,000 and 10,000 feet. Attains a height of 60 feet, and delights on forest streams. The wood hard, strong, and durable. Another Himalayan Birch, B. utilis (D. Don.), grows on arid ground, and produces good timber of less hardness.

Betula alba, Linne.*

The ordinary Birch of Europe and extra- tropical Asia. With some Willows approaching nearer to the North Pole than any other woody vegetation. It attains a height of 80 feet, and would here thrive best in moist glens of the ranges, or in the higher regions of our mountains, where it would form up at the Alpine zone excellent shelter plantations. The durable bark serves for roofing. Wood white, turning red. The oil of the bark is used in preparing the Russian leather.

Betula lenta, Willdenow.

The Cherry Birch of North America. A tree of middle size, liking moist ground, but is also content with dry soil. Bark aromatic. Wood rose-coloured or dark, fine-grained, excellent for furniture. It is so heavy that when fresh it will not float in water. It is used for ships' keels, machinery, and other pur- poses where strength, hardness, and durability are required. Red Birch twigs furnish the best material for rough brooms.

46 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

Bark of a strong somewhat aromatic odour. Several Birches occur in Japan, which might well be tried here.

Betula lutea, Michaux.

The Yellow or Grey Birch of North-East America. Adapted for moist forest-land. In size and most other respects similar to B. lenta. The wood is used for shoelasts.

Betula nigra, Linne.

The River Birch of North America. One of the tallest of Birches. If grown on the banks of a limpid stream, it will bear intense heat. The wood is compact, of a light colour, easily worked, excellent for turnery, also in use by cabinet- makers and carriage-builders, well adapted to sustain shocks and friction (Robb). The bark is well adapted for roofing.

Betula papyracea, Alton.

The Paper Birch of North America. A larger tree than B. alba, with a fine-grained wood and a tough bark ; the latter much used for portable canoes. It likes a cold situation.

Boehmeria nivea, Gaudichaud.*

The Ramee or Rheea. Southern Asia, as far east as Japan. This bush furnishes the strong and beautiful fibre woven into fabric, which inappropriately is called grass-cloth. The bark is softened by hot water or steam, and then separable into its tender fibres. The best is obtained from the young shoots ; it is glossy, tough, and lasting, combining to some extent the appearance of silk with the strength of flax. The ordinary market value of the fibre is about £40 per ton ; but Dr. Royle mentions that it has realised, at times, £120. The seeds are sown on manured or otherwise rich and friable soil. In the third year, or under very favourable circumstances even earlier, it yields its crops, as many as three annually. The produce of an acre has been estimated at two tons of fibre. This latter, since Kaempfer's time, has been known to be extensively used for ropes and cordage in Japan. Rich forest valleys seem best adapted for the Ramee, as occasional irrigation can be there applied. In the open grounds of Victoria it suffers from the night frosts, although this does not materially injure the plant, which sends up fresh shoots, fit for fibre, during the hot season. The plant has been cultivated and distributed since 1 854, in the Botanic Garden of Melbourne, where it is readily propagated from cuttings, the seeds ripening rarely there. Cordage of this Boehmeria is three times as strong as that of hemp.

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 47

Other species require to be tested, among them the one which was recently discovered in Lord Howe's Island, — namely, Boehmeria calophleba.

Boletus boviims, Linne.

Europe. Besides this species Dr. Goeppert mentions also the following1 as sold for food in the markets of Silesia : B. circi- nans, Persoon ; B. eclulis, Bull. ; B. luteus, L. ; B. sapidus, Harzer j B. scaber, Bull.; B. subtomentosus, L. ; B. variegatus, Sw.

Bongardia Rauwolfi, C. A. Meyer.

From Greece through Turkey to the Caucasus. A perennial herb, the leaves of which are utilised like culinary sorrel.

Borassus Aethiopicus, Martius.

Africa, from Zanzibar to Egypt. A Palm of gigantic dimen- sions, attaining a stem 9 feet in diameter at the base, or 7 feet at 4 feet above the ground ; sometimes stems have even been measured having a circumference of 37 feet. The leaves are as much as 12 feet across, serving for baskets, mats, ropes, and sieves. The edible portion of the fruit is yellow, stringy, of a fruity flavour. The sap obtained from incisions in the stem under the leaves yields a kind of palm wine. In its natural home the tree always denotes water (Colonel Grant).

Borassus flabelliformis, Linne.*

The Palmyra. From the Persian Gulf to India, extending to 30° North. This noble Palm attains a height of 100 feet. The pulp of the fruit serves as food. Enormous masses of sugar or toddy are produced in India from the sap, which flows from incisions of the stalk of the unexpended flowers. Also to be reared for scenic plantations.

Boronia megastigma, Nees.

In West Australia on margins of swamps. This remarkable bush is recorded here as an emblem of mourning, its external blackish flowers rendering it especially eligible for graves. In- dustrially it interests us on account of its powerfully fragrant blossoms, for the sake of which this bush well deserves to be cultivated. The scent might be extracted by Mr. Bosisto's process.

Borrago officinalis, Linne.

South Europe, Orient. An annual herb, occasionally used for medicinal purposes or as an admixture to salad.

48 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTtRE

Boswellia papyrifera, A. Richard.

Morocco, Nubia, and Abyssinia, forming entire forests about Bertat on the Atlas. This tree exudes a kind of Olibanum resin and represents apparently one of the hardiest species of this and allied genera.

Boswellia thurifera, Colebrooke.

India, A deciduous tree, living in arid forest regions. Yields an aromatic resin. The real Olibanum is exuded by B. Carteri (Birdwood) of Arabia and tropical Africa.

BoussiDgaultia basselloides, Humboldt.

South America. This hardy climber is well fitted for bowers ; the mucilaginous tubers are edible. It is not uncommonly grown as a climber on verandahs.

Bouteloua barbata, Lagasca.

North and Central America. One of the Gramma-grasses of the prairies, called with some other species also Muskit-grass. Annual. For nutritive value famed.

Brabejum stellatifolium, Linne.

South Africa. The nuts of this shrub are edible, resembling those of our Macadamia ternifolia, to which also in foliage and flowers Barbejum is closely allied. The nuts are also similar to those of the Chilian Guevina Avellana. The fruit should be roasted, as otherwise it is deleterious.

Brachychiton acerifolium, F. v. Mueller.

The East Australian Flame-Tree. An evergreen shade- tree, with magnificent trusses of crimson blossoms. Like B. po- pulneum (R. Br.), eligible for promenade lines, when celerity of growth is no object. The mucilaginous sap, when exuded, indurates to a kind of tragacanth.

Brahea dulcis, Martius.

Mexico, as far as its northern parts, and ascending to 3,000 feet. A Brahea Palm has also been discovered as far north as Arizona, 32° (Drude).

Brahea edulis, Wendland.

Lower California, 20 feet high. The clusters of plum-shaped fruits weigh up to 40 Ibs., eaten by domestic animals.

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 49

Brassica alba, Visiani. (Sinapis alba, Linne.)

White Mustard. Europe, North Africa, North and Middle Asia. An annual. The seeds are less pungent than those of the Black Mustard, but used in a similar manner. The young leaves of both are useful as a culinary antiscorbutic salad. Dr. Masters enumerates Brassica Chinensis, B. dichotoma, B. Pekinensis, B. ramosa, and B. glauca among the mustards which undergo cultivation in various parts of Asia, either for the fixed oil of their seeds or for their herbage. From 15 Ibs. to 20 Ibs. of seeds of the White Mustard are required for an acre. In the climate of California 1,400 Ibs. of seeds have been gathered from an acre. Can be grown in shallow soil, even on land recently reclaimed from swamps. It prefers argilla- ceous ground. The return is in a few months. The stalks and foliage after the seed harvest serve as sheep fodder.

Brassica Chinensis, Linne.

China and Japan. Serves like B. oleracea for cabbage, and may in cultivation produce new varieties. B. Cretica (Lam.), a woody Mediterranean species.

Brassica juncea, J. Hook and Thorns. (B. Willdenowii, Boiss.; Sinapis jnncea, Linne.)

From Middle Africa to China. According to Colonel Drury, cultivated all over India for Sarepta Mustard seeds ; also a good salad plant.

Brassica nigra, Koch. (Sinapis nigra, Linne.)

The Black Mustard. Europe, North Africa, Middle Asia. An annual. The seeds, simply crushed and then sifted, con- stitute the mustard of commerce. For medicinal purposes the seeds of this species are preferable for sinapisin and other pur- poses. In rich soil this plant is very prolific ; and in our forest- valleys it is likely to remain free from the attack of aphis. Chemical constituents : a peculiar fixed oil, crystalline sinapin, the fatty sinapisin, myronic acid, and myrosin.

Brassica oleracea, Linne.

An annual or biennial coast plant, indigenous to various parts of Europe. It is mentioned here with a view of showing that it might be naturalised on any rocky and sandy sea-shores. From the wild plant of the coast originated various kinds of cabbages, brocoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, kail, kohlrabi, &c. Some regard the fattening qualities of cabbages as superior to those of turnips, particularly for stable food during

50 SELECT PLANTS FOE INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

the autumnal season. The gluten of cabbages on one acre has been estimated at 1,500 Ibs. against 1,000 Ibs. of gluten obtainable from turnips. Other races of this species are collectively represented by Brassica Rapa, L. (B. campestris, L.), the wild Navew, yielding most of the varieties of turnips, some with other cultivated forms transferred to us from ancient times. Again, other varieties are comprehended within. Brassica Napus, L., such as the Swedish and Teltower Turnips, Tvhile the Rape seed, so important for its oil (Colza) , is also derived from a form of B. Napus. The Rape should be pro- duced here as an agrarian produce, giving a rapid return, wherever it should remain free of aphis. The hardier turnips could be produced on our highest Alps, as they are grown still within the Arctic circle, and, according to Sir J. Hooker, at a height of 15,000 feet in the Himalaya mountains.

Bromus asper, Murray.

Europe, North and Middle Asia. A good perennial fodder grass for wood regions, but, like Festuca gigantea, late in the season.

Bromus erectus, Hudson.

Europe, North Africa. Important as a perennial nutritious grass for dry limestone regions ; much liked by cattle and sheep.

Bromus unioloides, Humboldt.* (JB. Schmderi, Kunth.)

In Australia called the Prairie Grass. From Central America to the sub-alpine zone of Northern Argentina. It has spread over many parts of the globe. The writer saw it disseminated in the mountains of St. Vincent's Gulf as early as 1847. It is one of the richest of all grasses, grows continuously and spreads readily from seeds, particularly on fertile and somewhat humid soil, and has proved, as a lasting and nutritious fodder grass or pasture grass, one of our best acquisitions. Very early out in the season for fodder.

Broussonetia papyrifera, Ventenat.

The Paper Mulberry. Islands of the Pacific Ocean, China Japan, perhaps only truly indigenous in the last-named country. The bark of this tree or shrub can be converted into very strong paper. It can also be used for textile fabric ; further- more, the fabrics made from it can be dressed with linseed oil for waterproof coverings. In cultivation the plant is kept like an osier. The leaves cannot be used for silkworms. European fabrics have largely superseded the clothing made of this plant in the South Sea Islands.

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 51

Buchloa dactyloides, Torrey.*

The true Buffalo Grass of Kansas, naturally extending from Canada to Texas, forming a large proportion of the food of the buffaloes on the prairies (Engelmann) . Dioecious, creeping, only rising to half a foot or less. It is extremely fattening, but apt to be suppressed by coarser grasses on places where these are not trampled out or kept down by the pasture animals.

Buddleya Madagascariensis, Lamarck.

Madagascar. Of the numerous species of Buddleya, the most eligible for shelter copses on account of its great size and always tidy appearance, as well as vigour and celerity of growth. It is ever-flowering and highly elegant.

Bursera elemifera, J. Hooker.

Mexico, up to the temperate plateau. This tree furnishes the Mexican Copal or Elemi.

Butea frondosa, Roxburgh.

The Dhak or Pulas of India. This magnificent tree extends to the Himalaya mountains, ascending to elevations of 4,000 feet. It is very rich in a peculiar kind of kino, which, accord- ing to Muspratt, contains up to 73 per cent, of tannin. The Lac insect is also nourished by this tree.

Butomus umbellatus, Linne.

The Flowering Rush. Europe, North and Middle Asia. This elegant perennial water plant is mentioned here more for its value in embellishing our lakes and water-courses than for the sake of its roots* The latter, when roasted, are edible. The plant would live in our sub-alpine rivulets.

Buxus sempervirens, Linne.

The Turkey Box Tree. South Europe, North Africa, South- West Asia extending to Japan. This slow-growing tree should timely be planted, to provide the indispensable box- wood for wood engravers and musical instrument makers, as yet no good substitute for it having been discovered. The box-tree needs calcareous soil for its best development. Among allied species B. Balearica attains a height of 80 feet. Other congeners are B. subcolumellaris, B. Cubana, B. Purdie- ana, B. citrifolia, B. acuminata, B. Isevigata, B. Vahlii, B. gonoclada, B. retusa, B. glomerata, B. Wrightii, all from West India; further, B. Madagascarica, B. longifolia from Turkey, B. Wallichiana from the Himalayas, and B. micro- phylla from Japan ; but neither of any of these, nor of the

52 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

various species of the allied Indian genus Sarcococca, nor of several species of the Andine genus Styloceras, does it appear to be known what relation their wood may hold to that of the true Box Tree, and whether they are more rapid in growth.

CsBsalpinia brevifolia, Bentham. (Balsamocarpon brevifolium, Clos.) Chili. The pods of this shrub are extraordinarily rich in tannic acid, containing up to 80 per cent., and hence valuable for tanneries (Philippi). The process of tanning is accom- plished in one-third of the time required for leather from oak bark ; especially valuable as giving a bloom to the leather.

Csesalpinia coriaria, Willdenow.

Wet sea-shores of Central America. Might be naturalised in our salt marshes. Colonel Drury states that each full-grown tree produces annually about 100 Ibs. of pods, the husk of which, commercially known as Divi-Divi, is regarded as the most powerful and quickly-acting tanning material in India. The mercantile price of the pods is from £8 to £13 per ton.

Caesalpinia crista, Linne.

West India and Carolina. This shrub or tree furnishes a yellow dye wood.

Caesalpinia echinata, Lamarck.

Brazil. The Fernambuc or Red Brazil Wood is obtained from this tree and allied species ; they also furnish the dye principle

Caesalpinia Gilliesii, Wallich. (Poinciana GUliesii, Hooker.)

La Plata States. This beautiful hardy bush can be utilised for hedges.

Csesalpinia Sappan, Linne.

South Asia. The wood furnishes red dye. This shrub can also be utilised for hedges.

Csesalpinia sepiaria, Roxburgh.

South Asia, east to Japan. Can be utilised as a hedge bush. It can advantageously be mixed for hedge growth with Ptero- lobium lacerans (R. Br.), according to Dr. Cleghorn. It fur- nishes a red dye wood.

Csesalpinia tinctotia, Humboldt.

Chili. The bark yields a red dye.

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 53

Csesalpinia vesicaria, Linne. (C. bijuga, Swartz.)

West India, on dry savannahs and limestone rocks. This tree furnishes part of the red Fernambuc Wood of commerce for dye purposes and select implements. •

Cajanus Indicus, Candolle.

The Catjang ; in Assam, called Gelooa-mah, also called Arhar. A shrubby plant of tropical Africa and India, ascending to 6,000 feet in the already extra- tropical latitudes of the Himalayas. It sustains itself on dry ground, and yields the pulse known as Dhal, Urhur, and Congo Pea. The plant lasts for about three years. Attains a height of 15 feet, and has yielded in the richest soil of Egypt 4,000 Ibs. of peas to the acre. A crop is already obtained in the first year. The seeds can be used as peas in the green, as well as mature, state. Even more used daily in India than Phaseolus radiatus and Cicer arietinum. Some of the tribes of Central Africa use the stem of this shrub in friction with reeds to strike fire, according to Speke. Several species of Cajanus of the Atylosia section, indigenous to the warmer parts of Australia, might be tested for the sake of the economic value of their seeds. The insect, active in the formation of Lac, lives extensively on the Cajanus, according to Mr. T. D. Brewster, of Assam. Silkworms live also on it.

Cakile maritima, Scopoli.

Europe, North Africa, North and Central America, extra- tropical Australia. Not unimportant for aiding to cover drift- sand cast up on low sea-shores ; not hurt by the spray.

Calamagrostis longifolia, Hooker.

North America. Excellent for fixing drift-sand.

Calamintha Nepeta, Hoffmansegg.

It is of the strongest odour among several species, but not of so pleasant a scent as C. incana (Boiss.) and C. grandiflora (Moench) .

Calamintlia officinalis, Moench.

Middle and South Europe and Middle Asia, North Africa. A perennial herb, used like melissa as a condiment.

Calamus montanus, T. Anderson.

Himalaya, up to 6,000 feet. A hardy climbing Palm. The aged canes are naked. "The light but strong suspension bridges, by which the large rivers of Sikkim are crossed, are

54 SELECT PLANTS FOB INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

constructed of this palm. It supplies material for the strong- est ropes for dragging logs of wood from the forests. The most durable baskets and the cane-work of chairs are manu- factured from the slit stems. Walking-sticks and riding- canes made of this species are exported from Sikkim in considerable quantity/' Many other Calami serve similar purposes } but probably few, or perhaps none, are equally hardy.

Callitris quadrivalvis, Ventenat.

North Africa. A middling-sized tree, yielding the true sand- arac resin.

Calyptranthes aromatica, St. Hilaire.

South Brazil. The flower-buds of this Spice shrub can be used almost like cloves, the berries like allspice. Several other aromatic species are eligible for test culture.

Camelina sativa, Crantz.

Middle and South Europe, temperate Asia. An annual herb, cultivated for the sake of its fibre and the oil of its seeds. It is readily grown after corn-crops, yields richly even on poor soil, and is not attacked by aphis. Mr. W. Taylor obtained 3£ bushels of seeds from an acre, and from these 540 Ibs. of oil. The return is within a few months.

Camellia Thea, Link. (Thea Chinensis, Linne.)

The Tea shrub of South-Eastern Asia, said to be indigenous also to some localities of Japan, — for instance, Suruga. This evergreen and ornamental bush has proved quite hardy in the lowlands at Melbourne, where in exposed positions it endures without any attention our night frosts as well as the free access of scorching summer winds. But it is in humid valleys, with rich alluvial soil and access to springs for irriga- tion, where only the most productive tea fields can be formed. The plant comes into plentiful bearing of its product as early as the Vine and earlier than the Olive. Its culture is sur- rounded with no difficulties, and it is singularly exempt from diseases, if planted in proper localities. Pruning is effected in the cool season, in order to obtain a large quantity of small tender leaves from young branches. Both the Chinese and Assam tea are produced by varieties of one single species, the tea shrub being indigenous in the forest country of Assam. Declivities are best adapted and usually chosen for tea culture, particularly for Congo, Pekoe, and Souchong, while Bohea is often grown in flat countries. In Japan tea cultivation extends to 39° north latitude, where the thermometer occasionally sinks

IN EXTRA -TROPICAL COUNTRIES 55

to 16° F. (Simmons). For many full details Fortune's work, " The Tea Districts of China/'' might be consulted. The very troublesome Tea Bug of Asia is Helopeltis theivora. Fumiga- tion and the application of birdlime are among the remedies to cope with this insect. The third volume of the Journal of the Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India is mainly occupied by Lieut.-Colonel Edw. Money's and Mr. Watson's elaborate essays on the Cultivation and Manufacture of Tea in India. For full advice on the culture and preparation of tea consult the writer's printed lecture, delivered in 1875 at the Farmers' Club of Ballarat.

The tea of commerce consists of the young leaves, heated, curled, and sweated. The process of preparing the leaves can be effected by steam machinery ; a machine of particular con- struction has been suggested recently by Mr. Joachimi accord- ing to requirements explained by the writer. In 1866 three machines for dressing tea have been patented in England, one by Messrs. Campbell and Burgess, one by Mr. Thomson, and one by Mr. Tayser. To give an idea of the quantity of tea which is consumed at the present time, it may be stated that, from June to September 1871, 11,000,000 Ibs. of tea were shipped from China alone to Australia, and that the produce of tea in India from January to June of 1872 has been 18,500,000 Ibs. India sent only a first small sample of tea in 1840 to the European market, but exported in 1877 to Eng- land forty millions of Ibs., — that is, as much as the whole English importation thirty years ago (Burrell) . Seeds of the tea bush are now in many parts of Australia locally to be gathered from plants distributed by the writer, and for years to come the cultivation of the tea bush, merely to secure local supplies of fresh seeds, ready to germinate, will in all likelihood prove highly lucrative. Tea contains an alkaloid : coffein, a peculiar essential oil, and Bohea acid, along with other sub- stances.

Canavalia gladiata, Candolle.*

Within the tropics of Asia, Africa, and America. This peren- nial climber grows to an enormous height and bears an abund- ant crop of edible beans (Sir Walter Elliott) with large seeds, which can be used green. It varies with red and white seeds and in the size of the latter, which are wholesome. C. ensi- formis (Cand.) is another variety.

Canna Achiras, Gillies.

Mendoza. One of the few extra-tropic Cannas, eligible for arrowroot culture.

56 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

Canna coccinea, Roscoe.

West India. Yields with some other Cannas the particular arrowroot called Tous Les Mois.

Canna edulis, Edwards.

The Adeira of Peru. One of the hardiest of arrowroot plants. Seeds, even if many years old, will germinate. This species has yielded excellent starch at Melbourne, Western Port, Lake Wellington, Ballarat, and other localities, from plants supplied at the Botanic Garden of Melbourne. The Rev. Mr. Hagenauer, of the Gippsland Aboriginal Mission station, obtained 220 Ibs. of arrowroot from one-eighth of an acre of this Canna. The gathering of the roots is effected about April. The plants can be set out in ordinary ploughed land. Captain James Hall, of Hastings, prepared also largely the starch from this root. Starch grains remarkably large. The plant resembles a Banana in miniature, hence eligible for scenic plantations ; the local production in Gippsland is already large enough to admit of exportation.

Canna flaccida, Roscoe.

Carolina. Probably also available for arrowroot, though in the first instance, like many congeners, chosen only for ornamental culture.

Canna glauca, Linne.

One of the West Indian Arrowroot Cannas.

Cannabis sativa, Linne.

The Hemp Plant ; indigenous to various parts of Asia, as far west as Turkey and as far east as Japan. Cultivated for its fibre since ancient times. Particularly in hot climes it exudes the churras, a resinous substance of narcotic intoxicating property. The foliage contains also a volatile oil, while the seeds yield by pressure the well-known fixed hemp oil. The staminiferous plant is pulled for obtaining the fibre in its best state immediately after flowering ; the seeding plant is gather- ed for fibre at a later stage of growth. Good soil, well drained, never absolutely dry, is needed for successful hemp culture. Hemp is one of the plants yielding a full and quick return within the season. The summer temperatures of St. Petersburg (67° F.) and of Moscow (62° F.) admit of the cultivation of this plant. The hemp as a narcotic plant serves as a protection against insects on cultural fields, if sown along their boundaries.

IN EYTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 57

Cantharellus edulis, Persoon. (C. cibarius, Fries.)

Various parts of Europe. Dr. Goeppert mentions this among the many mushrooms admitted under Government super- vision for sale in Silesia.

Capparis sepiaria, Linne.

From India to the Philippine Islands, ascending to cool eleva- tions and living in arid soil. A prickly bush, excellent for hedges. Dr. Cleghorn mentions also as hedge plants C. horrida(L. fil.), C. aphylla (Roth), C. Roxburghii (Cand.), some of which yield also capers.

Capparis spinosa, Linne.

The Caper Bush. South Europe and North Africa, South Asia ' and North Australia. A somewhat shrubby and trailing plant, deserving-, even for the sake of its handsome flowers, a place in any garden. It sustains its life in the most arid deserts. Light frosts do not destroy this plant. The flower-buds and young berries preserved in vinegar with some salt form the capers of commerce. Samples of capers, prepared from plants of the Botanic Garden of Melbourne, are placed in our Industrial Museum, together with many other industrial products eman- ating from the writer's laboratory. The caper plant is pro- pagated either from seeds or suckers ; it is well able to withstand either heat or drought. The buds after their first immersion into slightly salted vinegar are strained and after- wards preserved in bottles with fresh vinegar. Chemical principle : rutin.

Capsicum annuum, Linne.

Central America. An annual herb, which yields the chillies, and thus also the material for cayenne pepper. Chemical principle : capsicin, an acrid, soft, resinous substance.

Capsicum baccatum, Linne.

The Cherry Capsicum. A perennial plant. From Brazil brought to tropical Africa and Asia, where now other pepper capsicums are likewise naturalised.

Capsicum frutescens, Linne. (C. fattigiatim, Blume.)

Tropical America. The berries of this shrubby species are likewise converted into cayenne pepper.

Capsicum longum, Candolle.

Some of the hottest parts of America. An annual herb, also

58 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

yielding cayenne pepper. Fraas believes this plant, as an oriental one, to have been known already to Theophrastos and Dioscorides. C. grossum (Willd.) is also mentioned by Colonel Drury as a very pungent species. The summers of the warm temperate zone admit of the successful growth of at least the annual species of capsicum in all the lowlands. C. humile binds also sands even when salty.

Capsicum microcarpum, Candolle.

South America. It is this species which is preferentially used in Argentina. There are annual and perennial varieties.

Caragana arborescens, Lamarck.

The Pea Tree of Siberia. The seeds are of culinary value, but particularly used for feeding fowl. The leaves yield a blue dye (Dr. Eosenthal).

Carex arenaria, Linne.

Europe and North Asia. One of the most powerful of sedges for subduing rolling sand, not attracting pasture animals by its rigid foliage. The roots are of medicinal value.

Carex Moorcroffciana, Falconer.

The Loongmur of the Alps of Thibet. One of the best of sedges for staying the shifting sand by its deeply penetrating and creeping roots. It forms an intricate net-work on the surface and beneath, outliving most other fodder plants at its native places ; it becomes available for cattle and horse food, particularly in the cold of winter, and is held to be singularly invigorating to pasture animals.

Carissa Arduina, Lamarck.

South Africa. * A shrub with formidable thorns, well adapted for boundary lines of gardens, where rapidity of growth is not an object. Quite hardy at Melbourne. C. ferox (E. Meyer) and C. grandiflora (A. de Cand.) are allied plants of equal value. The East Australian, C. Brownii (F. von Mueller), can be similarly utilised. The flowers of all are very fragrant. C. Carandas (Linne) extends from India to China ; its berries are edible.

Carpinus Americana, Michaux.

The Water Beach or Ironwood of North America, thriving best on the margins of streams. The wood is very fine grained,

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 59

tough and compact, used for cogs of wheels and any purpose where extreme hardness is required, such as yokes, etc. (Robb) . It is often speckled and somewhat curled, thus fitted for superior furniture (Simmons) .

Carpinus Betulus, Linne.

The Hornbeam. A tree 80 feet high. Middle and South Europe. Wood pale, of a horny toughness and hardness, close- grained, but not elastic. It furnishes a good coal for gun- powder. This tree would serve to arrest the progress of bush fires, if planted in copses or hedges like willows and poplars around forest plantations. Four species occur in Japan : C. cordata, C. erosa, C. laxiflora, C. japonica (Blume). Carpinus viminea (Wallich) is a species with durable wood from the middle regions of Nepal.

Carthamus tinctorius, Linne.

From Egypt to India. The Safflower. A tall annual, rather handsome herb. The florets produce yellow, rosy ponceau, and other red shades of dye, according to various admix- tures. Pigment principles : carthamin and carthamus yellow. For domestic purposes it yields a dye ready at hand from any garden. In India the Carthamus is also cultivated for the sake of the oil which can be pressed from the seeds.

Carum Ajowan, Bentham. (PtycJiotis Ajowan, Candolle.)

India. The fruits of this annual herb form an excellent culinary condiment with the flavour of thyme. Its peculiar oil is accompanied by cymol and thymol.

Carum Bulboeastanum, Koch.

Middle and South Europe, North Africa, Middle Asia, on limestone soil. The tuberous roots serve as a culinary vege- table, the fruits as a condiment.

Carum Capense, Sonder.

South Africa, where the edible, somewhat aromatic root is called Fenkelwortel.

Carum Carui, Linne.

The Caraway-Plant. Perennial. Europe, North and Middle Asia. It might be naturalised on our Alps and also along our sea-shores. The Caraway oil is accompanied by two chemical principles : carven and carvol.

60 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

Carum ferulifolium, Koch. (Buniumferulifolium, Desfont.)

A perennial herb of the Mediterranean regions. The small tubers are edible.

Carum Gairdneri, Bentham.

Western North America, particularly in the Sierra Nevada. A biennial herb, the tuberous root of which furnishes an article of food as well as the root of the allied Calif ornian C. Kelloggii (A. Gray) . Geyer probably had this plant in view, when he mentions the tubers of an umbelliferous plant, which are among the dainty dishes of the nomadic Oregon natives. The truly delicious root bursts on being boiled, showing a snowy white farinaceous substance, which has a sweet, cream-like taste., and somewhat the aroma of parsley leaves (Lindley).

Carum nigrum, Royle.

Himalaya. With C. gracile this yields caraway-like fruits.

Carum Petroselinum, Bentham. (Apium Petroselinum, Linne.) The Parsley. The biennial well-known herb, indigenous to South Europe and the Orient. Always desirable on pastures as a preventive or curative of some kidney and liver diseases of sheep, horses, and cattle. The root is also valuable for the table. Essential oil peculiar with stearopten.

Carum segetum, Bentham. (Anelhum segetum, Linne.)

Around the Mediterranean Sea, extending to Middle Europe. An aromatic annual herb, available for culinary purposes.

Carya alba, Nuttall.*

The Sbellbark- Hickory. A deciduous tree, 90 feet high, which delights in rich forest soil ; a native of North America. Wood strong, elastic, and tenacious, but not very durable, used for chairs, whip-handles, &c. Yields the main supply of hickory nuts. All the hickories are extensively used in North America for hoops.

Carya amara, Nuttall.

The Bitternut-Tree or Swamp Hickory. A tree, 80 feet high, in swampy grounds of North America. Wood less valuable than that of other hickories. Richest of all North American trees in potash, along with most hickories.

Carya glabra, Torrey.* (Carya porcina, Nuttall.)

The Hognut-Tree, 80 feet high, in forest land of North

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 61

America. Wood very tough ; the heart wood reddish or dark- coloured ; much used for axletrees and axe-handles.

Carya microcarpa, Nuttall.

The Balsam-Hickory. North America. A fine lofty tree attaining a height of 80 feet, and a stem of 2 feet in diameter. The wood is white and tough, and possessed of most of the good qualities of C. tomentosa, to which this species is also in other respects allied. The nut is of a pleasant taste, but small (Nuttall).

Carya oliviformis, Nuttall.*

The Pecan- Nut Tree of North America. A handsome lofty tree up to 70 feet high, with a straight trunk. The most rapid growing of all the hickories (Meehan). Its wood is coarse-grained, heavy and compact, possessing great strength and durability ; in strength and elasticity it surpasses even that of the White Ash (Harrison) and is quite as durable. The nuts, which are usually abundant, are from an inch to an inch and a half long, and are the most delicious of all walnuts ; they form an object of commerce in the Southern States. The tree commences to bear nuts in about 8 years ; they should be packed in dry moss or sand for distant transmission. Although the wood of all the hickories is not adapted for building purposes, as it is easily attacked by insects and soon decays if exposed to the weather, yet its great strength and elasticity render it extremely useful for implements, articles of furniture, hoops, and many minor uses, besides supplying locally the very best of fuel. Hickories, even when very young, do not well bear transplantation, except perhaps C. amara. C. alba and C. glabra would be particularly recommendable for the sake of their timber, and C. oliviformis on account of its fruit. The bark of all the hickories contains yellow-dye principles ; by addition of copperas an olive colour is produced ; by addition of alum a green colour.

Carya snlcata, Nuttall.*

The Furrowed Hickory and Shelbark Hickory of some dis- tricts; also Shagbark Hickory. A tree, 80 feet high, in damp woods of North America. Its rate of growth is about 18 inches in a year while young. Heartwood pale-coloured. Seed of sweet pleasant taste.

Carya tomentosa, Nuttall.*

The Mocker-Nut Tree or White Heart Hickory. A big tree

62 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

of North America. Likes forest soil, not moist. Heart- wood pale -coloured, remarkable for strength, elasticity, heavi- ness and durability, yet fissile, used for axles, spokes, felloes, handles, chairs, screws, sieves, and the best of mallets ; the saplings for hoops and wythes. Hickory is the most heat- giving amongst all North American woods. Seeds very oily. Nut small, but sweet. A variety produces nuts as large as an apple.

Caryota urens, Linne.

India. One of the hardier Palms, ascending, according to Dr. Thomas Anderson, the Himalayas to an altitude of 5,000 feet, yet even there attaining a considerable height, though the temperature sinks in the cooler season to 40° Fahrenheit. Drude mentions that species of this genus reach up to an elevation of 7,500 feet, where the temperature occasionally approaches the freezing point. The trunk furnishes a sago- like starch. This Palm flowers only at an advanced age, and after having produced a succession of flowers dies away. From the sap of the flowers toddy and palm sugar are pre- pared, as well as from the Cocos and Borassus Palm ; occasion- ally as much as twelve gallons of toddy being obtained from one tree in a day. The fibre of the leaf stalks can be manu- factured into very strong ropes, also into baskets, brushes, and brooms. The outer wood of the stem serves for turnery.

Casimiroa edulis, Llav and Lexarz.

Mexico, up to the cool heights of 7,000 feet, bearing orange- like fruits (Seemann). This tree comes into bearing in about ten years ; the kernel is deleterious (Hernandez) ; the pulp of a delicious, melting, peach-like taste (Gamier) . The fruit is said to induce sleep.

Cassia acutifolia, Delile.

Indigenous, or now spontaneous, in Northern and Tropical Africa and South- West Asia. Perennial. The merely dried leaflets constitute part of the Alexandrian and also Tinnevelly senna. The active principle of senna — namely, cathartic acid — occurs also in the Coluteas and in Coronilla varia, ac- cording to C. Koch.

Cassia angustifolia, Vahl.

Northern and Tropical Africa and South- Western Asia, indi- genous or cultivated. Perennial. Yields Mecca senna; also the Bombay and some of the Tinnevelly senna.

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 63

Cassia fistula, Linne.

South Asia. The long pods of this ornamental tree contain an aperient pulp of pleasant taste, of medicinal value ; also used in the manufacture of cake tobacco. Traced by Sir Jos. Hooker to the dry slopes of the Central Himalayas.

Cassia Marylandica, Linne.

An indigenous Senna plant of the United States of North America. Perennial.

Cassia obovata, Colladon.

South- West Asia ; widely dispersed through Africa as a native or disseminated plant. Perennial. Part of the Alexandrian and also Aleppo senna is derived from this species, less esteemed and less collected, however, than the other species. It furnishes also Tripolis, Italian,, Senegal, and Tanacca senna. Several of the Australian desert cassias of the group of C. artemisioides may also possess purgative properties. The odour of their foliage is almost that of senna.

Castanea sativa, Miller.* (C. vesca, Gaertner.)

The Sweet Chestnut Tree. South Europe and temperate Asia, as far as Japan, and a variety with smaller fruits extending to North America. It attains an enormous age ; at Mount Etna an individual tree occurs with a stem 204 feet in circum- ference. At other places trees are found 1 0 feet in diameter, solid to the centre. The tree does not readily admit of trans- plantation. The wood is light, coarse-grained, strong, elastic and durable, well adapted for staves, wheel cogs, &c., the young wood for hoops and mast rings. The wood is com- paratively rich in tannic acid (about 18 per cent.), and thus used for preparing a liquid extract. The importance of the tree rests on its adaptability for shade plantations, its nutritious nuts and timber value. The American wood is slightly lighter in colour than that of the Red Oak and valuable for its durabi- lity, thus available for shingles and rails; chestnut rails in North America have lasted for half a century. The wood is beautifully laminated and thus sought for furniture (Simmons). Dr. Vasey mentions that the wood is largely employed for furniture, for the inside finish of railroad cars and steamboats. The nuts, smaller but sweeter than the European, are im- portant for fattening hogs (Robb).

Castanopsis argentea, A. Candolle.

A lofty tree in the mountains of India, produces also edible

64 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

chestnuts. Other species of the genus Castanopsis are valu- able.

Castanopsis chrysophylla, A. deCandolle.

The Oak Chestnut of California and Oregon. A tree attaining a large size and beautiful outlines. The leaves are golden yellow underneath. Wood durable.

Castanopsis Indica, A. deCandolle.

Mountains of India, at about 4,000 feet. This Oak Chestnut produces seeds with the taste of filberts.

Casuarina Decaisneana, F. v. Mueller.

Central Australia, where it is the only species of the genus. This tree is one of the largest among its congeners, and parti- cularly valuable for arid regions.

Casuarina distyla, Ventenat.

Extra-tropical Australia. A shrubby species, well adapted for fixing the sand-drifts "of sea-coasts. All Casuarinas can be pollarded for cattle fodder.

Casuarina equisetifolia, Forster.

East Africa, South Asia, North Australia, Polynesia. Attains a maximum height of 150 feet. Splendid for fuel, giving great heat and leaving little ashes. The timber is tough, nicely marked. The tree will live in somewhat saline soil at the edge of the sea. Captain Campbell- Walker estimates the yield of firewood from this tree four times as great as the return from any tree of the forests of France. In India it grows on pure sand and is much used as fuel for railway loco- motives. The cost of rearing Casuarinas in India has been from £4 to £10, and the return after only 8 years £13 to £32.

Casuarina Fraseriana, Miquel.

South- West Australia. A middle-sized tree ; the wood easily split into shingles. The best furniture wood of South- western Australia, as it does not rend. This tree is adapted even for sterile heath land.

Casuarina glauca, Sieber.

The Desert Sheoak, widely distributed through Australia, but nowhere in forest-like masses. This species attains, in favour- able places, a height of 80 feet. Its hard durable wood is valuable ; used for staves (Woolls) . Important for its rapid

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 65

growth, resistance to exposure for shelter plantation, and a speedy supply of fuel, — a remark which applies also to the following species.

Casuarina quadrivalvis, Labillardiere.

The Coast Sheoak of South-East Australia, but not merely living in coast sand, but also on barren places up to the hills inland. Height to 60 feet. The male tree is very eligible for avenues, the foliage of the species being drooping. Cattle are fond of the foliage. For arresting the ingress of coast sand by belts of timber, this is one of the most important trees. It produces, like other Casuarinas, seeds early and copiously, and is easily raised. The foliage, like that of the other species, acidulous from a crystallisable substance allied to bicitrate of lime.

Casuarina suberosa, Willdenow.

The erect Sheoak of South-East Australia. Height to 40 feet. A beautiful shady species. Casuarina trichodon (Miq.) and C. Huegeliana (Miq.) are arboraceous species of South- West Australia, all valuable for their wood.

Casuarina torulosa, Aiton.

New South Wales and Queensland. Attains a height of 70 feet. The tough wood of this handsome tree is in demand for durable shingles and furniture work, as well as for staves and veneers ; it is also one of the best for oven fuel.

Catalpa bignonioides, Walter.*

On the Gulf of Mexico. A tree in a warm, humid climate, of remarkable celerity of growth, attaining a height of about 20 feet in four years. Professor Meehan observed a tree to attain a stem of 4 feet in diameter in twenty years, even in the clime of New York. In many of the United States it is a favourite tree for shade lines. When closely planted it will grow tall and straight, attaining a stem of 50 feet up to the first branch ; it prefers bottom lands, but will grow in any soil and position, according to Mr. Barney. It is hardier than most Eucalypts, but will not stand severe frosts. According to Professor Burrill, it is not liable to be destroyed by insects. Comes early into bearing of seeds. Professor Meehan regards the wood to be as durable as that of the best Chestnut trees ; indeed, it lasts for an almost indefinite period. General Harri- son insists that there is nothing like it for posts. Catalpa pickets of the old French stockade are still sound. Logs

66 SELECT PLANTS FOB INDUSTRIAL CULTUEE

thrown across water-courses for crossing have lasted for three generations ; railway posts from it are almost indestructible, and so are platforms. Logs a century old, and posts half a century, were not the least decayed (Barney). Railway cross-ties made of this wood are also very lasting, a tree 20 years old furnishing sufficient for four ties. Canoes of Catalpa wood never crack or decay.

Catha edulis, Forskoel.

Arabia and Eastern Africa. The leaves of this shrub under the designation of Kafta or Cat are used for a tea of a very stimulating effect, to some extent to be compared to that of Erythroxylon Coca. To us here the plant would be mainly valuable for medicinal purposes.

Ceanothus rigidus, Nuttall.

California. One of the best of hedge shrubs, available for dry situations. Evergreen; up to 12 feet high; the branches become densely intricate. In the coast tracts it is replaced by C. thyrsiflorus, Esch., which can also be used for hedges and copses, and will live in mere coast sand. C. prostratus, Benth., likes to form natural mats on slopes formed by roads and slides, which it gradually covers, and with its pretty blue flowers soon decorates (Professor Bolander) .

Cedrela Brasiliensis, A. deJussieu.* (C.fasilis, Velloza.)

South Brazil and Argentina, occurring also in Mexico. The wood is soft, fragrant, and easily worked ; it is known as Acajou wood.

Cedrela Sinensis, A. deJussieu.

China. An elegant tree, hardy in Middle Europe. It fur- nishes a wood not unlike that of the Singapore Cedar, reddish in colour, particularly sought for cigar boxes.

Cedrela Taona, Roxburgh.*

The Singapore Cedar. Ascends the Himalayas to 8,000 feet. A mere variety of this is the Red Cedar of East Australia (Cedrela Australia, F. v. M.). Attains a height of 200 feet; foliage deciduous. The Rev. Dr. Woolls noted in New South Wales trees so large as to yield 30,000 feet (superficial) of timber. Marked value in Brisbane £7-10 to £8-10 per 1,000 superficial feet (Queensland Exhibition, 1878). The light beautiful wood, easily worked and susceptible of high polish, is much in request for furniture, for the manufacture of

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 67

pianofortes, for boat-building, and a variety of other work. The timber from the junction of the branches with the stem furnishes the choicest veneers. The bark contains a considerable quantity of tannin, which produces a purplish leather (Fawcett). The Red Cedar is hardy at Melbourne, but in our open, exposed gardens and poor soil, of slow growth.

Cedrela Velloziana, Roemer.

Brazil. A magnificent tree, with odorous wood of a red hue.

Cedronella cordata, Bentham.

United States of North America. A perennial herb, fragrant like the following.

Cedronella triphylla, Moench.

Madeira and Canary Islands. A shrubby plant with highly scented foliage. The volatile oil obtainable from it resembles that of Melissa, but is somewhat camphoric.

Celtis Australis, Linne.

The Lotus Tree of South Europe, North Africa, and South Asia, ascending the Himalayas to 9,000 feet. Attains a height of about 50 feet. Though of rather slow growth, this tree can be used for avenues, as it finally attains a stem 6 feet in diameter, and it is supposed that this Celtis reaches the age of fully 1,000 years. Berries edible. Wood hard and dense, eligible, particularly for turners' and carvers' work. The stem wood is fine-grained, easily cleft, and of a splendid yellow tinge \ the branch wood is one of the best for whip sticks.

Celtis occidentalis, Linne.

The Huckberry Tree. A fine forest tree in Ohio and other parts of North America. Height 80 feet. The variety called C. crassifolia is the best. The sweet fruits edible. Wood elastic and fissile.

Celtis Tala, Gillies.

From Texas to the La Plata States. A thorny shrub, or under favourable circumstances a good-sized tree. This plant can be used for forming impenetrable hedges or shade avenues. One or two other Argentine species serve the same purpose.

Cephselis Ipecacuanha, Richard.

Brazil, in woods of mountains, consociated with Palms and Fern trees. It is not unlikely that this herb, which is

68 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

perennial and yields the important medicinal Ipecacuanha root, would live in our warmer forest regions, such as those of East Gippsland. Active principles : emetin and ipecacuanha acid.

Cephalotaxus drupacea, Siebold et Zuccarini.

China and Japan. This splendid Yew attains a height of 60 feet, and is very hardy. According to Dr. Masters the C. Fortunei (Hooker) is merely a variety.

Ceratonia Siliqua, Linns'.

The Carob Tree of the Mediterranean regions. It attains a height of 30 feet and resists drought well ; succeeds best on a calcareous subsoil. Wood pale red. The saccharine pods, Algaroba or St. John's Bread, of value for domestic animals. The seeds germinate readily. The exportation of the pods for cattle food from Greta alone is now about 180,000 tons annu- ally (Dr. Masters) . In some of the Mediterranean countries horses and stable cattle are almost exclusively fed upon the pods. The meat of sheep and pigs is greatly improved in flavour by this food, the fattening properties being twice that of oil- cake. The pods contain about 66 per cent, of sugar and gum. To horses and cattle 6 Ibs. a day are given of the crushed pods, raw or boiled, with or without chaff. The Spanish conquerors took this plant early to Central and South America.

Cercocarpus ledifolius, Nuttall.

California. Rises in favourable spots to a tree 40 feet high, with a stem diameter of 2J feet. The wood is the hardest known in California. C. parvifolius is of lesser dimensions.

Cereus Engelmanni, Parry.

Utah. A dwarf species with large scarlet flowers, and refresh- ingly cool fruits of strawberry taste. C. Lecontei attains there to the size of a flour-barrel. Columnar species of Cereus, rising to 40 feet high, occur also in Argentina.

Cereus Quixo, Gay.

Chili. This stately Cactus attains a height of 15 feet, and is one of the hardiest species. The charming snow-white flowers are followed by sweetish mucilaginous fruits, available for the table (Philippi) . C. giganteus (Engelaiann) , from New Mexico, which attains the stupendous height of 50 feet, with a proportionate columnar thickness, yields also edible fruits, and lives unprotected in our clime. It was introduced by the writer many years ago. C. repandus and C. triangularis

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 69

(Haworth) of West India and Mexico, together with several other species, are available in places free of frost as hedge plants.

Ceroxylon andicola, Humboldt.

The Wax Palm of New Granada, ascending the Andes to 11,000 feet. One of the most majestic and at the same time one of the most hardy of all Palms, attaining occasionally a height of 180 feet. The trunk exudes a kind of resinous wax, about 25 Ibs. being obtainable at a time from each stem ; this by admixture of tallow is used for candles. There are several other Andine palms, which could be reared in our forests or in sheltered positions at our dwellings, but some of them are not even yet phytographically circumscribed.

Ceroxylon australe, Martius.

Juan Fernandez, on the higher mountains (latitude 34° south) .

Ceroxylon Klopstockia, Martius.

Venezuela. This very tall Wax Palm reaches elevations of 6,000 feet.

Cervantesia tomentosa, Ruiz and Pavon.

Forest mountains of Peru. This tree yields edible seeds. It is likely to prove hardy in our lower forest regions.

ChaBrophyllum bulbosum, Linne.

Middle Europe and Western Asia. The Parsnip Chervil. A biennial herb. The root a good culinary esculent.

Chserophyllum sativum, Lamarck. (Anthriscus Cerefolium, Hoff- mann.)

The Chervil. Middle and South Europe, Western Asia. An annual herb, available for salads and condiments, but the root deleterious.

Chamserops excelsa, Thunberg.

South China as far north as Napong. This Fan Palm is highly desirable, although not tall, as the name would indicate. The hardiest of all palms; has stood 16° Cels. below freezing- point with only a slight litter ( Count de Saporta). The hairy covering of the stem of this palm and of Livistona Chinensis are utilised for fixing lime-plaster to buildings in Japan (Christie) .

Chamserops Fortune!, Hooker.

North China. The Chusan Palm. It attains a height of about

70 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

12 feet, and endures, like the following species considerable frost. The leaves can be employed for plaiting palm hats. Other hardy palms might be naturalised and used for various purposes irrespective of their ornamental features.

Chamasrops humilis, Linne.

The Dwarf Fan Palm of South Europe, North Africa, and the most south-western parts of Asia. It is very decorative for gardens and plantations, particularly also eligible for scenic effect.

Chamserops Khasyana, Griffith.

In the Himalayas at elevations from 4,000 to 8,000 feet. Allied to C. Martiana. Also, according to Kurz, in dry pine forests of Martaban and Ava.

Chaxnaerops Martiana, Wallich.

Ascends the mountains of Nepal to 5,000 feet. Attains a height of 50 feet, and is altogether a noble object. Reaches higher altitudes in the Himalayas than any other species.

Chamserops Ritcheana, Griffith.

Arid mountains of Afghanistan ; seemingly the only Palm of that country there extensively used for cordage. Has also proved hardy even in England.

Chelidonium majus, Linne.

Europe and Western Asia. The Celandine. A perennial herb of medicinal value. Chemical principles : chelerythrin and chelidonin ; also a yellow pigment, chelidoxanthin.

Chenopodium ambrosioides, Linne.

Tropical America. An annual medicinal herb. Chenopodium anthelminthicum seems a perennial variety of this species.

Chenopodium auricomum, Lindley.

From the Darling River to Carpentaria and Arnhem's Land. A tall perennial herb, furnishing a nutritious and palatable spinage. It will live in arid desert regions. Several other species of Chenopodium, among them the European C. bonus Henricus, afford fair spinage, but they are annual.

Chenopodium Blitum, F. v. Mueller. (Blitum mrgatum, Linne.) From South Europe to India. An annual herb, extensively

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 71

in use there as a cultivated spinach plant. The fruits furnish a red dye. The genus Blitum was reduced to Chenopodium by the writer in Caruel's Giornale Botanico some years ago and in 1864 by Dr. Ascherson, who gave to B. virgatum the name Chenopodium f oliosum. C. capitatum, Ascherson (Blitum capi- tatum, Linne), may not be really a distinct species. C. Quinoa, Willdenow, from Chili, deserves hardly recommendation for cul- ture, though a nutritious spinach, it being apt to stray as a weed into cultivated fields. Some of these sorts of plants are useful to anglers, as attracting fish, when thrown into rivers or lakes.

Chionanche cyathopoda, F. v. Mueller.

Tropical and Eastern sub- tropical Australia. With C. barbata of India and Queensland a valuable fodder grass.

Chloris truncata, R. Brown.

The Windmill Grass. South-Eastern Australia, as far south as Port Phillip. This perennial and showy grass is regarded by Mr. Walter Bissill as an excellent summer and autumn grass, of ready growth and relished by grazing animals. C. ventricosa (R. Br.) is another valuable East Australian species.

Chlorogalum pomeridianum, Kunth.

California, frequent on the mountains. This lily-like plant attains a height of 8 feet. The heavy bulb is covered with many coatings, consisting of fibres, which are used for cushions, mattresses, &c. ; large contracts are entered into for the supply of this material on a very extensive scale (Professor Bolander) . The inner part of the bulb serves as a substitute for soap, and it might be tried whether it can be utilised for technological purposes like the root of Saponaria, as it contains saponin.

Chloroxylon Swietenia, Candolle.

The Satin Wood. Mountains of India. Like the allied Flind- ersias, possibly this tree would prove hardy even in cool sheltered places, the cognate Cedrela Taona advancing in East Australia southward to the 35th degree. A resin, valuable for varnishes, exudes from the stem and branches.

Chrysanthemum roseum, Adam. (Pyrethrum roseum, Bieb.)

Sub-alpine South-West Asia. This perennial herb, with C. coronopifolium, Willdenow, yields the Persian insect-powder.

Cicer arietinum, Linne.

South Europe and Orient. The Gram or Chick Pea. An

72 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

annual herb, valuable as a pulse for grazing animals. An extensive article of human diet in India. Colonel Sykes counted as many as 170 seeds on one plant. In Spain, next to wheat, the most extensively used plant for human food (Honourable Caleb Gushing). The seeds can be converted into pea-meal or be used otherwise for culinary purposes.

Cichorium Endivia, Linne.

South Europe, Orient, Middle Asia. A biennial plant, used since ancient times as a culinary vegetable.

Cichorium Intybus, Linne.

Chicory. A well-known perennial plant, indigenous to Europe, North Africa, and North and West Asia. The roots much used as a substitute for coffee. This plant requires a rich, deep, loamy soil, but fresh manure is detrimental to the value of the root. It is also a good fodder plant, especially for sheep. The root can also be dressed and boiled for culinary purposes. The leaves useful for salad.

Cimicifuga racemosa, Elliott.

The Black Snake Root of North America. A perennial herb of medicinal value, the root possessing emetic properties.

Cinchona Calisaya, Ruiz and Pavon.*

Yellow Peru Bark Tree. Andes of Peru, New Granada, and Bolivia, 5,000 to 6,000 feet above the ocean. This tree attains a height of 40 feet. It yields the Yellow Bark, and also part of the Crown Bark. It is one of the richest yielders of quinin, and produces besides cinchonidin, but yields little of other alkaloids. The most valuable species in Bengal, braving occa- sional night frost. This has flowered at Berwick already, three years ago, under the care of Mr. G. W. Robinson, from plants supplied by the author, therefore as far south as Port Phillip. It grows under conditions more limited than those of C. suc- cirubra, nor is it so easily propagated. Not all its varieties furnish bark of equal value. The Santa Fe variety ascends the Andes of New Granada up to 10,000 feet and produces the highly valuable soft Columbia Bark.

Cinchona cordifolia, Mutis.*

Peru and New Granada on the Andes, at between 6,000 and 8,000 feet elevation. Provides the hard Cartagena Bark or West Pitaya Bark, one extremely rich in alkaloids. It is a species of robust constitution, grows with rapidity and vigour.

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 73

The thickest bark is obtained in the highest altitudes, which by passing clouds are often involved in misty humidity (Cross).

Cinchona micrantha, Ruiz and Pavon.

Cordilleras of Bolivia and Peru. This tree attains a height of 60 feet, and from it part of the Grey and Huanuco Bark, as well as Lima Bark, are obtained. It is comparatively rich in cinchonin and quinidin ; contains, however, also quinin.

Cinchona nitida, Ruiz and Pavon.

Andes of Peru and Ecuador. This tree rises to 80 feet under favourable circumstances. It also yields Grey Bark and Hua- nuco Bark, besides Loxa Bark. It will probably prove one of the hardiest species. It contains predominantly cinchonin and quinidin.

Cinchona officinalis, Linne* (partly).* (Cinchona Condaminea, Humboldt). '

Andes of New Granada and Peru, at a height of 6,000 to 10,000 feet. Yields Crown or Brown Peru Bark, besides part of Loxa Bark. Comparatively rich in quinin and cinchonidin. The temperature of the middle regions of the Andes, where this tree grows, is almost the same as that of the Canary Islands. Superabundance of moisture is particularly perni- cious to this species. The Crispilla variety endures a tempera- ture occasionally as low as 27° F.

Cinchona lancifolia (Mutis) is considered by Weddell a variety of C. officinalis. This grows on places where the mean annual temperature is that of Rome, with, however, less extremes of heat and cold. It yields part of the Pitaya Bark.

Cinchona Pitayensis must also be referred to C. officinalis as a variety. This attains a height of 60 feet and furnishes also a portion of the Pitaya Bark. It is this particular cinchona which in Upper India yielded in some instances the unprece- dented quantity of 11 per. cent, alkaloids, nearly 6 per cent, quinin, the rest quinidin and cinchonin ; this plant is now annihilated for bark purposes in its native forests.

In Java some of the best results were obtained with Cinchona Hasskarliana, Miq., a species seemingly as yet not critically identified.

Cinchona succirubra, Pavon.*

Middle Andine regions of Peru and Ecuador. A tree attaining a height of 40 feet, yielding the Red Peru Bark, rich in quinin and cinchonidin. It is this species which is predominantly

74 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

cultivated on the mountains of Bengal. It has heen found hardy in Lower Gippsland and the Westernport District. It grew in Madeira at an elevation of 500 feet, after having been planted two and a half years, to a height of 20 feet, flowering freely. All these cinchonas promise to become of importance for culture in the warmest regions of extra-tropical countries, on places not readily accessible or eligible for cereal culture. The Peruvian proverb that cinchona trees like to be " within sight of snow " gives some clue to the conditions under which they thrive best. They delight in the shelter of forests, 'where there is an equable temperature, no frost, some humidity at all times both in air and soil, where the ground is deep and largely consists of the remnants of decayed vegetable sub- stances, and where the subsoil is open. Drippage from shelter trees too near will be hurtful to the plants. Closed valleys and deep gorges, into which cold air will sink, are also not well adapted for cinchona culture. We ought to consociate the Peru Bark plants with naturally-growing fern trees, but only in the warmest valleys and richest soil. The best temperature for cinchonas is from 53° to 66° F. ; but they mostly will endure in open places a minimum of 32° F. ; in the brush shades of the Botanic Garden of Melbourne, where years ago cinchonas were already raised by the thousand, they have even resisted uninjured a temperature of a few degrees less, wherever the wind had no access, while under such very slight cover the cinchonas withstood also a heat of a few degrees over 100° F. The plants are most easily raised from seeds, best under some cover such as mats, and they are seeding copiously already several years after planting. The contents of alkaloids in the bark can be much increased by artificial treatment, if the bark is only removed on one side of the stem and the denuded part covered with moss, under which in one year as much bark is formed as otherwise requires three years' growth, — such forced bark, moreover, containing the astounding quantity of as much as 25 per cent, alkaloids, because no loss of these precious substances takes place by gradual disintegration through age. The root bark of some cinchonas has proved to contain as much as 8 per cent, of alkaloids (see Gardeners' Chronicle, 1877, p. 212). The income from Java plantations is considerably over double the cost of the expenses of culture and transit. Mr. Howard's opinion that cinchonas in low land plantations produce a far less quantity of alkaloids needs further confirmation, particularly regarding the valuable quinin and cinchonidin. The cinchona plants are set out at distances of about 6 feet. The harvest of bark begins in the fourth or fifth year. The price varies in Europe from 2*. to

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 75

9$. per lb., according to quality. The limits assigned to this literary compilation do not admit of entering further into details on this occasion, but I may add that in the Darjeeling district over three millions of cinchona plants were in culti- vation already in 1869, raised in Government plantations. Cultivation of cinchonas for commercial purposes was first initiated in Java through Dr. Hasskarl in 1851. The Brit- ish harvest in the Madras Presidency alone amounted to 150,000 Ibs. in 1875. Dr. King reports in 1877 that 2J million trees of Cinchona succirubra are now under his con- trol in India. This has proved the hardiest species ; it grows under a wide range of conditions, and it seeds freely ; thus it is the most valuable cinchona in the elevations of Sikkim. All its varieties produce bark of great value. The total amount of alkaloids is at an average 4 per cent. If the trees were cut every seven or eight years, and simultaneous re- planting should take place, Dr. King could keep up an annual supply of 366,000 Ibs. of bark.

Cinna arundinacea, Linne.

North America. There recorded as a good fodder grass; perennial, somewhat sweet-scented. Blyttia suaveolens (Fries) is, according to Dr. Asa Gray, a variety with pendant flowers.

Cinnamomum Camphora, Fr. Nees.*

The Camphor Tree of China and Japan north to Kinsin, at- taining a height of about 40 feet. It endures the occasional frosts of a clime like that of Port Phillip, though the foliage will suffer. The wood, like all other parts of the tree, is per- vaded by camphor ; hence resists the attacks of insects. The well-known camphor is obtained by distilling or boiling the chopped wood and root ; the subsequently condensed camphoric mass is subjected to a purifying sublimation process.

Cinnamomum Cassia, Blume.

South China. It is not impossible that this tree, which pro- duces the Chinese cinnamon or the so-called Cassia lignea, may prove hardy outside the tropics. Sir Joseph Hooker found in the Khasya mountains up to 6,000 feet three cinnamons producing this Cassia bark, — namely, C. obtusi- folium, C. pauciflorum, and C. Tamala, the latter extending to Queensland. Dr. Thwaites notes the true Cinnamon tree (C. Zeilanicum, Breyn) even up to 8,000 feet in Ceylon, but the most aromatic bark comes from lower altitudes. Cinnamon leaves yield a fragrant oil, and the root camphor.

76 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

Cistus creticus, Linne".

Countries on the Mediterranean Sea. This shrub, with C. cyprius (Lam.) furnishes the best ladanum resin. Other species yield a less fragrant product.

Citrus Aurantium, Linne.*

The Orange (in the widest sense of the word) . A native of South Asia. A tree of longevity, known to have attained the age of 600 years or more. Any specific differences, to distin- guish C. Aurantium from C. Medica, if they once existed, are obliterated now through hybridisation, at least in the culti- vated forms. In Central India a peculiar variety is under culture, producing two crops a year. The blossoms of Feb- ruary and March yield their ripe fruit in November and December, whereas from the flowers of July mature fruits are obtained in March and April. To prevent exhaustion only alternate fruiting is allowed. As prominent varieties of C. Aurantium may be distinguished : —

Citrus Bergamiiim, Bisso. From the fruit-rind of this variety Ber- gamotte oil is obtained, but also oil from the flowers. The Mellarosa variety furnishes a superior oil and exquisite confitures.

Citrus Bigaradia, Duhamel. The Bitter Orange. This furnishes from its flowers the Neroli oil, so delicious and costly as a scent. It is stated that orange flowers to the value of £50 might be gathered from the plants of an acre within a year. The rind of the fruit is used for candied orange peel. Bitter principle : hesperidin in the rind, limonin in the seed.

Citrus decumana, Linne. The Shaddock or Pompelmos. The fruit will exceptionally attain a weight of 20 Ibs. The pulp and thick rind can both be used for preserves.

Citrus dulciSj Volkamer. The Sweet Orange, of which many kinds occur. The St. Michael Orange has been known to bear in the Azores on sheltered places 20,000 fruits on one tree in a year. Neroli oil is obtained from the flowers of this and allied varieties. The oil of orange-peels might be used as a cheap and pleasant one for distilling with it costly odorous substances.

Citrus nobilis, Loureiro. The Mandarin Orange. The thin peel separates most readily from the del iciously -flavoured sweet pulp. There are large and small fruited Mandarin oranges; the Tangerine variety is one of them. Some varieties are ex- cellent for hedges, and as such are much used in Japan. Burnt earth is valuable as an admixture to soil in orangeries.

Citrus Australasica, F. v. Mueller.

Coast forests of extra-tropical East Australia. A shrubby

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 77

species, with oblong or almost cylindrical fruits of lemon-like taste, measuring 2 to 4 inches in length. They are thus very much larger than those of Atalantia glauca of the coast and the desert interior of tropic Australia, which are also of similar taste. These plants are entered, together with the following on this list, merely to draw attention to them as likely capable of improvement of their fruit through culture.

Citrus Japonica, Thunberg.

The Kumquat of Japan. A shrubby Citrus with fruits of the size of a gooseberry, from which on account of their sweet peel and acid pulp an excellent preserve can be prepared.

Citrus Medica, Linne.*

The Citron (in the widest sense of the word) . Indigenous to Southern Asia. For the sake of convenience it is placed here as distinct from C. Aurantium. As prominent varieties of the Citrus Medica may be distinguished : —

Citrus Cedra, Gallesio. The real Citron. From the acid tuber- cular fruit essential oil and citric acid can be obtained, irrespective of the ordinary culinary use of the fruit. A large variety with thick rind furnishes candied the eitrio- nate or succade. The Cedra oil comes from a particular variety.

Citrus Limonium, Risso. The Real Lemon. From the fruit of this is largely pressed the lemon juice, while the thin, smooth, aromatic peel serves for the production of volatile oil or for condiments. The juice of this fruit is particularly rich in citric acid. A large variety is the Rosaline Lemon.

Citrus Limetta, Risso. The real Lime. The best lime-juice is obtained from this variety, of which the Perette constitutes a form.

Citrus Lumia, Risso. The Sweet Lemon, including the Pear Lemon with large pear-shaped fruit. Rind thick and pale ; pulp not acid. This variety serves for particular condiments.

Citrus Planchoni, F. v. Mueller. (C. Australis, Planchon, partly.)

Forests near the coast of sub-tropic East Australia. A noble tree, fully 40 feet high, or, according to Hartmann, even 60 feet high, with globular fruits about the size of a walnut, called in Australia Native Oranges. The species has first appeared under the above name in the " Report on the Vege- table Products of the Intercolonial Exhibition of 1867." Its beautiful wood takes a high polish ; hence it is made use of for the finest cabinet-work.

78 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

Cladrastis tinctoria, Rafinesque.

North America. The wood of this tree produces a saffron- yellow dye.

Clavaria botrytis, Persoon.

Europe. This and the following are the species, which are admitted for sale among Silesian mushrooms, according- to Dr. Goeppert : C. brevipes (Krombholz), C. flava, C. formosa, C. grisea (Persoon), C. muscoides (L.), C. aurea (Schaeffer), C. palmata (Scop,), C. crispa (Wulfen).

Coccoloba uvifera, Jaequin.

Central America, northward to Florida. A tree, attaining a large size, fit for sandy sea-shores. The dark-blue, sweet or acidulous berries are edible. A kind of kino is obtained from the bark ; the wood yields a red dye. Dr. Kosenthal notes as yielding likewise edible fruits — C. nivea (Jacq.), C. pubescens (L.), C. excoriata (L.), C. flavescens (Jacq.), C. diversi/olia (Jacq.). C. Leoganensis is also a coast tree; other species belong to forest regions of mountains.

Cochlearia Armoracia, Linne.

The Horse-radish. Middle Europe and Western Asia. Peren- nial. The volatile oil of the root allied to that of mustard.

Cochlearia officinalis, Linne.

Shores of Middle and North Europe, North Asia, and North America. A biennial herb, like the allied C. Anglica and C. Danica, valuable as an antiscorbutic ; hence deserving naturalisation. It contains a peculiar volatile oil.

Cocos Australis, Martius.

From Brazil to Uruguay and the La Plata States. One of the hardiest of all Palms, hardier even than the Date Palm, with- standing unprotected a cold of 8° C. below freezing point, at which temperature oranges and almonds are injured or destroyed.

COCOS flexuosa, Martius.

Brazil, extending far south. This slender and not tall decora- tive Palm belongs to the dry Cactus region with C. coronata, C. capitata, Astrocaryum campestre, Diplothemium campestre, and Acrocornea sclerocarpa (Martius) .

COCOS regia, Liebmann.

Mexico, up to 2,500 feet. A Palm of enormous height; almost sure to prove hardy here.

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 79

Cocos Romanzoffiana, Chamisso.

Extra-tropic Brazil. This noble Palm attains to a height of 40 feet.

Cocos Yatay, Martius.*

Rio Grande do Sul, Uruguay, and Argentina. Forms mainly, with C. Australia and C. Datil, distinct forests (Drude) . The last mentioned bears date-like fruits, according to Dr. Lorentz.

Coffea Arabica, Linne.

Mountains of South- West Abyssinia, The Coffee Plant. This shrub or small tree has been admitted into this list, not with- out great hesitation, merely not to be passed. The cultivation within extra-tropical boundaries can only with any prospect of success be tried in the warmest and simultaneously moistest regions, frost being detrimental to the coffee plant. In Ceylon the coffee regions are between 1,000 and 5,000 feet above the ocean, but Dr. Thwaites observes that the plant succeeds best at an elevation from 3,000 to 4,500 feet, in places where there is a rainfall of about 100 inches a year. The temperature there rises hardly ever above 80° F., and almost never sinks below 45° F. Coffee requires moist weather whilst it ripens its fruit, and a season of drier weather to form its wood. For further particulars see the papers of the Planters' Association of Kandy. Chemical principles : coffein, a peculiar tannic acid and quinic acid. The loss sustained in 1878 alone by the ravages of parasitic fungus growth on coffee plants in Ceylon amounted to £2,000,000, the total loss since 1869 from this source to £15,000,000 (Abbay). In America, coffee plantations have suffered not only from the attacks of erysi- phoid fungi, but also the Cemiostoma Fly. The Liberian Coffee (C. Liberica, Bull) has shown immunity from the latter insect (Dr. Imray) . Coffee leaves have recently come into use as tea.

Coffea Liberica, Bull.

The Liberian Coffee plant, distinguished already by Afzelius. Requires greater heat than the ordinary coffee ; less affected by the Hemileia mould; berries larger; flavour superior; pro- ductiveness greater.

ColcMcum auctumnale, Linne.

Middle and South Europe, West Asia. The Meadow Saffron. The seeds and roots of this pretty bulbous-tuberous herb are important for medicinal use. The plant has been introduced

80 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

into Australia by the writer with a view of being naturalised on moist meadows in our ranges. Active principle : colchicin.

Colocasia antiquorum, Schott.

From Egypt through South Asia to the South Sea Islands ; apparently also indigenous in the warmer parts of East Aus- tralia. The Taro. The stem-like, tuberous, starchy roots lose their acridity by the process of boiling, roasting, or baking. It is the Kolkas of the Arabs and Egyptians, to them one of the most esteemed and abundant vegetables. Immense quan- tities are harvested and kept during the winter. The plant proved hardy as far south as Melbourne. Cultivated as far south as New Zealand. The tops of the tubers are replanted for a new crop. Taro requires a rich moist soil and would grow well on banks of rivers. For scenic culture it is a very decorative plant. Colocasia esculenta is a variety of this species.

Colocasia Indica, Kunth. (Alocasia Indica, Schott.)

South Asia, South Sea Islands, and East Australia. Cultivated for its stem and tubers on swamps or rivulets. This stately plant will rise in favourable localities to a height of 12 feet, the edible trunk attaining a considerable thickness, the leaves sometimes measuring 3 feet in length. In using the stem and root for food, great care is needed to expel by the heating process all acridity. Colocasia odora and C. macrorrhiza seem varieties of this species. Several other aroid plants deserve attention for test-culture on account of their edible roots, among them Cyrtosperma edule, Seemann, from the Fiji Islands.

Combretum butyraceum, Caruel.

The Butter Tree of Caffraria and other parts of South-East Africa. The Caffirs call the fatty substance obtained from this tree Chiquito. It is largely used by them as an admix- ture to their food, and exported also. It contains about one- quarter olein and three-quarters margarin. This butter-like fat is extracted from the fruit, and is of an aromatic flavour. The tree should be hardy in the warmer and milder parts of Victoria.

Comptonia asplenifolia, Solander.

North America. The Sweet Fernbush. This dwarf shrub is perhaps quite worthy of dissemination on sterile hills, as the foliage contains nearly 10 per cent, of tannin, an extract of which has come into the tanning trade.

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 81

Condalia microphylla, Cavanilles.

Chili and Argentina. The Piquillin. Bush yielding sweet, edible, succulent fruit.

Conium maculatum, Linne.

The Hemlock. Europe, North Africa, North and West Asia. A biennial herb, important for medicinal purposes. It should, however, not be allowed to stray from its plantations, as it is apt to be confounded with culinary species of Anthriscus, Chaerophyllum and Myrrhis, and may thus cause, as a most dangerous plant, disastrous mistakes. Active principles : coniin, in the fruit also conhydrin.

Conopodium denudatum, Koch.

Western Europe. The small tuberous roots of this herb, when boiled or roasted, are available for food and known as Earth Chestnuts. The plant is allied to Carum Bulbocasta- num.

Conospermum Stoechadis, Endlicher.

West Australia. The question has arisen, whether this shrub, with C. triplinervium (R. Brown), ought not to be introduced into our worst desert country. All kinds of pasture animals browse with avidity on the long, tender, and downy flower stalks and spikes without touching the foliage, thus not de- stroying the plant by close cropping.

Convolvulus floridus, Linne fil.

Canary Islands. A shrubby, not climbing or winding species. With C. scoparius it yields the Atlantic Rosewood from stem and root.

Convolvulus Scammonia, Linne.

Mediterranean regions and Asia Minor. A perennial herb^ from the root, which will grow 2 feet long, is obtained the purgative resin Scammonia. Plants readily raised from seeds. To obtain the resin a portion of the root is laid bare and into incisions made shells are inserted to collect the juice, which is daily removed (Maw).

Convolvulus scoparius, Linne fil.

Teneriffe. One of the Rosewood plants.

Copernicia cerifora, Martins.

Brazil, extending into Bolivia and also Argentina. This

F

82 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

magnificent Fan Palm, like so many others of this noble Order, may prove hardy in extra-tropical latitudes. It resists drought in a remarkable degree, and prospers also on a somewhat saline soil. The stem furnishes starch ; the sap yields sugar ; the fibres of the leaves are converted into ropes, which resist decay in water : it can also be used for mats, hats, baskets and brooms, and many other articles are prepared from the leaves. The inner part of the leaf -stalks serves as a substitute for cork. Mainly, however, this palm is valued for its Carnauba wax, with which the young leaves are coated, and which can be detached by shaking ; it is harder than bees'- wax and is used in candle manufacture. Each tree furnishes about 4 Ibs. annually. In 1862 no less than 2,500,000 Ibs. were imported into Great Britain, realising about £100,000.

Corchorus acutangulus, Lamarck.

Tropical Africa, South Asia, and North Australia. This species is specially mentioned by some writers as a jute plant. A particular machine has been constructed by Mr. Le Franc, of New Orleans, for separating the jute fibre. With it a ton of fibre is produced in a day by four men's work, and it leaves no butts or refuse. This apparatus can also be used for other fibre plants. The seeds of the Corchorus, which spontaneously drop, will reiterate the crop.

Corchorus capsularis, Linne.*

From India to Japan. One of the principal jute plants. An annual, attaining a height of about a dozen feet, when closely grown, with almost branchless stem. A nearly allied but lower plant, Corchorus Cunninghami, F. v. Mueller, occurs in tropical and sub-tropical East Australia. Jute can be grown where cotton and rice ripen, be it even in localities compara- tively cold in the winter, if the summer's warmth is long and continuous. The fibre is separated by steeping the full-grown plant in water from five to eight days, and it is largely used for rice, wool and cotton bags, carpets and other similar textile fabrics, and also for ropes. About 60,000 tons are annually exported from India to England, and a large quantity also to the United States. Jute is sown on good land, well ploughed and drained, but requires no irrigation, although it likes humidity. The crop is obtained in the course of four or five months, and is ripe when the flowers turn into fruit cap- sules. Good paper is made from the refuse of the fibre. Jute has been found, when planted around cotton fields, to protect them, like hemp, from caterpillars (Hon. T. Watts). In India jute alternates with rice or sugarcane ; as a crop it

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 83

wants damp soil : the harvest is in three, four, or five months. Unlike cotton it will bear a slight frost. Under favourable cir- cumstances 2,000 to 7,000 Ibs. may be obtained from an acre. It is best grown on flooded ground, as otherwise it proves an exhaustive crop. Two hundred million pounds of jute were woven in 1876 in Dundee, and 50 million gunny bags were ex- ported from Britain in one single year, according to S. Water- house. Jute does not so easily decay when exposed to moisture as hemp.

Corchorus olitorius, Linnet*

South Asia and North A ustralia. Furnishes, with the fore- going species, the principal supply of jute fibre. As it also is an annual, it can be brought to perfection in the summers of the warm temperate zone. The foliage can be used for spinach. The fibre is not so strong as hemp, but very easily prepared. It will not endure exposure to water. The allied Corchorus trilocularis, L., of Indian origin, is likewise a native of eastern tropical and sub-tropical Australia.

Cordyline Banksii, J. Hooker.

New Zealand. This lax and long-leaved Palm- Lily attains a height of 10 feet ; its stem is usually undivided. This and the following species have been admitted into this list for a double reason, because not only are they by far the hardiest, quickest growing and largest of the genus, and thus most sought in horticultural trade for scenic planting, but also because they furnish from the leaves a superior fibre for ropes and other textile purposes. The small seeds are produced in great abundance, and germinate with extreme readiness. These Palm-Lilies ought to be naturalised in forest ranges by mere dissemination.

Cordyline Baueri, J. Hooker. (C. Australia, Endlicher, not J. Hooker.)

Norfolk Island. The stem of this stately species attains a height of 40 feet, and becomes in age ramified. It is very intimately allied to the following species,

> Cordyline indivisa, Kunth.

New Zealand. The stem of this thick and rigid-leaved palm- like species rises to a height of 20 feet, and remains undivided. Leaves finally 5 inches broad; yield the toi fibre. Aged leaves persistent in a perfectly downward position for many years. Panicle at first erect. Berries white.

84 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

Cordyline superbiens, C. Koch. (C. AustmUs, J. Hooker, not Endlicher.)

New Zealand. The stem of this noble thin-leaved plant attains a height of 40 feet, and is branched. Aged leaves readily separable ; berries blue. Hardy at Torquay (W. Wood), Power's Court, Limerick, and in others of the milder locali- ties in South England and Ireland.

Cordyline terminalis, Kunth.

South Asia, Polynesia, East Australia. The roots in a roasted state are edible. The leaves, like those of other species, can be utilised for textile fibre. The splendid decorative Cordylines with red or variegated foliage belong to this species.

Coriandrum sativum, Linne.

Orient and Middle Asia. An annual or biennial herb, much in use for condiments. The essential oil peculiar.

Corylus Colurna, Linne.

The Constantinople Nut-Tree, the tallest of Hazels, attaining 60 feet in height, of rather quick growth. This, as well as the European Hazel (Corylus Avellana, L.) and the Japan Hazel (C. heterophylla, Fischer), might be grown for copses in forest gullies for their filberts.

Corynocarpus Isevigata, Forster.

The Karaka of New Zealand and the principal forest tree of the Chatham Islands, attaining a height of 60 feet. The wood is light, and used by the natives for cauoes. The pulp of the fruit is edible. Cattle browse on the foliage. In rich irri- gated soil the tree can be adopted for very shady avenues.

Corynosicyos edulis. (Cladosicyos edulis, J. Hooker.)

Guinea. A new cucumber-like plant, with edible fruits about 1 foot long and 3 inches in diameter.

Crambe cordifolia, Steven.

From Persia and the Caucasus to Thibet and the Himalayas up to 14,000 feet. The root and foliage of this Kale afford an esculent. C. Kotschyana (Boiss.) is an allied plant.

Crambe maritima, Linne.

Sea Kale. Sand-coasts of Europe and North Africa. A perennial herb ; the young shoots used as a wholesome and agreeable vegetable. Should be naturalised.

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 85

Crambe Tataria, Wulfen.

From Southern Europe to the Orient. Perennial. Likewise used for culinary purposes. According to Simmonds the large fleshy roots form also an esculent.

Crataegus sestivalis, Torrey and Grey.

The Apple Haw. Southern States of North America. The small juicy fruit of an agreeable acid taste.

Crataegus apiifolia, Michaux.

North America. Highly serviceable for hedges.

Cratsegus Azarolus, Linne.

Welsh Medlar. South Europe and South- West Asia. The pleasantly acidulous fruits are much used for preserves.

Cratsegus coccinea, Linne.

North American White Thorn. A valuable hedge plant ; also very handsome. Spines strong.

Cratsegus cordata, Aiton.

Southern States of North America. Also much employed for hedges.

Cratsegus Crus-Galli, Linne.

North America. The Cockspur Thorn. Regarded as one of the best species for hedges. Spines long and stout.

Crataegus Oxyacantha, Linne.

Europe , North Africa, North and West Asia. The ordinary Hawthorn or White Thorn. Recorded here as one of the most eligible among deciduous hedge plants ; the wood is considered one of the best substitutes for boxwood by engravers.

Cratsegus parvifolia, Aiton.

North America. For dwarf hedges. Spines long, slender, sharp and numerous.

Cratsegus pyracantha, Persoon.

The Firethorn. South Europe. This species is evergreen. It is likewise adapted for hedges, but slower in growth than hawthorn, although not difficult to rear.

86 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

Crataegus tomentosa, Linne.

North America, up to 20 feet high. Fruit edible. By the species mentioned the list of American hedgethorns is probably not yet exhausted.

Crithmum maritimum, Linne.

The real Samphire. Sea-shores of Middle and South Europe, North Africa and the Orient. A perennial herb. Settlers on the coast might readily disseminate and naturalise it. It is held to be one of the best plants for pickles, the young leaves being selected for that purpose.

Crocus sativus, Linne.

The Dye Saffron. South Europe and Orient. The stigmata of this particular autumnal flowering crocus constitute the costly dye substance. The best is collected from the flowers just as they daily open in succession. At any early stage of colonisation it would not be remunerative to grow saffron commercially; but as the plant is well adapted for many extra-tropical countries or for high elevations within the tropical clime, it might be planted out into various unoccupied mountain localities with a final view to naturalise it, and to render it thus available at a later period from native sources.

Crocus serotinus, Salisbury. (C. odorus, Bivona.)

South Europe. This species also produces saffron rich in pigment. The bulbs of several are edible.

Crotalaria Burhia, Hamilton.

Beluchistan, Afghanistan, Scinde. This perennial herb grows in arid places and yields, like the following, Sunn fibre.

Crotalaria juncea, Linne.

The Sunn hemp. Indigenous to South Asia, and also widely dispersed through tropical Australia. An annual herb, rising under favourable circumstances to a height of 10 feet. In the colony of Victoria, Sunn can only be cultivated in the warmest and moistest localities. It comes in four or five months to matur- ity. The plant can also be grown as a fodder herb for cattle. It requires rich, friable soil. If a superior soft fibre is desired, then the plant is pulled while in flower; if strength is the object, then the plant is left standing until it has almost ripened its seeds. The steeping process occupies about three days. For the purpose of obtaining branchless stems it is sown

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 87

closely. Cultivated in the Circars according to Roxburgh to feed milch cows.

Crotalaria retusa, Linne.

Asia, America, and Australia within the tropics. A perennial herb. Its fibre resembles that of C. juncea, and is chiefly used for ropes and canvas. Others of the multitudinous species of Crotalaria deserve to be tested for their fibres.

Croton lacciferus, Linne.

Ceylon, up to 3,000 feet. Suitable for the warmer forest regions here, to obtain from this tree its peculiar exuding lac resin.

Crozophora tinctoria, Necker.

South Europe, North Africa, and Orient.' An annual herb. The turnsole dye is prepared by exposure of the juice to the air, or by treating it with ammonia.

Cryptomeria Japonica, Don.

Japan and Northern China. The Sugi ; the largest tree in Japan, the trunk attaining 35 feet in circumference (Rein) ; it is also grown for hedges and there yielding the most esteemed timber, scented like that of Cedrela (Christie) . A slender evergreen tree, sometimes over 100 feet high. It requires forest valleys for successful growth. The wood is compact, very white, soft and easy to work. In the Azores preferred even to the Pinus Haleppensis for timber culture, on account of its still more rapid growth in that insular clime.

Cucumis cicatrisatus, Stocks.

Scinde, where it is called " Wungee." The edible ovate fruit is about 6 inches long.

Cucumis Citrullus, Seringe. (Citrullus vulgaris, Schrader.)

Mediterranean regions. The Water Melon. It is simply- mentioned here to indicate the desirability of naturalising it in the Australian interior deserts, where no Cucurbita and only a single kind of edible Cucumis (C. acidus, Jacquin), with fruits not larger than a pigeon's egg, is indigenous. In South African deserts it has become spontaneously established, and retained the characters of the cultivated fruit.

Cucumis Colocynthis, Linnd (Citrullus Colocynthis, Schrader.) From the Mediterranean regions to India. An annual herb.

88 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

The medicinal extract of colocynth is prepared from the small gourd of this species. Active principle : colocynthin.

Cucumis Conomon, Thunberg.

Japan. An annual. The large fruit is used for preserves.

Cucumis Melo, Linne.

The Melon. Originally from the country about the Caspian Sea. The best varieties might also be naturalised in sand deserts, particularly in places where some moisture collects. Some of the Bokhara varieties are remarkably luscious and large. Apparently remunerative results have been gained in Belgium from experiments to cultivate melons for sugar and treacle. The seeds thus obtained in quantity, become avail- able for oil pressing. The root contains melonemetin.

Cucumis Momordica, Roxburgh.

Cultivated in India. It produces cucumbers 2 feet long, bursting slowly when ripe into several divisions. Young, the fruit is used like cucumbers ; aged, like melons.

Cucumis sativus, Linne'.

The Cucumber. Egypt. Indicated here merely for complete- ness' sake, also because gherkin pickling ought to become a more extended local industry. Dr. G. King brought under notice and culture the Chinese cucumber " Solly- Qua, " which attains a length of 7 feet, It must be trained on walls or trellises, to afford to the fruit sufficient scope for suspen- sion.

Cucumis utilissimus, Roxburgh.

Mountains of Bengal. An annual like the other species. Fruit of the size and shape of an ostrich's egg, with the flavour of melons. These fruits will keep for several months.

Cucurbita maxima, Duchesne.

Large Gourd. Turkey. Instances are on record of fruits having weighed over 2 cwt. This species, also, is eligible for naturalisation in the interior. Amongst other purposes it serves for calabashes.

Cucurbita Melopepo, Linne*.

The Squash. May be regarded as a variety of C. Pepo. It will endure storage for months.

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 89

Cucurbita moschata, Duchesne.

The Musky Gourd. Doubtless also from the Orient.

Cucurbita Pepo, Linne.

The Pumpkin and Vegetable Marrow. Countries on the Caspian Sea. Its naturalisation in the desert would be a boon. The seeds on pressure yield a fixed oil ; they are also anthelminthic. C. melanosperma, A. Braun, is not edible.

Cudrania Javensis, Trecui.

New South Wales and Queensland, South and East Asia to Japan, East Africa. This climbing thorny shrub can be utilised for hedges. Fruit edible, of pleasant taste ; the root furnishes a yellow dye.

Cuminum Cymimum, Linne.

Norfch Africa. The fruits of this annual herb are known as Cumin and used for certain condiments, as also in medicine. Cuminum Hispanicum, Merat, is similar. Essential oil peculiar.

Cupressus Benthami, Endlicher.

Mexico, at 5,000 to 7,000 feet. A beautiful tree 60 feet high. The wood is fine-grained and exceedingly durable.

Cupressus Lawsoniana. Murray. (Ckamacyparis Lawsoniana, Parl.)

Northern California. This is a splendid red-flowered Cypress, growing 100 feet high, with a stem of 2 feet in diameter, and furnishes a valuable timber for building purposes, being clear and easily worked.

Cupressus Lindleyi, Klotzsch.

On the mountains of Mexico. A stately Cypress up to 120 feet high. It supplies an excellent timber.

Cupressus macrocarpa, Hartweg. (C. Lambertiana, Gordon.)

California, from Monterey to Noyo, in the granite as well as sandstone formation ; sometimes in Sphagnum-moors. This beautiful and shady tree attains the height of 150 feet, with a stem of 9 feet in circumference, and is one of the quickest growing of all conifers, even in poor, dry soil. One of the best shelter trees on sea-sands, naturally following the coast-line, never extending many miles from the shore, and

90 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

occurring in localities where the temperature does not rise above 80° F., nor sinks below the freezing point (Bolander) . Richer in its yield of tar than the Scotch Fir, according to American writers.

Cupressus Nutkaensis, Lamb. (Chamacyparis NntJcaensis, Spach.) The Yellow Cedar or Cypress of Alaska and the neighbouring States. Height of tree, 100 feet. Timber hard, durable, tough, and close; also scented; worked with ease; used for boat- building and other purposes ; the bast for mats and ropes. Can be trimmed for hedge growth.

Cupressus obtusa, F. v. Mueller. (Retinospora obtusa, Sieb. and Zucc.)

The Hinoki of Japan. Attains a height of 80 feet; stem 5 feet in circumference. It forms a great part of the forests at Nipon. The wood is white-veined and compact, assuming, when planed, a silky lustre. According to Mr. Christie, durable, close-grained, and easily worked. It is used in Japan for temples. There are varieties of this species with foliage of a golden and of a silvery white hue. Hardy at New York, even in exposed localities. One of the finest of evergreen trees for dwellings. It resembles C. Lawsoniana, but excels it ; hardier and of rapid growth (Rev. H. W. Beecher).

Two other Japanese Cypresses deserve introduction, — namely, C. breviramis (Chamcecyparis breviramea, Maxim.) and C. pendens (CJiamacyparis pendula, Maxim.).

Cupressus pisifera, F. v. Mueller. (Chamacyparis pisifera., Sieb. and Zucc.)

Japan. It attains a height of 30 feet, producing also a variety with golden foliage. Very hardy like the foregoing ; also of beautiful aspect and quick growth. Stem occasionally 3 feet in diameter (Rein).

Cupressus sempervirens, Linne.

Common Cypress of South Europe. Height of tree up to 80 feet. It is famous for the great age it reaches, and for the durability of its timber, which is next to imperishable. At present it is much sought for the manufacture of musical instruments.

Cupressus thurifera, Humboldt, Bonpland, and Kunth.

Mexican White Cedar ; 3,000 to 4,500 feet above sea level. A handsome pyramidal tree, upwards of 40 feet high.

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 91

Cupressus thuyoides, Linne. (Chamacypans sphteroidea, Spach.) White Cedar of North America ; in moist and morassy ground. Height of tree 80 feet ; diameter of stem 3 feet. The wood is light, soft, and fragrant ; it turns red when exposed to the air ; it is extensively used for a great variety of purposes, particularly also shingles ; it is fine-grained and easily worked. The aged wood resists the succession of dryness and moisture better than any other Cypress hitherto tried.

Cupressus torulosa, Don.*

Nepal Cypress. Northern India ; 4,500 to 8,000 feet above sea level. Average ordinary height 40 feet, but much larger dimensions are on record, requiring perhaps confirmation. The reddish fragrant wood is as durable as that of the Deodar Cedar, highly valued for furniture. The tree seems to prefer limestone soil. Dr. Brandis thinks that it may attain an age of 1,000 years.

Cyamopsis psoraloides, Candolle.

South Asia. This annual is mentioned by Dr. Forbes Watson among the plants which furnish all the year green table-beans to a portion of the population of India.

Cycas Normanbyana, F. v. Mueller.

A noble Queensland species, deserving introduction, and capable of being shipped to long distances in an upgrown state without emballage.

Cycas revoluta, Thunberg.

The Japan Fern Palm. The trunk attains, in age, a height of about 6 feet, and is rich in sago-like starch. The slow growth of this plant renders it valuable for no other purpose than scenic decorative culture ; it endures the climate of Mel- bourne without protection. Cycas angulata, R. Br., may also prove hardy, and would prove a noble horticultural acquisition, as it is the most gigantic of all Cycadese, attaining a height of 70 feet in tropical East Australia. Like the Zamia stems, also, the trunks of Cycas admit of translocation, even at an advanced age.

Cymopterus glomeratus, Candolle.

Western States of North America. Root edible (Dr. RosenthalJ.

92 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

Cynara Cardunculus, Linne.

The Cardoon. Mediterranean regions. A perennial herb. The bleached leaf stalks serve as esculents.

Cynara Scolymus, Liime.

The Artichoke. South Europe and North Africa. The recep- tacles and the base of the flower-scales well known as a vegetable. The plant is perennial and here merely mentioned as entitled to extended culture in grouping this with other stately plants. Several other species are worthy of cultivation. The Italian Artichokes are much grown under olive trees to utilise spare ground.

Cynodon Dactylon, Persoon.*

Widely dispersed over the warmer parts of the globe, thus as indigenous reaching the northern parts of the colony of Victoria; stretching also into Middle Europe and West England. Passes under the names of Bermuda Grass, Scutch Grass, Doorva Grass. An important grass for covering bare, barren land, or binding drift-sand, or keeping together the soil of abrupt declivities, or consolidating earth banks against floods. It is not without value as a pasture grass ; resists extreme drought, and may become of great importance to many desert tracts. The dispersion is best effected by the creeping rooting stems, cut into short pieces ; each of these takes root readily. In arable land this grass, when once established, cannot easily be subdued. The stems and roots are used in Italy for preparing there the Mellago graminis. Roxburgh already declared this grass to be by far the most common and useful of India ; that it flowers all the year, and that it forms three-fourths of the food of the cows and horses there. Excellent also as a lawn grass.

Cynosurus cristatus, Linne.

The Crested Dog's-tail Grass. Europe, North Africa, West Asia. A perennial grass, particularly valuable as withstand- ing drought, the roots penetrating to considerable depth. The stems can also be used for bonnet-plaiting. Though in- ferior in value for hay, this grass is well adapted for permanent pasture, as it forms dense tufts without suffocating other grasses or fodder herbs.

Cyperus corymbosus, Rottboell.

India. This stately perennial species may be chosen to fringe our lakes and ponds. It is extensively used for mats in India.

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 93

Cyperus esculentus, Linne.

South Europe, West Asia, various parts of Africa. Produces the ' ' Chufa " or Ground Almond, an edible root, which con- tains 27 per cent, of starch, 17 per cent, of oil, and 12 per cent, of saccharine substance ; other (French) analyses give 28 per cent, oil, 29 starch, 14 sugar, 7 gum, 14 cellulose. This plant does not spread like the C. rotundus, and can be reared on sand-land, though in rich loose soil the harvest is far more plentiful. The tubers, of which 100 to 150 can be obtained from each plant, are consumed either raw or cooked. Hogs root them up for food. The oil surpasses in excellence of taste all other oils used for culinary purposes. The roasted tubers are a fair substitute for coffee when properly planted ; the root crop is available in from 4 to 6 months. The root of the North American C. phymatodes (Muehlenberg) is also nutty.

Cyperus Papyrus, Linne.

The Nile Papyrus, wild in various regions of Africa. Attains a height of 16 feet. Though no longer strictly an utilitarian plant, as in ancient times, it could scarcely be passed on this occasion, as it ought to become valuable in the horticultural trade. Its grand aspect recommends it as very decorative for aquatic plantations.

Cyperus proliferus, Linne fil.

Canary Islands. The t( Tagasaste." This tall herb is recom- mended as a fodder plant in countries exposed to drought.

Cyperus Syriacus, Parlatore.

The Syrian or Sicilian Papyrus. . This is the Papyrus plant usual in garden cultivation. The plants in the Melbourne Botanic Garden attain a height of 8 feet, but suffer some- what from frost. Other tall decorative Cyperi deserve intro- duction,— for instance, C. giganteus, Rottboell, from West India and Guiana, these kinds of plants being hardier than others from the tropics.

Cyperus tegetum, Roxburgh.

India. This Galingale Hush might be naturalised on river banks, to obtain material for the superior mats made of it in Bengal. The fresh stems are slit longitudinally into three or four pieces, each of which curls round by exsiccation, and can then be worked into durable and elegant mats.

94 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

*

Cyperus textilis, Thunberg. (Cyperus vaginatus, R. Brown.)

Widely dispersed over the Australian continent, also occur- ring in Southern Africa. It is restricted to swampy localities, and thus is not likely to stray into ordinary fields. In the colony of Victoria it is the best indigenous fibre plant, and it is likewise valuable as being with ease converted into pulp for good writing paper, as shown by me some years ago. Its perennial growth allows of regular annual cutting. Within Victorian territory this Galingale rush is particularly common on the Murray flats. The natives there use this as well as Carex tereticaulis (F. v. M.) for nets.

Cytisus SCOparius, Link. (Spartium scoparium, Linne.)

The Broom Bush. Europe, North Asia. Of less significance as a broom plant than as one of medicinal value. It can also be used for tanning purposes. Most valuable for arresting drift sand. An alkaloid (spartein) and a yellow dye (scopa- rin) are obtainable from this Broom bush.

Daerydium Colensoi, Hooker.

New Zealand. A beautiful tree, growing 50 feet in height and producing hard and incorruptible timber ; chiefly eligible for our Alpine regions.

Daerydium cupressinum, Solander.

New Zealand. Native name, Rima ; the Red Pine of the colo- nists. This stately tree attains the height of 200 feet, and furnishes a hard and valuable wood, very lasting for fences but readily decaying in water- works. Professor Kirk recom- mends the timber on account of its great strength for girders and heavy beams anywhere under cover. With other New Zealand conifers particularly eligible for forest valleys. A most suitable tree for cemeteries, on account of its pendulous branches.

Daerydium Franklini, Hooker fil.

Huon Pine of Tasmania ; only found in moist forest recesses, and might be planted in dense fern- tree gullies. Height of tree, 100 feet ; stem circumference, 20 feet. The wood is highly esteemed for ship-building and various artisans' work.

Daerydium Kirkii, F. v. Mueller.

New Zealand. The " Manoao." A pyramidal tree, attaining 80 feet in height ; stem a diameter of 4 feet. Timber of a reddish colour and extreme durability (Professor Kirk). Bears seeds abundantly.

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 95

Dactylis csespitosa, Forster. (Poa Forsteri, Steudel.)

Fuegia, Falkland's Island, South Patagonia. The Tussock Grass. Introduced by Sir Joseph Hooker into the Hebrides, and by Mr. Traill into the Orkney Islands. Delights, accord- ing to Mr. Ingram, in deep, boggy, and mossy land, even when exposed to sea-spray. Cultivated plants might be dressed with some salt. Thrives in cold countries near the sea in pure sand, at the edge of peat bogs. It would likely prosper in our Alpine moors. It is perennial, and reaches to a height of 9 feet. It is very nutritious, and much sought by herds. The base of stem is nutty and edible.

Dactylis glomerata, Linne.*

Europe, North Africa, North and Middle Asia. . The Cocks- foot Grass. Perennial. One of the best of tall pasture grasses, adapted as well for dry as moist soil, thus even available for wet clays. It will live also under the shade of trees in forests. Its yield of fodder is rich and continuous, but its stems are hard. It is already largely cultivated, and has become natur- alised. It is generally liked by cattle, unless when by under- stocking or neglect it has been allowed to become rank. Lan- gethal observes : " What the Timothy Grass is for the more dry sandy soil, that is the CockVfoot Grass for more binding soil, and no other (European) grass can be compared to it for copiousness of yield, particularly if the soil contains a fair quantity of lime. It grows quickly again after the first cut- ting and comes early on in the season. The nutritive power of this grass is of the first class."

Dactylis litoralis, Willdenow. (Pba litomlisj Gouan.)

From the Mediterranean countries to Siberia, This stoloni- ferous grass can be utilised for binding coast-sands ; but it is of greater importance still in sustaining a Kermes insect (Por- phyrophora Hamelii)., which produces a beautiful purple dye (Simmonds) .

Dalbergia miscolobium, Bentham.

Southern Brazil. This tree supplies a portion of the Jacaranda wood (Tschudi).

Dalbergia nigra, Allemao.

Brazil, down to the Southern Provinces. A tall tree, likely to prove hardy in our warmer and lower regions. It yields a portion of the Jacaranda or Palisander Wood, also Caviuna Wood; which; for rich furniture, have come into European use.

96 SELECT PLANTS FOR INDUSTRIAL CULTURE

Several Brazilian species of Machaerium afford, particularly M. incorruptibile (Allem), M. legale, and M. Allemani (Benth.), according to Saldanha da Gama, a similar precious wood; also timber for water-works and railway sleepers.

Dalbergia Sissoo, Roxburgh.

The Indian Sissoo Tree, ascending to elevations of 5,000 feet, attaining a height of 60 feet, It may be worthy of test whether in localities free of frost, particularly along sandy river banks, this important timber tree could be naturalised. Bran- dis found the transverse strength of the wood greater than that of teak and of sal ; it is very elastic, seasons well, does not warp or split, and takes a fine polish. It is also durable as a wood for boats. The tree is easily raised from seeds or cuttings, *is of quick growth, and resists slight frosts. The supply of its wood has fallen short of the demand in India. Captain Campbell- Walker states that in the Pan jab artificial rearing of Sissoo is remunerative at only 1 5 inches annual rainfall, with great heat in summer and sharp frosts in winter ; but irrigation is resorted to at an annual expense there of four shillings per acre. Sterile land is by the Sissoo-planting greatly ameliorated.

Dammara alba, Humph. (D. orientals, Lamb.)

Agath Dammar. Indian Archipelagos and mainland. A large tree up to 100 feet high, with a stem of up to 8 feet in dia- meter; straight and branchless for two-thirds its length. It is of great importance on account of its yield of the transpa- rent Dammar resin, extensively used for varnish.

Dammara Australis, Lambert.*

Kauri Pine. North island of New Zealand. This magnifi- cent tree measures, under favourable circumstances, 180 feet in height and 1 7 feet in diameter of stem ; the estimated age of such a tree being 700 or 800 years. It furnishes an excel- lent, remarkably durable timber, straight-grained, and much in use for masts, boats, superior furniture, casks, rims of sieves, and particularly sought for decks of ships, lasting for the latter purpose twice as long as the deal of many other pines. It is also available for railway break-blocks and for carriages, and regarded as one of the most durable among timber of the Coniferse. Braces, stringers, and tie-beams of wharves remain- ed, according to Professor Kirk, for very many years in good order under much traffic. In bridge-building the Kauri timber gave also excellent results ; it can likewise be used advantageously for railway sleepers. Kauri ought to be

IN EXTRA-TROPICAL COUNTRIES. 97

extensively introduced into our denser forests. Auckland alone exports about £20,000 worth of Kauri timber annually. It is easily worked, and takes a high polish. It yields, besides, the Kauri resin of commerce, which is largely got from under the stem of the tree. The greatest part is gathered by the Maoris in localities formerly covered with Kauri forests ; pieces weigh- ing 100 Ibs. have been found in such places.

Dammara macrophylla, Lindley.