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oy ba. ae hi). Sige asl | THE FARMERS REGISTER: NEW SERIES. a en at EDITED BY THOMAS §, PLEASANTS.”
Published Monthly, at Five Dollars a year, in advance.
Vol. 1. @ Januarn,
PETERSBURG, VA.
PUBLISHED BY PLEASANTS AND STABLER.
LAURENS WALLAZZ, PRINTER.
1843.
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: oe a i be RB ng ‘s tied 3 ay : ce Baek x : Ee, : € - tee a | hie : ? | ee Weis ay iy i "ea ‘ k . : ae took ay — THRIFARNERS? RRCISTER, Is isoued in monthly . sabers (of 64 super royal octavo pages, )‘at five devars pcr annum, payable in os j advance. The premix copy, however. will a3 ° TERMS OF ADVERTISING. a. ¥ formerly be senttto say subscriber who may desire | For wequare,” or 20 lines,) 2 month, $1 oe it, of to the addrese $5 — individual ; Bow no | r $5°the year rémi (tance less than $5 can be received, and in the | ret CARE « of preminia Coples, payments must inv ariab)y i Bes LAURENS WALLAZZ, se toade in advance, at the time of ordering th: : anuery 1, 1843. Petersburg. wor. ? —
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tion. 212594 Jan. 1, 1848. LAURENS WALLAZZ.
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Should the plan meet with sufficient encouragement, the subscriber proposes to issue a super-royal weekly newspaper, to be called “The Pe- tersburg Gazette.” intirely free from party prejudice and sectarian bias, its columns will be devoted to Foreign and Domestic News, Com- mercial, Litera and Scientific Intelligence, &c.
From every available point of the wide and abundant field which pre- sents itself, the * Gazette” will collect such matter as wi!] best combine entertainment with instruetion. Among other interesting topics, a pro- minent one will be the illustration of the civil and natural. history of our native state, its soil, climate, scenery, productions, and resources ; the legends and traditions of the past; sketches of distinguished cha- racters, ac,
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THE FARMERS’ REGISTER.
JANUARY 31, 1843.
a
TO THE PUBLIC.
In assuming the conduct of the Farmers’ Register, | am fully sensible of the disadvan- tages of succeeding to a position which has been so ably occupied for ten years by the dis- tinguished individual who is about to withdraw from it. His Jabors in the cause of agriculture constitute a memorable era in its annals, In the tide-water region of the southern country his efforts and perseverance have brought to light hidden but wonderful resources; and his name will aiways be identified with them. For these and other services he is pre-eminent- ly entitled to the character of a public bene- factor.
To these claims upon public consideration I have not the slightest pretension to offer. It is believed, however, that the wants of the south will fully justify the continuance of such an organ as the Farmers’ Register, whose pages afford ample space for the most free interchange between members of the agricul- tural community. The present time also is full of interest in respect to the general pro- gress of agricultural knowledge. In every enlightened country the energies of some of the most powerful intellects are engaged in contributing to it. @hemistry and geology are no longer studied as isolated sciences ; their results illustrate the true principles of agriculture, and add a mighty stimulus to its advancement. From time to time, some com- prehensive mind,as of Davy or Liebig, collects, generalizes and applies the’ discoveries of others and its own, and establishes a great landmark to distinguish the progress that has been made in agricultural science, and to serve as a fresh starting point for the further ex- tension of its boundaries.
To convey information of this kind is now one of the chief duties of an agricultural journal. New combinations and affinities are daily revealed, and every farmer of intelligent and inquiring mind, who would keep pace with the improvements in his profession, must draw upon those public channels in which
the views and discoveries of the jearned are NEW SBRIES—Vo1L. 1.—]1
-
embodied and transmitted for the benefit of the many.
In few other works of the kind, perhaps, 1s there so much space for the publication of interesting matter as in the Farmers’ Register. Whatever is most valuable in the British agri- cultural periodicals, as well as our own, will as formerly continue to be republished. In connexion therewith, and also of the highest importance, will be the duty of engaging able and efficient contributors; the collection of useful facts; description of improved pratices and modes of farming, of the most approved systems of rotation, valuable inventions, &c. To these purposes, and with a single eye to the promotion of the interests of agriculture, horticulture and the rural arts, shall the work be devoted, with whatever of talent or indus- try the conductor may possess,
I venture then to express the hope that the friends and patrons of the Farmers’ Register, while under the direction of my predecessor, will not now withhold their support, but will continue both as subscribers and contributors to its columns. And to the agricultural public at large I submit my claim ‘for such general amount and proportion of patronage as the work, compared with cotemporary journals of a kindred character, may be thought to merit. ‘There are doubtless few practical cultivators to whom the price of a publication of this kind is not repaid several fold by the informa- tion derived from its pages.
Experience having shown that the recent terms of the Farmers’ Register, by which pre- mium copies were granted on certain con- ditions, were attended with some confusion and loss, instead of profit to the publisher, and a large portion of the subscribers having moreover never availed themselves of those conditions, they will be so far altered in future as to place the value of the publication at $5 the single copy, per annum, payable in ad-
vance,
The new series will be published in the saine form, of 64 pages monthly, and on paper of the same size and quality; but will be printed with new and handsome type. The
I
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m AY 2 33
2 THE FARMERS’ REGISTER.
first number will be issued on the 31st of January, 1843, and will be forwarded to all present subscribers who do not previously direct a discontinuance. Tuomas S. PLeasants. Petersburg Va.. November 28, 1842.
(FOR THE FARMERS’ REGISTER. ) INQUIRIES INTO VEGETATION. BY WILLIAM L. WIGHT.
The attention which is now being directed to the union of the science with the practice of agriculture will constitute a striking feature in the history of its improvement. The phe- nomena of nature, being offered to our obser- vation apparently without order, must be ar- ranged and connected by a general principle, before we can arrive at any thing like certainty of knowledge. The process of vegetation is a series of phenomena, linked together by a ge- neral law. Science is nothing more than a record of its particular phenomena, traced to others still more comprehensive, until we ar- rive at the connecting link which binds them into one harmonious whole. “ All the philoso- phy which has been reared by the labor of successive ages is the philosophy of facts re- duced to general laws, or brought under a ge- neral description, from observed points of re- semblance.” Many of the facts connected with the growth and nourishment of plants have already been brought to light by the genius and industry of our predecessors ; but much still remains to be done, and it is for us of the present day to supply the deficiency as far as we can, by contributing such facts as have escaped observation, and “ concentrating upon unknown phenomena the light reflected from those that are known.” In the hope of contributing something towards increasing our knowledge of this deeply interesting subject, the following inquiry will be opened with the leading facts of the science. These, together with other facts to be presented, and which also lie within the field of observation and ex- periment, will form the basis of farther con- clusions.
When seed is deposited in the soil, under favorable circumstances of moisture, heat, and air, the following chemical changes have been ascertained to ensue. A portion of the oxy- gen gas of the atmosphere disappears, and an equal volume of carbonic acid is evolved.* The first indication of this change is the ap- pearance of the part of the germ called the plumula, which alwavs ascends to form the stem and leaves ; while the other part, the ra- dicle, always descends to constitute the root. As soon as the first leaf has unfolded itself, an action directly the reverse of the one just mentioned takes place. Carbonic acid is now resolved into its original elements—one of them, oxygen, returned back to the atmo-
* Saussure.
here, while the other, carbon, is retained for ie nutritive purposes of the plant. And this action goes on uninterruptedly day and night, until the whole of the nourishment contained in the cotyledons or seed lobes has been con- sumed. This fact, which seems hitherto to have escaped notice, may be proved by the fol- lowing simple experiment. Let a seed resting upon moistened cotton be allowed fully to de- velope its first leaf. If this leaf be now intro- duced under a receiver, and supplied with ecar- bonic acid, it will be found to decompose this gas, and to evolve an equal volume of oxygen during the night as well asthe day. If the other seminal leaves, as they are successively unfolded, be treated in like manner, the same process will be observed to continue, by night as well as by day, until nothing but the enve- loping capsule of the germ remains. It is suf- ficiently evident from this experiment that the office of the seed lobes is not only to furnish carbonic acid, but to assimilate its carbon, until the organs of plants are so far developed as to effect the same object. When the food treasured up in the seeds is exhausted, the further growth and nourishment of plants is maintained through the ageney of exterior in- fluences. These are the soil, the atmosphere, and solar light. The soil is composed of silica, or sand, alumina, or clay, lime, and organic, or animal and vegetable, in variable propor- tions.
The atmosphere consists essentially of two gases, oxygen and nitrogen; but it contains also small proportions of aqueous vapor and carbonic acid. Light, when resolved into its constituent parts, was found by Sir Isaac Newton to be composed of seven different co- lored rays, violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red.
The organs of plants being so far advanced as to act and to be reacted upon by these three exterior influences, we find that immediate re- course is had to a division of labor, to an eco- nomy of means, suited to the simple structure of the plant. Thus the leaves no longer de- compose carbonic acid at night, but enter upon their especial office, the absorption of oxygen gas from the atmosphere. During the day, carbonic acid is taken up by the roots, and transmitted to the leaves, when it is decom- posed through the agency of light. When this decomposition is effected with proper activity, plants uniformly exhibit to our view the green tint in all its beautiful varieties. If, however, this chemical change takes place either too slowly, or not at all, as is the case when the influence of light is diminished or withdrawn, the colors of plants become fainter and fainter, until they wholly disappear. For the disco- very that oxygen gas was given off from the leaves of plants during the day, one of the most beautiful in natural philosophy, science is indebted to Dr. Priestly ; and to Ingenhous, it is believed, for the first observation that light was essential to the process. So far, then, as the chemical changes which take place in plants fall within the reach of inquiry, the ultimate object appears to be the decomposi- tion of carbonic acid, and the assimilation of its carbon, in the completion of which process
8 t
THE FARMERS’ REGISTER.
the influence of light is essential. The key- stone, therefore, of an inquiry of this kind, is the knowledge of the circumstances. which diminish this influence, and of the means of increasing it. This knowledge can only be obtained by a diligent observation of the facts and analogies of nature, and by experiment. Nature speaks through her phenomena, and experiment is the mode of interpretation. Thus, in casting our view over almost any field of growing plants, we shall generally ob- serve surfaces, of greater or less extent, where the natural green is tinted off, into shades in- termediate between green and yellow. On in- specting these spots, we find that the cause, and only cause of difference, is the degree of moisture. Hence it appears that water, when habitually too abundant, is one of those cir- cumstances, and a very general one too, whose tendency is to diminish the chemical agency of light. ‘The first observation that led me to attach particular interest to this fact was the striking contrast in the color of two portions of a wheat field, the whole of which had been sown with the same variety of seed. One portion was immediately below a canal, in consequence of which the subsoil was kept constantly wet, by the oozing of its waters ; the other was adjacent to, and parallel with it, a ditch only intervening. In the spring, and especially after rains of some duration, the co- lor of the wheat on the portion next the canal approached very nearly ‘the orange tint. As the season, advanced and the surface became drier to a greater depth, this tint melted insen- sibly into the shades intermediate between green and yellow; but at no period of its growth did it attain the rich and pure green exhibited by the wheat beyond the drain. On farther observation and inquiry, this effect of water was ascertained to be a universal fact, as regards the nutritive or cultivated families of plants, and is familiar to every observant cultivator of the soil.* It is equally well known that the productiveness of plants growing in soils containing water in excessive — as a constituent part, is generally ess than that of those growing on higher and drier situations. Indeed, I believe it is gene- rally conceded that lands moderately undulat- ing, though they will not vie with the plains in point of the luxuriance, yet exceed them in the quality and value of their products. We all know how much the product of grain is diminished, even on uplands, when the seasons are unusually wet. Again, it is a matter of common observation and experience, that the atmosphere incumbent over wet soils is the source of all those affections comprehended under the generic term, “bilious.” These are all facts, which have been verified by nume-
* Whilst these observations are correct as regards the nutritive or cultivated families of plants, the converse holds true in respect of those of the aqua- tic species. These are the natural inhabitants of wet soils, and are greenest where there is the greatest excess of water; that is to say, the nutri- tive and aquatic species of plants affect opposite states of moisture. Hence both become pale under the same degree—a deficiency in the one case act- ing as an excess in the other.
3
rous observations and extensive experience.
If we now question nature still farther, by carefully taking up plants growing under the different cireumstances which have been de- scribed, placing them under a receiver, and supplying them with carbonic acid, the re- sponse will be, that those exhibiting their na- tural green decompose double the quantity of this gas, or impure air, and give off double the quantity of oxygen, or pure air, compared with those of a fainter tint. The same an- swer will be given if single leaves be separated
from their stems, placed in vessels of water,
and exposed to the direct rays of the sun. More bubbles will be seen to collect on the green than on the pale leaves, and these bub- bles have been proved to consist of oxygen gas. When plants of the aquatic species are submitted to experiment, they are found to give off more oxygen than the nutritive plants of dry soils.* ‘These trials have been repeat- edly made for many seasons, and the results have generally been accordant. ‘They are moreover perfectly consistent with the well- known and long established fact, that it is only in the green substance that the decomposition of carbonic acid oceurs with compensating activity. It appears, then, by following the path of observation and experiment, we ar- rive at the important conclusion, that the pro- ductive powers of plants, and the healthful- ness of the air we breathe, are connected in the relation of cause and effect, with that par- ticular constitution of plants which disposes them to reflect one ray of a pencil of light, the green, rather than another. But perhaps a more striking and convincing illustration of the views here attempted to be sustained is derived from the effects of lime when applied . to the soil. Few now are disposed to question the general fact, that lime is signally effica- cious in promoting the fertility of the soil. That it is inoperative, and even injurious, under particular circumstances, is likewise true; but this seeming contradiction occurs only when artificially applied; and hence should be ascribed to our ignorance of its pre- cise mode of action, and consequently of the proper state in which it should be used. But it appears also, from the observations of Mr. Ruffin, in his valuable Essay on Calcareous Manures, 2 work which will secure for its
author the enviable title of a benefactor to
mittent, or ague, and fevers prevail.
agriculture, and to mankind, that the use of lime has greatly diminished, and, in many in- stances, entirely suspended, the; regular an- nual visitations of the ordinary autumnal dis- eases. ‘These observations of Mr. Ruffin are corroborated by those of M. Puvis, who ob- serves, “that amongst all the countries to which line has carried and established fertility, there is not cited a single one where inter- The tes- timony of Sir John Sinclair to the same point is equally decided. He affirms it as an estab-
* This result, connected with the circumstance that plants of both species become pale under the same degiee of moisture, affords a satisfactory ex- planation of the curious but well known fact, that the bodies of marshes are healthy, whilst their bor- ders are the reverse.
%
4 THE FARMERS’ REGISTER.
lished fact, that a soil full of caleareous mat- ters never produces an unwholesome atmo- sphere. based not upon any preconceived opinions,
In view of evidence of this kind, | necting this power with the other well known
but upon the observation and experience of |
practical and enlightened men, it became a question of deep interest to determine what was the peculiar influence of lime in the pro- cess of vegetation; and for this purpose the following experiments were instituted. Seeds
placed first in glasses of water, and thus al- lowed to germinate. When two or more plants had put forth five roots, which is their complement, or an equal number, taking es- pecial care that those experimented with should have an equal number of roots, this being the test of their being equally healthy,
them to vessels of pure rain water, the other half to vessels of rain water in which a small portion of the hydrate of lime had been dis- solved.
As soon as the first leaf had attained suf- ficient length, they were introduced under separate receivers, and supplied with carbonic acid, It was soon apparent, however, that the plants growing in the pure rain water threw off more oxygen than the others, though the difference was slight. The experiment was repeated with the other leaves, as they were successively unfolded, but with no_ better success,
The carbonate of lime, or lime in the state itis found as a natural production, was now substituted for the hydrate. Selecting the thin pellicle which collects upon lime water, and reducing it toa fine powder, as much was pre- viously dissolved in the rain water in which half of the plants were to grow as could be, by brisk agitation for a few minutes in a closed bottle. ‘The plants to be experimented with be- ing always transferred from the glasses as soon as it was perceived that they had an equal number of roots. Previous to the period at which plants become dependent upon exterior
influences, the effeet of the carbonate of lime | is derived wholly from the decomposition of
was rather to retard than to quicken the de- composing process ; but generally, by the time the second leat had fully unfolded itself, and always in the case of the third, the greater re- sistance offered to the touch, and the deeper and more polished tint of green, inspired anti- cipations of a successful result. When intro- duced under the receivers, and supplied with carbonic acid, these anticipations were more than fully realized—the plants growing in rain water in which carbonate of lime had been previously dissolved, giving off two, three, and sometimes four volumes of oxygen to one disengaged by those growing in pure ‘rain wa- ter; and for every volume of oxygen emitted, an equal quantity of carbonic acid disappeared from the jar containing it. These experiments were frequently and carefully repeated with the other plants cultivated in this latitude, un- til it seemed to be fully ascertained that the influence of the carbonate of lime in the pro- cess of vegetable nutrition consists in increas- ing the action of plants upon the light—in so modifying their constitution as to dispose them
to reflect, under the ordinary defects of climate and season, their natural green; and, by con-
events in the series, viz., the more active de- composition of carbonic acid, whereby more carbon, the basis of vegetable matter, is assi- milated, and more oxygen returned to the at- mosphere, we obtain, as is conceived, a con- sistent explanation of the action of lime, both
_in the promotion of the fertility of the soil, of wheat, resting upon moistened cotton, were —
and in the restoration of the air to its purity.*
Thus it appears that the chemical changes
which take place in the leaves of plants, and upon which their health and vigor depend, as well as the purity of the incumbent atmo- sphere, are effected through the jomt agency of a particular ray of solar light and an alka-
line principle, forming an essential element in they were immediately transferred, half of |
the constitution of the plant, and disposing it to reflect this particular ray. It appears, more- over, to be equally essential that the attractive power of this principle should be so delicately balanced, so nicely adjusted, as to offer no op- posing force to the absorbing offices of the roots and leaves, or to the decomposing agency of the solar beam. A substance endowed with this nicely balanced equipoise of affinities, na- ture provides in the green matter attached to the stems and leaves of plants; and, however well suited this wonderful provision may be to excite the liveliest emotions of gratitude, love and praise, yet it should be borne in mind, that this is but one of the countless instances of beneficent adjustment inscribed upon the pages of this beautiful volume, to direct our thoughts habitually to the Source of all wis- dom, and power, and goodness.
A question here of deep interest arises: What is this green substance which is so nearly con- nected with our health, and with the fertility and beauty of our fields! Let us, as humble disciples of nature, search into this beautiful mystery, and see what response will be given to our interrogatories. 'The experiments of Sennibier have clearly proved, that the oxygen emitted by the leaves of plants during the day
carbonic acid—this carbonic acid being derived from the atmosphere, and from the soil formed by the union of the oxygen of the atmosphere with its humus.
To what purpose then, in the process of ve- getable nutrition, it may be asked, is the oxy-
*It is here proper to state that the atmosphere has been analyzed, and the proportion of oxygen
_ found to be the same in all regions and at all alti-
| tudes.
But that there must be some imperfection in the mode of analysis, arising from the small quan- tity of air submitted to test, or some other cause, is evinced by the following circumstances: First, that growing plants are known to be one source of com- nensation for the oxygen consumed by respiration, by combustion, and other natural operations; se- condly, that this oxygen is derived from the decom- position of carbonic acid ; thirdly, that it is only in the green substance that this process is conducted with sufficient activity to make full compensation ; and, fourthly, that the tendency of water, when con- stantly too abundant in the soil, is to counteract the formation of this green substance in plants of the
nutritive species, or those cultivated for the use of man.
la i “ee len
THE FARMERS’ REGISTER. 5D
gen absorbed by the leaves nt night subser-
the other elements of the plant, because the vient! To answer this question let us recur
absorption of this gas is the especial office of
to the facts bearing on this point. Thus we have seen that plants, in the earlier stages of their developement, decompose carbonic acid uninterruptedly, day and night, in virtue of a power possessed by the seed, of not only fur- nishing carbonic acid, but also the means of its decomposition. In the mean time, observe, provision is being made for the aecomplish- ment of both these purposes, by the extension
the atmosphere. As soon as these organs are sufficiently developed to draw food from extra- neous sources, and to adapt it to their wants,
means is resorted to, suited to the simple structure of the plant—the decomposition of carbonic acid at night is discontinued, and the absorption of oxygen by the leaves commences.
The very fact, then, that the especial office of the leaves is to absorb oxygen, and that the decomposition of carbonic acid ceases at night the instant that they enter upon this office,
would seem to evince that there is an intimate connexion between the two processes, and that the one at night is preparatory to that of the day. The nature of this connexion may be inferred from the fact that plants are of a brighter green in the morning than in the evening, thus exhibiting a striking analogy be- tween the functions of the leaves of plants and of the lungs of animals. In the one case the change of the blood from a darker to a brighter tint, from its union with oxygen in the lungs,
is essential to the healthy activity of all the functions of the system. In like manner, the conversion of the dark green of plants, arising from the accumulation of carbon, to a brighter tint, by the absorption of oxygen by the leaves at night, is alike esse1.tial to the activity of the decomposition of carbonic acid by day.
The same difference of color is observable between leaves which are growing, or which continue to absorb oxygen at night, and those whose functions of this kind, having ceased with their perfect developement, are directed to other purposes. The former exhibit a bright green strikingly contrasted with the dark green of the latter. “This difference is conspicuous in all plants, but particularly so in the carrot.
Again—the peculiar influence of lime in imparting a healthier green to plants, com-
mencing, too, as it does, simultaneously with |
the absorption of oxygen by the leaves at | green rather than any other color. We cannot
night, would seem to justify the inference, not only that the formation of the green substance constitutes the nocturnal functions of plants, but that the substance thus formed was alka- line in its character. And this opinion re- ceives additional weight from the fact that oxygen is known to enter as an essential ele- ment into all the vegetable alkalies. Finally, the leaves are the organs in which the decom- position of carbonic “acid takes place, but not the agent by which it is effected. That agent is light; but, to render it effective, there must be an aptitude on the part of the leaves to re- flect the green or chemical ray. Now this aptitude can arise only from an alkaline com- pound formed by the union of oxygen with
Thus,
the leaves, and one of the characters of an al- kali is to change vegetable blues to a green. if the carbonic acid absorbed during the day is not decomposed, the tendency of the plant is to reflect one of the colors between the green and the red end of the spectrum. When the night arrives, and oxygen is again absorbed, this tendency is still farther increas-
| ed. If, however, the carbonic acid is decom-
of its roots into the soil, and of its leaves into | posed, the tendency is to reflect one of the co-
lors towards the violet end or the blue ; under these circumstances the green is renewed by
| the absorption of oxygen.* Reasoning then a division of labor ensues—an economy of |
from phenomena, and deducing causes from effects, it does appear that the office which oxygen fulfils in the process of vegetation is the renewal at night of the pure green, which is modified during the day by the assimilation of carbon. According to this view, the pro- cess of respiration in plants is performed at night, that of digestion by day.
From the facts which have now been pre- sented, we collect that the food of plants, con- sisting mainly, as far as ascertained, of water holding carbonic acid in solution, is derived in part by their roots from the soil, and in part by their leaves from the atmosphere. It is, how- ever, a well ascertained law, that no food is adapted to the purposes of life until it has been resolved into its original elements. This decomposition, this conversion of food into nourishment, is effected in the leaves through the agency of light, and the activity of the process is governed, wé have seen, by the apti- tude of the plant to reflect one particular ray of this light—the green ray. But it is clear this aptitude must arise from a particular con- stitution of the reflecting body; and the view has been proposed, that this modification is effected at night by the elements of which the atmosphere is essentially composed—that such is the part which the atmosphere performs in the process of vegetation at night, a part equally essential with that it performs du- ring the day, but of a wholly different, and even opposite character. But whether this in- ference be correct or not, still it appears that the carbonate of lime, ashes, plaster, &c., have the power of imparting this constitution, and the knowledge of this fact is sufficient for all practical purposes. We cannot know why these substances dispose plants to reflect the
know why the reflection of this color deter- mines the more active decomposition of car- bonie acid. Neither can we know why the perfection of vegetation and the healthfulness of the air we breathe are constantly conjoined with the completion of this chemical change.
_ But observation and experience, the only true
sources of all knowledge of nature, appear to teach us that such is the relation, such the
*«*The substances capable of combining with oxygen afford one or other of the following products : 1, an acid ; 2, an alkali or earth; 3, an oxide. An acid is a body which reddens vegetable blue colors ;
while those that are alkaline change vegetable blues to a green.”
6
succession of events, and that these events are invariable in their concurrence.
Admitting now the accuracy of all the fore- going observations and experiments, the ar- rangements of matter connected with the growth and nutrition of plants will receive a consistent explanation on the electro-chemical theory of Sir Humphry Davy.* Thus it is conceived that, by the union of the oxygen and nitrogen gases of the atmosphere at night with the other elements of the plant, an apti- tude is given to reflect the purely green ray of solar light—or a similar disposition may be im- parted artificially by the application to the soil of the alkaline carbonates or salts of lime. On the return of day this function of the leaves ceases. The carbonic acid taken up by the roots is now transmitted to the leaves. By contact the electric equilibrium of these two substances, the acid and the alkali, is disturbed, but only for a moment. ‘The equilibrium is no sooner restored, than it is again disturbed by the influence of a surface of greater intensity than that by which they are held together, viz., the green or chemical ray of solar light. Hence the elements of the compound are dis- united, the oxygen disengaged, and the carbon retained for the nutritive purposes of the plant. Such are the phenomena exhibited by plants of the nutritive class on soils free from all su- perfluous moisture. On the contrary, when plants of this species are cultivated on soils containing water in excessive proportion as a constituent part, the same combinations occur, and the same decompositions ensue, but as they do not reflect the purely green or chemi-
‘al ray, or, in other words, are exposed to sur- faces of less intensity, their chemical char:es are effected with diminished activity; «and hence the difference in the value of their products and in the purity of the incumbent atmosphere under such circumstances,
According to the above view, the absorption of oxygen gas at night, which appears to be opposed to the purifying tendency of growing plants, is absolutely essential to the intended result; thus affording a beautiful instance of the mutual and essential dependence of two opposite adjustments. The fact, moreover, that plants assume a fainter tint than natural only under the influence of a disturbing force, rela- tively considered, reconciles another apparent inconsistency, with the harmony of all the other known operations of nature.
The practical rules deducible from the fore- going facts are—
Ist, That, as the growth and nourishment of plants appear to be alike de *pendent upon
the products of the decomposition of organic or |
animal and vegetable matters, and upon those inorganic substances which increase their ac- tion upon the light. We are thus admonished of the necessity, the absolute, indispe nsable ne- cessity, of periodically returning to the soil an amount of both these elements corresponding with that which was taken from it by cropping. If neither be returned, the soil must and will
* A very clear exposition of Sir Humphry Davy's theory maybe found in Professor Turner’s Elements of Chemistry, in the section on galvanism.
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THE FARMERS’ REGISTER.
deteriorate, because plants will thus be deprived of the means by which they live and grow. If one of these elements or vegetable matters alone be restored, the productive power of plants will not be developed to the extent of which they are susceptible; both are essential.
To the corruption of decayed plants the leaven of the salts must be added to give rise to forms of the highest beauty and usefulness. The superiority of animal and putrescent manures, as they are termed, over those of vegetable origin, is owing, it is conceived, solely to the alkaline salts which the former contain. But,
as in these the ammoniacal or volatile salts predominate, their effects are necessarily tran- sient, and hence the utility and wee of using those of a more fixed character, as lime and ashes. In the decision of the question as to the quantity of the alkalies to be applied to the soil, it has never been considered that their direct and indirect effect should be kept entire- ly distinct. In the former case this question, it would seem, ought to be determined by their solubility. It is well known that plants can take up nothing except in the form of solu- tion, and we have abundant evidence going to show that the effects of fifty or a hundred bushels of lime or ashes applied to an acre of land have been distinctly visible for an equal number of years. Hence it would appear that the quantity of rain which falls upon an acre of land annually is not adequate to dissolve more than a bushel of these substances. If more were dissolved plants would certainly take up a larger quantity, and the effects would necessarily be less permanent. If then this mode of reasoning be correct, a bushel of
_ lime, or ashes, or plaster, will be fully sufficient
for the attainment of their direct influence. To secure their indirect benefits in loosening the soil, and rendering it more permeable to
_ atmospheric influences, thus alleviating human
toil, a much larger quantity will be required.
Is the question here asked, whence is the magical influence of plaster compared with the other salts of lime, if they all act upon the same general principle? The answer seems to be, that it is referable to its greater power of increasing the action of bodies upon the light. ‘Thus the experiments of Sir Isaac Newton have shown that bodies of an unctu- ous or sulphureous nature have a greater relative refractive power than others, or than their densities would indicate. Plaster is a sulphate of lime, consisting of sulphur, oxygen and lime. May we not hence fairly infer that it is the subtle influence of the sulphureous principle upon that all important agent, light, which enables plaster to produce an eflect
apparently so disproportioned to the cause?
ee a;
Even admitting, with Professor Liebig, that
on the application of gypsum a double decom-
position ensues, whence results carbonate of lime and sulphate of ammonia, it may still be the sulphureous principle to which the peeu- liar action of gypsum is to be ascribed. Consistently with this view, the acknow- ledged pre-eminence of plaster and clover, in the — improvement of land, may be ex- plained by the superior refractive power of the former acting through an appropriate
a Sok ai
a ea re Eee oy ae
THE FARMERS’ REGISTER. 7
medium in the broad leaf of the latter. Hence it is, also, that its powers are still more con- Spicuous in the tobacco plant and in the pump- kin vine, its apparent beneficial influence being proportional to the extent of surface through which it is exerted. Again, without the acid of those substances which increase the action of plants upon the light, the broad leaved may be supposed to be less adapted to pur- poses of profit and improvement than those with narrow leaves, since in the operations of of nature a constant and close relation obtains between the size and structure of the leaf, and the amount of these elements in the soil. Thus, when a piece of land has been impover- ished by injudicious culture, and left to recover by its own natural resources, it invariably clothes itself with a growth remarkable for its narrow leaves. The pine presents us with a familiar illustration of nature’s mode of adaptation of plants to soils, and conveys to us at the same time another lesson for imita- tion, in returning good for evil. From a re- view of the above facts, it would appear that the power of plants to absorb nutriment from the atmosphere depends directly upon the greenness, and indirectly upon the extent of the surface exposed to the action of light. Hence it follows that, in soils not calcareous, the narrow leaved plants will absorb more carbonic acid, and assimilate more carbon, than the broad leaved, in virtue of their greater aptitude under such circumstances of reflect- ing the purely green or chemical ray of solar ight.
Secondly—The essential elements of fertility, organic matters and the salts of lime, having been supplied, the next object will be to coun- teract the operation of antagonist processes. Of these the chief are the presence of plants other than the proper occupants of the soil, and a constant excess'of water. The re- medy for the first is thorough cultivation, and for the second thorough draining. By tho- rough draining is meant the Deanston or furrow system, which has conferred such distinetion on the husbandry of Scotland.
The two preceding rules appear to com- prehend the distinguishing features of the new or improved system of husbandry. These are, Ist, The alternation of crops, or the introduction of the artificial grasses and of root culture into the system as food for stock, and to be ploughed into the land, the ultimate object being to replenish the soil in the most economical manner with the food of plants, with manures, 2d. Draining and the applica- tion of marl, lime, ashes, plaster, &c. The removal of superfluous moisture, and the
application of the alkaline earths, and salts |
are classed together, because their action, in | the process of vegetable nutrition, is con- |
ceived to be identical—both of them enabling plants to attract more food from the atmo- sphere, and also to adapt it more completely to their wants. This two-fold purpose they effect by promoting the formation of the green substance which we know to be so essential to the health, and vigor, and beauty of the vegetable creation.
» INFLUENCE OF MAGNESIA
IN THE GERMINATION, VEGETATION, AND FRUCTI- FICATION OF PLANTS. BY ANGELO ABBENE,
It has been thought that the presence of magnesia may be numbered among the va- rious causes which render land sterile, because it has been temarked that magnesian soils have an arid character. This opinion has be- gun to lose credit since Bergman, on examin- ing the composition of fertile soils, considered magnesia as one of their principal consti- tuents.
Professor Giobert has made many trials to discover the parts which the native magnesia acts that is found in several arable lands. In the vicinity of Castellemonte and Baldissero, this substance is abundantly diffused, in soils which are cultivated with great success, and on which a vigorous vegetation prevails. There are many localities, in Piedmont and other places, where the double carbonate of lime and magnesia abounds in cultivated ter- ritories, which produce beautiful crops. Gio- bert has inferred from these experiments, Ist, that native carbonate of magnesia is not ad- verse to the fruition of plants; 2d, that in consequence of the solubility of the magnesia in an excess of carbonic acid, the earth may exert an action analogous to lime; 3d, that a magnesian soil may become fertile when used with the needful quantity of manure em- ployed.
The consequence which naturally flows from these facts is, that the magnesia has been dissolved in an excess of carbonic acid and water, and enters, like lime, into the composi- tion of the sap, and ought to be found in the plant, like potash, lime, oxide of iron, &e. This M. Abbene has assured himself of by the analysis of the ashes of plants which vege- tated in magnesian mixtures. He has also tried by comparative experiments the question whether the influence of magnesia in vegeta- tion is analogous to that of lime. The con- clusions which he thinks are deducible from these trials are :
Ist. Native magnesia is not unfavorable to the germination, vegetation, and fructification of plants, but appears favorable to these func- tions.
2d. Magnesia, being soluble in an excess of carbonic acid, exerts an action similar to lime, and when a soil contains magnesia not suf- ficiently carbonated, a remedy is found in the addition of manure, which, by its decompo- sition, furnishes the needful carbonie acid. The amelioration will be the more efficacious if the land be well stirred up, because the air will then better perform its office.
3d. When in arable soils both lime and magnesia exist, the first is absorbed in pre- ference by plants, because it has a greater affinity for carbonic acid.
Ath. In sterile magnesian soil, it is not to the magnesia that the sterility is to be attri- buted, but either to the cohesion of their parts, to the want of manure, clay, or other ingre- dients, to the great quantity of oxide of iron, &e,
8 THE FARMERS’ REGISTER.
5th. Sterile magnesian soils may be fertilized by means of caleareous substances, such as plaster, chalk, ashes, marl, &c., provided the other conditions are attended to.
Jour. de Pharm., Jan. 1839.
(FOR THE FARMERS’ REGISTER. ) LIME.
I know not, Mr. Ruffin, that what I can say upon the subject of agriculture is worth the paper upon which I write this communication ; but be that as it may, I write to tender you my thanks for the able manner you have con- ducted the Register, and to tender you my gratitude for the great ability you have dis- played in pressing the use and showing the worth of lime. Poverty in land is nothing more than the absence of lime and vegetable matter ; yet wet land, however rich, cannot be productive until it is perfectly drained. The exact quantity of lime to be given to every acre of land is by no means settled by my practice. I have used from 40 bushels up to 300, and if I could make choice, I would take 300; yet 40 made great improvement. The quantity to be given depends upon the condi- tion and constitution of land; yet poor or rich, it is easy to see that a beneficial change is made by it. As I create by lime and plaster uveat masses of vegetable matter, my ma- nuring is very extensive, and might be doubled. Any part of my farm, to suit my convenience, is made meadow, but in cutting it we take care to avoid any part that may show our old acquaintance, poverty grass. Upon this grass grows crop after crop, until green or blue
grass succeeds the poverty grass. I save of |
the second crop of clover all the seed I can, and give the earth, as soon as the frost begins to leave the land, not less than 2 gallons of seed per acre.
I failed in my wheat crops for two years ; the last year I had a great crop which weigh- ed 614 Ibs. to the bushel, miller's weight ; but 62 lbs. was fairly the weight. duced me to change my mode of cultivation. { turned down every thing and harrowed repeatedly, and then seeded with two-horse cultivators, and this practice I shall continue until farther instructed by experience. I cannot press the use of lime in terms suf- ficiently strong to show my estimate of its value. He that drains his land and uses it freely will have no occasion to grieve or mourn for better results than he will obtain.
My failure in- |
(FOR THE FARMERS’ REGISTER. ) APPLES FOR LIVE STOCK.
BY DAVID THOMAS, OF CAYUGA COUNTY, N. Y.
The value of apples for feeding out to live stock is becoming more extensively known. Some years ago, when the temperance refor- mation had rendered cider less popular, many farmers diminished their orchards, apparently because they knew not what to do with the fruit ; but of.late I have seen no destruction of the kind, although that reformation has continued to extend. On the contrary, the demand for young apple trees at the nurseries is on the increase; and sometimes for the avowed purpose of providing for live stock.
I consider that a bushel of apples is worth more than a bushel of potatoes for immediate use ; but in laying in a stock for feeding out next spring, potatoes might prove the more profitable, because they are less liable to rot.
Our hogs grow very fat in autumn by feed- ing on apples which they find under the trees; and I have seen nothing to induce me to believe that they would fatten half as fast on potatoes, if these were laid before them in any quantities. Two or three years ago, a farmer called in, and after looking at our hogs, remarked: “ A. B.* has been feeding his hogs for six weeks on boiled potatoes and meal, and they won’t begin to compare with yours.”
Many farmers boil apples, potatoes and pumpkins together, and then mix in corn or barley meal. Probably this was the kind of feed alluded to by my neighbor. I tried it some years ago, but found it connected with much labor and dittle profit. The labor of fattening our hogs is now reduced to pro- viding enough of apples for them under the trees; and to feeding them daily, or oftener, so that each has a gallon or more of swill, enriched with what would be equivalent to a pint of Indian meal.t When the weather be- comes cold, and apples begin to freeze in out- buildings, the hogs have less relish for them, even when unfrozen; and we then give them corn in the ear. About two weeks under this regimen prepares them for the butcher.
We also keep our young hogs through the winter on apples and some swill. When the apples run short, and potatoes are brought to supply their place, it is with great reluctance that the shoats consent to the change; and
_ frequently leave a part of their mess.
You would have heard from me oftener, but |
for my aversion to preaching to a deaf con-
gregation. ‘Time will cure this, or remove the — supply should hold out.
_ moderately to prevent choking ; and with a the tide-water part of Virginia will be our | common carpenters’ mallet, it is expeditiously
_ done on a floor. This food greatly increases
patient to the west. The day will come when
pride and boast ; let those who hear me mark the result, I had intended to close this by
giving you a list of the crops of my prede-
cessor for 10 years, and those of my own, but this would do no good, especially as I have put my farm in the market and wish to sell.
Lime. Fairfax county, Dec. 14th, 1842.
woe ee
At this time (12,mo. 15th,) we give each milch cow about a peck of apples daily, and have done so for two months past, intending to continue the allowance till spring, if our We bruise the fruit
their milk. Horses that are subject to the heaves are benefited by messes of apples; and sheep are
* One of the best farmers in this district. t Hogs will become very fat, however, without meal, although we prefer it.
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THE FARMERS’ REGISTER.
said to fatten on them speedily ; have had no opportunity to prove it.
It is more than twenty years since I pub- licly recommended the planting of orchards for the purpose of feeding out the fruit. There is a great choice, however, among the kinds of apples. In this climate, the sweet bough, or harvest apple, is one of the best. It is a regular hearer—mine have not failed to pro- duce good crops in 25 years—and begins to drop its fruit soon after midsummer, con- tinuing to do so for almost two months. As the tree never grows very large, 160 may be judiciously planted on an acre.
Other apples,on account of their produc- tiveness and freedom from smut, may also be mentioned, such as the English redstreak, the black gilliflower, the egg-top, and the maiden’s blush. The last however is not a rich fruit, and the hogs after tasting it often pass on to other trees.
Different varieties of the apple, however, will doubtless be found more profitable in different climates. The Pennocs and the Priestly hardly attain full maturity with us, and would acquire greater richness and a higher flavor in more sunny lands; but the vast number of the varieties into which the apple spreads is favorable to the opinion that, im some form or other, it may accommodate itself even to low latitudes.
Reynolds, in his Journal of the Voyage around the World by the Potomac Frigate, says, “'The apple has not yet been acclimated as far south as Georgia. There are, we be- lieve, only one or two varieties which, in the upper parts of that state, prove fruitful in some years. The flavor is very indifferent. So of the pear.” He then proposes to intro- duce varieties from China, where they have gradually been extending to the south through a period of fifteen hundred or two thousand years.
LARGE YIELD OF CORN. MR. SHRIVER'S MODE OF CULTIVATION.
Farm Content, near Westminster. November 9th. 1842.
To THE Eprror oF THE AMERICAN FARMER.— Sir: As you were kind enough to request me to give you my system of farming corn, I take up my pen to do so, though not without con- siderable hesitation, as lam yet but a young farmer, and cannot take the credit of origi- nating altogether the plan which I follow, but have taken the ideas generally from your va- luable journal. I have an entire copy of the “ American Farmer” from its first publication, and refer to it on every occasion, and always find sufficient information on any subject con- nected with agriculture. J consider it, in it- self. a first rate Farmer’s library.
I cannot give you my system better than by detailing the manner in which I cultivated my last crop of corn; but, before I proceed far- ther, let me give you a correct statement of the result of actual measurement, as I was very particular in having the field surveyed, and
NEW SERIFS—VOL, 1.—2
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the corn accurately measured. When I wrote you my last letter, I merely gave you the re- sult of the measurement of one acre, and guessed at the average. The field proved to be smaller than I had estimated it, containing but 15} acres, and produced 265 barrels, ave- raging eighty-five bushels per acre.
Now to the mode of cultivation I have adopted for several years with the most satis- factory results. 1 ploughed the field, which is a light gravelly limestone soil, being a tough blue grass and clover sward, about the first of last November, to the depth of nine inches; harrowed it the 6th of April, lengthwise the _ furrow—the ground being at that time re- markably light and mellow. Manured it with fresh barn yard manure, at the rate of 15 five- horse wagon loads per acre. I spread and plough in my manure immediately after the wagon. The manure was turned under but about two inches deep. I like to keep it as near the surface as possible, so that it is out of the reach of absorption from the rays of the sun. Harrowed the ground lightly with the ploughing, and laid off the rows 5 feet distant, running the rows north and south. I had boys to drop, and I directed them to drop it a good step, (about 26 inches,) and from 5 to 7 grains ina hill. his may seem close; but if you take into consideration the width of the rows, the distance between four hills will be something upwards of ten square feet. Iam convinced that if corn has a free circulation of air one way, it can be planted almost as thick as it can stand the other. I did not harrow the field in question, which I always had done, heretofore, as soon as the corn is up, and plas- ter. The season being so wet at the time, I did not like to work it; when the ground was sufficiently dry the plants were too high for a large harrow to pass over them, and having but a poor opinion of the one-horse harrow, I treated my crop as follows:
ist. Cultivated it June Ist and 2d, merely setting up what corn was covered, going three times in each row.
2d. June 7th and &th, cultivated it as before, thinning it down to four stalks, and if a hill had less, left enough stalks around it to make up the deficiency. Gave it a thorough hoeing, that is, chopped away the old hill and gave it fresh ground, cutting up every spear of grass.
3d. Ploughed it with shovel ploughs June 13th, 14th, 15th, going four times in each row, throwing the ground well up to the corn. Having given it a good hoeing before, it was quite clean, and might have done without it this time. However, I made my hands follow the ploughs and level off around and between the hills.
4th, and last time, I used a large iron fork with three prongs, about 14 inches long, at- tached to a shovel plough. I prefer this im- plement to the cultivator for the last working, as it cultivates the ground deeper, and ean be run nearer the torn without injury.
The last working I consider of the most importance; by Jeaving the surface level and well pulverized, you insure to the roots every advantage in searching out for nourishment. Nothing, in my opinion, is so much calculated
I |
10 THE FARMERS’ REGISTER.
to check the growth of corn as leaving deep furrows in the rows. We all know that the roots of corn extend for many feet around the hill, and also that their depth in the soil is re- gulated by the season. Knowing this to be the fact, how can it be otherwise when a root comes iit contact with a deep furrow, than that it has to turn down into the cold unculti- vated ground, and, as a natural consequence, the stalk becomes sickly and decrepit. I have often been surprised that intelligent farmers should continue to have their fields gutted, by having so many ditches running through them, extracting the substance from the soil, when a moment’s reflection would have con- vinced them of the absurdity of the system.
One great advantage of the mode which I have adopted is, that the manure is applied in the spring, while it is yet warm, and contains all the gases and salts; a great part of which it loses by remaining in the yard subject to the absorption of the atmosphere, not to mention the great loss sustained by the heavy spring and summer showers. Whether manure loses as much by being applied in the spring to corn, as it does by remaining in the yard till fall, is, in my opinion, a very doubtful point. I believe it is a general opinion that corn does not require the same kind, or at least does not extract that portion of the manure which is more particularly adapted to wheat; hence I have concluded, that taking a crop of corn does not impair its capabilities for producing a crop of wheat ; but, on the contrary, prepares it for wheat, by having it fully incorporated with the soil.
I find that I have consumed my sheet, and have not said all yet I intended, but will, if you think this sample of my farming worthy of notice, give you my system of rotation of crops. In conclusion, I believe that the great- est art in farming is making manure; it is the farmer’s bank, in which he must deposite libe- rally, or his drafts will be limited and his ereditors troublesome. |
Ava. Suriver.
—— eo
CURE FOR A FOUNDERED HORSE.
I send you the following prescription, which you may give a place in your useful paper, if you think it will be of any advantage to plant- ers and travellers.
A soon as you find your horse is foundered, bleed him in the neck in proportion to the greatness of the founder. In extreme cases, you may bleed him as long as he can stand up. ‘Then draw his head up, as common in drench- ing, and with a spoon put far back on his tongue strong salt, until you get him to swal- low one pint. Be careful not to let him drink too much. Then anoint around the edges of his hoofs with spirits of turpentine, and your horse will be well in one hour.
A founder pervades every part of the sys- tem of a horse. The phlegms arrest it from the blood; the salt arrests it from the stomach and bowels; and the spirits arrest it from the feet and the limbs, *
—
=
I once rode a hired horse 99 miles in two days, returning him at night the second day ; and his owner would not have known that he had heen foundered if I had not told himy and his founder was one of the deepest kinds.
I once, in a travel of 700 miles, foundered my horse three times, and I do not think that my journey was retarded more than one day by the misfortune, having-in all the cases ob- served and practised the above prescription. I have known a foundered horse turned in at night on green feed; in the morning he would be well, having been purged by the green feed. All founders must be attended to imme- diately.
South-western Farmer.
RUST IN WHEAT.
[The following letter is published at the instance of the gentleman to whom it was addressed, the more willingly in consideration of his reply, and because the correspondence may lead to some further discussion of the important subject to which it relates. The rust is, beyond doubt, by far the most formida- ble drawback upon the wheat crop with which the farmer has to contend. At the moment when his hopes are highest, it spreads as a cloud over his fields, and disappoints him of the reward of his labors. We would request our correspondents to examine into the causes of this disease, and if they know of any re- medy or preventive, to communicate it for the general good. If our own views are correct, we should expect that the use of marl has had a happy effect in guarding against its ravages, Will some of our readers inform us on this point?—Eb. F. R.]
Chesterfield county, Nov. 23, 1842.
Wim M. Peyron.—Respected friend—In common with many readers of the Farmers’ Register, I regretted the abrupt termination of the controversy between thyself and the Rev. J. H. Turner, ‘The importance of the subject would have justified a continuance of the discussion, if it eould have been con- ducted in a full, fair and temperate manner, I think thy “amende honorable” may serve to open the door for its renewal, in which all personality and sarcasm might be avoided.
These remarks from a stranger might ap- pear uncalled for, but as I am about to succeed to the Farmers’ Register, I trust they may be excused, My desire is to have the discussion resumed, I have not seen friend Turner; but as he waived a reply because the privilege of a rejoinder was withheld from his oppo- nent, I doubt not that, like a gallant knight, he would right willingly enter the lists again.
It would also afford me great pleasure to receive communications from thee for the Farmers’ Register, on any subject.
Ss -- e
Pa. ee
Ee a ye eee
THE FARMERS’ REGISTER. il
By the way, while I have the pen in hand, is not Roanoke a limestone country! I should suppose your soils were destitute of calcareous matter, from the fact that you are equally subject to the rust in wheat as we are in lower Virginia. I infer at least that such is the fact, from thy letters in the Southern Planter. As far as my observation extends, lime is an effectual preventive of the rust, Putrescent manures and clover lays, on the contrary, almost always induce it if the season be at all unfavorable at the critical period of ripening. The reason I take to be this: putrescent matter, by furnishing more food than the plant can elaborate, produces a state of plethora, which results in the extravasation of the sap at the season of greatest vigor. This indeed I understand to be thy theory. The tendency of lime is to check this redun- dancy of growth, by providing in some Way the specific food of the plant. Whether this be done by enabling it to decompose carbonic acid with greater activity, or by furnishing it with silicate of lime, or by contributing to the developement and formation of the grain, rather than to an exuberant vegetation, cannot perhaps be determined. When I was in the
eat wheat growing district of western New
ork, some years ago, I saw fields of wheat that I was told would yield 25 or 30 bushels to the acre, which I could not have supposed, from any previous observation, would have produced more than 10. The soils of that region, being of a diluvial formation, are so rich in caleareous matter, from the former attrition of the lime-rocks scattered over the country, that they frequently effervesce with acids. The stem had so little blade that it appeared almost naked. Plaster of Paris, which has been recommended as a protec- tion against the rust, though it be lime in another form, does not contribute much to the formation of grain. Its tendency is eminently to increase the bulk of vegetable growth, and therefore, when it acts on wheat, to induce rust and mildew. To guard against the rust then, such application to the soil appears necessary as would afford specific nourish- ment to the seed. In every analysis of wheat there is found a portion of lime. There are also some manures that furnish the specific ingredients, but those only I believe which are concentrated in their energy. I have read nothing lately which sheds more light on the distinction I have attempted to draw, between manuring for the grain and manuring for the straw, than the detail of some experiments with guano by J. E. Teschemacher, of Boston, and contained in his address to the Horticul- tural Society. Some plants treated with guano, the balsam for instance, produced very inferior flowers; but not a flower missed bearing its seed vessel, and every seed vessel was filled with perfect seeds; while other plants of the same species, and growing under the same circumstances, with the exception of the guano, had only a portion of the seeds perfect in each pod, though the flowers were very fine. ere is a neighborhood in Maryland which I occasionally visit, the inhabifants whereof
form a little community of intelligent and in- dustrious farmers, who mostly belong to the same society of which I am a member, name- ly, that of the Friends or Quakers. They do their own work; and when one works with his own hands, he is more likely to make both ends meet. They find it to their interest to haul lime from six to ten miles to apply to a soil by no means naturally fertile. e crops of wheat on their limed lands are in- variably good, and but little affected by rust. A few years ago, a friend of mine, in an ad- joining county, planted an acre or two of ground in pumpkins. ‘The vines were so much infested with bugs that he sprinkled
caustic lime over the leaves for the pur of Pernt them. In the fall the lot was seeded to wheat, and at the ensuing harvest the locality of every hill was conspicuously visible. In each spot where the time hied been applied, the straw was bright and of a golden color, without the least aoe of rust ; while in every other part the wheat was com- pletely ruined. If it is not too late in the season, I would suggest the ‘trial of a small piece of ground with lime or ashes, if it was no more than a feW yards square. Ashes would be as beneficial as lime, for they afford potash. With great respect, T. S. Peasants.
Big Lick, Roanoke, Nov. 27, 1842.
Dear sir.—No one could regret more that I did the unfortunate turn of the discussion between the Rev. J. H. Turner and myself. I endeavored sincerely and sedulously to avoid such a result, and found myself most wnex- pectedly, as well as most reluctantly and pain- fully, driven into a bitter personal contro- versy. When it was brought to a close by Mr. Turner’s waiver, and the interdiction im- posed on me, I felt that some apology was due to the readers of the Register for having occupied its columns with such stuff. Hence the “amende honorable” to which you have alluded, and the nature of which you seem to have mistaken. Hostilities have ceased be- tween us, though amity has not been restored ; and I think it is better that the smouldering embers of our strife should be suffered to die away undisturbed, than to hazard further discussion.
I turn now from this unpleasant subject to the main body of your letter, which contains suggestions of the utmost interest, and which, if correct, solves a long disputed problem, while it opens the prospect of incalculable benefits to the farmer. As there is nothing connected with the wheat crop which affects its successful culture so seriously as its liability to rust, I have felt disposed to throw into the common stock my mite of observation and experience, in the hope that others would pursue the same course, and that in the end some useful result might be attained by a comparison of the different views. My own notions, as developed in the different publica- tions alluded to by you, have been that it results from a plethora, induced by excessive vegetation. That whilst some modes of cul- tivation, and éspecially the habif of applying
12 THE FARMERS’ REGISTER.
the strong, stimulating manures of the stable and farm pen, would augment the tendency to rust, and other modes would partially ward it off, no skill could avert it entirely in some seasons. In my essay of July, in the Southern Planter, I say that rust never ap- pears until the wheat has attained its full growth, and when there is nothing left for the leaves and stem to perform but the elabo- ration of the juices for perfecting the seed. When plants have reached this point, every physiologist knows that they require no fur- ther extraneous aid in the formation of their seed. The ovary has performed its office, fructification has taken place; and the gra- dual concentration of the juices of the leaves, stem and roots in the seed, producing the death of the former, is. all that is required. Before attaining this state, excessive vegeta- tion only produces excessive growth; but when the plant is fully developed, and nothing more required for the maturation of the seed, but a slow, gradual, and regular supply of duly elaborated sap, if there should then hap- pen a warm, damp spell of weather, a succes- sion of sunshine and showers, an inordinate flow of sap is at once Produced, which de- stroys the consistency which is then so neces- sary to the grain, and you distend the vessels to such a degree, that they burst of their repletion, and exude upon the surface. Should this occur when the wheat is in the milk state, it is destructive of the grain, which perishes for the want of proper nourishment.
In these and other views of the same essay, the very sensible editor of the Amerian Farms er concurs, so far as the nature and causes of rust are concerned, but dissents qualifiedly from the conclusion to which “my premises and reasoning would lead.” In this you and he seem to agree, though you reach the same point by contrary roads.
The editor of the American Farmer, after wisely substituting bland vegetable manures for the sfrong putrescent manures of the barn-yard, suggests the application of gypsum, a8 an auxiliary agent in preventing the two rapid decay of the vegetable matter. He is led to this suggestion by the present received explanation of the action of this mineral. Liebig says, as quoted by him, “that the action of gypsum really consists in its giving a fixed condition to the nitrogen or ammonia, (food of plants,) which is brought into the soil, and which is indispensable for the nutrition of plants.” He adds further, that the decom- position of gypsum by carbonate of ammonia does not take place instantaneously ; on the contrary, it proceeds very gradually, and this explains why the action of gypsum lasts for several years. From these quotations, the editor thinks it fairly inferable that the plaster would act as a retarding principle, and thus enable them to regulate the supply of nutri- ment to the crop. My letter, which was partially published in the November number of the Planter, was intended to give some reasons and some experiments in opposition to the editor’s theory. Without presuming to question the soundness of Liebig’s views, but on the contrary adopting them unqualifiedly,
”*
I thought they might be reconciled with my own in this way. Gypsum requires to dis- solve it from 300 to 500 parts of water, and when dissolved, it decomposes very slowly under the action of carbonate of ammonia; of course this slow and gradual process is calculated to fix the ammonia in the soil. But then, on the other hand, plaster attracts a vast amount of floating nitrogen or ammonia from the atmosphere, thus increasing the agent of decomposition (carbonate of am- monia) greatly. A large portion of the peculiar food of plants would thus be disen- gaged, so that under the action of peser you would have a larger amount of ammonia fixed in the soil, and a larger amount ap- propriated by the plant, than you would have if it were not employed. This explanation accords with our experience of the influence of this manure, the “tendency of which” as you say, “is eminently to increase the bulk of vegetable growth, and therefore, when applied, to induce rust and mildew.”
Concurring with me as you do thus far, you here fall back upon the position of the American Farmer, and suggest lime as an effectual preventive of the disease. To an- swer this great end, you suggest that the remedy should be such a one as would afford specific nourishment to the seed. Every analysis of wheat exhibits lime and phos- phate of potash among its constituents. This would bring us back again, to the plaster of Paris, which is a sulphate of lime; but ex- perience has shown, as you justly say, that this does not contribute much to the forma- tion of seed, but acts more especially on the stalk and leaves. Lime, however, in other forms, both caleined and as it exists in the highly concentrated manure which is termed guano, has, you think, the desired effect on the seed. The experiment of J. E. Teschemacher, of Boston, is certainly very striking; while your own experience of the influence of calcareous applications in Maryland and other localities does certainly carry with them a a force and weight which it is difficult to re- sist. Previous to the reception of your letter, I had seen it stated with great confidence, in the “ Dollar Farmer” of Kentucky; that ashes were an infallible protection against rust; and J have instituted a set of experiments upon wheat sown this fall to test it. I will now add some experiments with lime, and give you the results of both next summer.
Roanoke county is a limestone soil, the best portion of it, within the memory of its oldest inhabitants, having been a prairie, which, ac- cording to Mr. Ruffin’s theory, would show that our soil is strongly impregnated with lime, and which, with your theory added, should exempt us from the rust. We how- ever have it, though I think we are not peculiarly liable to it. Kentucky, however, which is the purest calcareous soil I have ever seen, does seem to be peculiarly subject to this disease; so much so that her farmers have,to a very great extent, abandoned its cultivation as a staple.
I hope, sir, you will continue to investigate this truly important question, with all the in-
dustry and research of which you are capable. Keep public attention alive to it until some mee and satisfactory result is reached, and you will have conferred a lasting benefit upon the community, which will entitle you to their warmest gratitude.
Wm. M. Peyron, Roanoke.
(FOR THE FARMERS’ REGISTER. ) ON THE VALUE OF LIME.
It is discouraging to preach to a deaf con- gregation; or, what is practically the same thing, to address those who are resolved not to abandon long established practice and usage. Yet social duty may require us to give our fel- low man the benefit of our experience and practice, and leave him to pursue his own way, be that what it may. After more than forty years of practice and industry devoted to agriculture, and almost sinking under hopes deferred, I commenced the free use of lime. In wet land, except for grass, lime was almost a failure; but upon dry land it appeared to wake up the sleeping powers of the earth, and run vegetation into a kind of unregulated madness. ‘Mother Earth appeared to strut in pride for the richness and abundance of her proneatene That great man, Moses of the ews, you will remember, was forty years in the wastes and deserts of the earth, and, ex- cept the performance of his duty, his only gra-' tification was a few bunches of grapes. Mine would seem to be a fate more gratifying to human nature ; for I am left to wade through grass and corn, and flatter myself that I am at least upon good terms with dear old Mother Earth, who sooner or later must take me to her lap, and hush me to such repose as my deeds in the flesh may deserve.
If I were to fill one hundred pages upon this subject, the whole would resolve itself into this:—make your land dry, plough it well, give it 100 to 200 bushels of lime, or more if necessary; then all the vegetable matter or rich earth you can find—take a crop and lay it down to grass—not less than two gallons of clover seed to the acre, and as much of tino- thy as you please. Vegetables, like carnivo- rous animals, eat or live upon each other— the more you give the earth the greater will be the following crop. No animal can be grown without food, and the same is the law of grains and vegetables. Our hot mid day sun is taken up by the corn plant upon good limed land until it is of a deep black. green;
there is no wilting or twisting in its blades; |
the long silks show that all is well, and that there is no shuffling in the ranks. But to bring this matter into dollars and cents: I have no hesitation in saying that if I had been in the use of lime for forty years, it would have been good for one hundred thousand dol- lars upon my 600 acres of fallowed land.
Lime. Fairfax county, Dec. 28, 1842.
a
THE FARMERS’ REGISTER.
MR. ELLSWORTH’S ADDRESS,
DELIVERED BEFORE THE LATE FAIR OF THE AME- RICAN INSTITUTE.
LADIES AND GENTLEMEN :—Though I find my- self unexpectedly called upon to address you, I cannot omit the opportunity of assuring you of the deep interest I feel in the prosperity of the American Institute. Permit me to say that I indulge these feelings in common with many others. Having been introduced to you as now on my way from the west to my official duties at the seat of government, I ought not to withhold the mention of the many kind expressions I have there heard towards this institution. Let me beg you to cherish it as an auxiliary to the best interest of our country, the encouragement of home industry, and the patron of domestie economy. The time has now arrived when great changes are daily made in the condition of man, and sad experience teaches us how greatly we must rely on the agricultural and the mechanic arts. Yes, my friends, the time has now come when the consumer must either starve or become a producer. The professions are crowded, and the wants of thousands who have forsaken the plough for the easy genteel life of a city, imperiously demand a return to that employment which God has designed for the greatest portion of the human race—that of cultivating the ground.
I am now from the great west, which is connected with your city by such strong ties —ties which I hope will never be broken. For a long time, a part of the west—the Wabash valley, a region which I have more particularly visited—has been shut out from all intercourse with you. A better day and brighter prospects now dawn upon her. Yes, my friends, the great Wabash and Erie Canal may be considered as finished. In a few days you may go from New York to La Fayette, the centre of that valley, without more fatigue than is experienced from good rail roads, steamboats, and canal boats. A rapid com- munication will next be prepared to St. Louis ; making the time of travel trom New York to St. Louis only six or seven days. What a change may thus be expected !
To creditors who have demands upon the west, there is a great encouragement; pre- sent difficulties may require delay, but no country has greater resources than the great west to meet her engagements. This I trust they will do at some convenient time; re- deeming fully her tarnished honor, if not meeting at the same time your entire expec- tations. (Applause.) Your kind approbation induces me to ask your indulgence for details that I hope will not be uninteresting.
What, then, is the ground of such hope from the west! I answer, the luxuriance of her soil, connected with the facilities of transpor- tation. ‘To these may be added new sources of wealth, giving alike independence at home
| andarticles for exportation, Besides the great
staples of wheat and Indian corn, there have lately been added oil and sugar. Yes, these articles are destined to affect deeply both their
14
interest and yout own. No longer is the sperm oil needed there for light or mechanical purposes. Lard and talfow form a substitute —both of which articles are converted by a similar process, cheap and simple, into oil and candles. Permit me to say that I have very lately seen large herds of swine slaughtered for a new manufacture. Such are the benefits found by converting swine almost wholly to a new purpose of manufacture, that I ought not to omit to say that the whole hog, with the exception of the hide and hams, is con- verted into lard—the latter, when manufac- tured, sometimes being found equal in value, to the price offered for the hog alive. I have brought to the institution a sample of refined lard, which was presented to me at the west. It will soon prove a new and beautiful article of trade. Such, too, are the improvements of the day, that a few weeks since, on the shores of Lake Erie, a yoke of cattle were (with the exception of some lean meat re- served for drying) converted into tallow, and thus produced more than double what was offered for the beef when alive. Nor were the bones lost, but they were carefully cal- cined in a close iron cylinder, and considered worth one cent per pound for animal carbon. Recollect, now, that for lard and tallow foreign markets are ever open—the duty, if any, being quite small; lard, for instance, being taxed about one-half a cent per pound when shipped to England from New York city, and only about one-fourth of that sum when in- troduced through the colonies.
Allow me to mention one thing more—the sugar of the west. Yes, the corn-stalk sugar. I know there is much incredulity on this subject. Experiments this year have, how- ever, settled the point, that the inhabitants of the interior can supply themselves with sugar from the corn-stalk alone. At Indianapolis, in Indiana, I found an enterprising citizen, Mr. Blake, who had prepared several acres of the stalk, boiling with five kettles the juice expressed. From twenty-four gallons of juice he obtained four gallons of the crys- talized syrup. Another gentlemen, near La Fayette, thought that he should get one thousand pounds of sugar to the acre. From six hundred to one thousand pounds per acre may confidently be expected. It is an old saying, that you cannot take off the cream and make the butter; nor can you raise corn and make sugar from the same stalk. I am asked to state the process: I will cheerfully do it.
If the young ear is plucked off, and all the saccharine matter that nature designed for the grain is suffered to remain in the stalk, may we not expect a great quantity of sugar? It is found by Beaume’s saccharometer that the juice from corn-stalks is four times sweeter than that of maple sap, and three times sweeter than that of the sugar beet, and equal to the ordinary sugar-cane of this country, where it may be considered an exotic. It is indeed a happy thought that the farmer in the interior can, by a few days’ labor, raise the stalk which can so easily be converted on the domestic hearth, with only the aid of a
THE FARMERS’ REGISTER.
common kettle and a little lime, into one of the greatest luxuries—may I not say neces- saries !—of life. Will not this discovery, indeed, tend much to sweeten life ? :
I will not, however, enlarge. I came this evening to admire the display you have made and the progress of the arts. Though politi- cally free, how long have we been dependent on foreign manufactures? I trust there will be another jubilee ere long—the day when we are no longer dependent on foreign countries for what we eat, drink, and wear. It is asked, what new thing can be invented! I speak from experience, and assure you that inven- tions are but beginning—the gagew will be more rapid than ever. Look at the mo- mentous discoveries that burst upon us by the aid of agricultural chemistry. The most learned confess their ignorance, and while they wonder, begin to study.
es, the destitute and the enterprising are alike cheered on their way. Amidst all our wants, we need not despair. Never shall we eall in vain on our mother earth. Though many, it must be confessed, have been truly prodigal, yet to all her children she offers a ome of plenty and etre but little, and that he can easily supply. Let us then seek to support ourselves, rather than depend on others, and perish while waiting for better times.
Pardon me for having so long trespassed on your patience, and detained you from inspect- ing the beautiful objects which surround us. This exhibition fills all with admiration; it cannot fail to impress on the mind of every visiter how great is the. importance of this institution.
Cherish, I beg you, her welfare, and en- courge her onward in her noble course; and he assured that, for one, I most ardently de- sire her prosperity and perpetuity.
LARGE CROP OF CORN.
Near New Windsor, Md., Nov. 22, 1842. To THE Eprror oF THE AMERICAN FarMER.— Sir:—In compliance with a request contained in yours of 14th instant, I will proceed to give you a sketch of the quality of the soil, and the mode of culture adopted by me, by which fF produced seventeen and a half barrels (873 bushels) of corn to the acre. The soil is deep limestone intermixed with blue slate, rather inclining to be heavy, (owing robably to a superabundance of alumine.) t laid about two years in clover and blue grass, and had become rather a stiff sod; had been frequently manured for previous crops, but never limed—it was ploughed in October about eight inches deep, and laid till the first of April, when it was well harrowed both ways—then regularly spread over with ma- nure partially rotten, at the rate of nine loads (of about one ton each) to the acre—which was composed of stable manure, corn-stalks and straw thrown together in the barn-yard, where it is confined by embankments of clay, and the cattle were kept on it in the day time
THE FARMERS’ REGISTER.
during the winter season. » The ground was then stirred about three inches deep, (1) and harrowed over twice again as before—then laid off at the distance of three and a half feet east and west; commenced planting on the 8th of May, immediately after the plough, about four inches deep, four grains to the hill, put in dry, nothing in the hill with it, covered it with the hoe—running in the rows north and south, the same distance apart as above. When the corn had come up, put on one hand- ful of plaster to every four hi , then run the harrow over it the same way it was planted (2)—about ten days after, commenced with the cultivator east and west, being careful to go as close to the corn eagh side of the row as possible—about aweek after went through the other way, observing the same care to go close to the corn, which by this time was about six inches high.
About 20th of June commenced ploughing with a large shovel plough, as deep as the first ploughing (3) close to the corn—then through the middle twice with a long pointed double shovel plough, from twelve to fourteen inches deep, which left the ground perfectly loose and tolerably level—no hoe used—nothing more was done except to pull away the suckers care- fully, so as not to injure the stalks from which they sprung. The corn was the common large grained white.
Isaac SLINGLUFF,
\
Snel
THE COB AND CORN CRUSHER.
Berks county, Nov. 18, 1842.
At the late meeting of the Philadelphia Agi- cultural Society, there was exhibited a ma- chine for crushing or grinding the cob with the corn for cattle provender—a most valuable improvement, and well deserving the favora- ble notice of every one engaged in the pur- suits of husbandry. It has by some been questioned, whether the cob alone contains sufficient nutriment to render it worth the la- bor and expense of grinding; but with me there is no doubt about it, and it is only a mat- ter of surprise that every one should not long ago have been convinced of the fact by expe- riment, which might casily be made by boiling crushed cobs in water for some hours, when, on straining off the water and setting it to cool, it will be found to form a jelly.
At the above mentioned meeting I had the pleasure of conversing with the intelligent in- ventor oi the machine, Mr. Byerley: he is a tanner, and the cob-crusher is made after the plan of his bark-mill. On inquiry relating to the quantity of nutriment contained in the corn cob, he informed me, that near his bark- mill was a heap of cobs that had been thrown out as useless, when a poor woman of the neighborhood, whose only cow was almost the only means she had of supporting her family, came to ask for some cobs, and that he would pass them through the bark-mill as food for the cow; this he did, and his petitioner came regularly after, during the winter, to get her supply of crushed cobs. At the end of the
15
season, he went to see the cow, and found her in the finest condition, her owner assuring him that she had been fed entirely on the crushed cobs, boiled in her iron pot, by which she had been enabled to support almost entirely herself and children by the sale of the finest milk and butter ever seen!
In an essay on Indian corn, by P. A. Browne, Esq., see p. 187, 2d vol. of Cabinet, it is said, “The cob may be ground to fatten cattle, and an oil may be extracted from it.” It is also said, “Peter Miner, of Albemarle county, Vir- ginia, made the following experiment: he had ten bushels of meal of the corn and cob ground together, weighing 367 Ibs., and ten bushels of pure corn meal, subjected to the pro- cess of distillation, and the result was, 18 gal- lons of spirit from the latter, and 13 gallons from the former. Now, if the corn cobs had been destitute of all value, the product of the former, estimating the quantity of pure corn meal at five bushels, which is the general rule, to allow one half in bulk to the cob, ought to have been nine gallons only ; but thirteen gal- lons having been obtained, four of them must have been extracted from the cob.” It is worthy of a passing remark, it is added in a note at the bottom of the page, “If they wish to cultivate Indian corn for fodder alone, or for making sugar, they can deprive it of the power of going to ear, and make it throw all the juices into the stalks and leaves.”
I have witnessed many instances of the ad- vantages resulting from grinding the cob with the corn, and have never known a person who had tried it dissatisfied with the result; it is they only who know nothing about it who ob- ject to it: at any rate the ground cob must be as good as bran, and an addition of one or two thousand bushels of bran to the means of feeding stock during the winter would not be thought lightly of by any, one would suppose. It has been remarked, the cob is peculiarly. adapted and conveniently situated for grinding and mixing with the corn, assimilating with it, and forming a meal peculiarly congenial to the health of animals; giving just the due propor- tion of coarse food to mix with the fine; a ne- cessary consideration in the feeding of stock ; and withal so cheaply supplied, that one is at a loss to conceive how the thing has so long been neglected. The objection to grinding the cob with the corn, while it is new, could be ob- viated by kiln-drying the ears the fore part of the season; but this would not be requisite more than a couple of months or so, after harvest, as by that time the ears will be suffi- ciently dry, so as to allow them to be ground, without danger that the meal would ferment in the bin. I remember a correspondent in a former number of the Cabinet observes, that Mr. Alexander Cooper, of Jersey, has long been in the custom of grinding the cob with the corn, and that his stock is remarkable for health and condition; and, from late in- quiry, I find that he still continues the prac- tice with perfect satisfaction. While on a late visit to one of the same family, at Camden, the last week, I observed the same mode of feed- ing carried out to a considerable extent, and with complete success; the meal having been
16 THE FARMERS’ REGISTER.
ground so fine, that no one without close exa- mination would have the idea that it was aught but meal from clean corn. It is a great loss;to the country that every mill is not fitted for the purpose of grinding the cob with the corn when desirable—would our millers think seriously about it. R. Denna. Farmers’ Cabinet.
AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS.
, Richmond, Nov. 11.
To True Eprror oF THE Richmond ENQuIRER. —Not having time to call on you this morning, I write to express my hearty concurrence in the suggestions thrown out in this morning’s Enquirer, under the head of Agriculture.
My consideration of the subject, as you may well suppose, has not been very profound, and Iam sensible that the conclusions to which it has led are very far from being entitled to much weight. I have long admired the plan of the celebrated Fellenburg, to which you refer; and thought, as I still think, that one such school would be worth more than all the professorships of agriculture that could be es- tablished in our colleges. If the agricultural portion of our people could be awakened to their true interests, one such school at least could be established in each of the grand di- visions of the state, and sustained by indivi- dual subscriptions. Or, if not effected in this mode, and the financial condition of the state should not admit of the requisite aid from the public treasury, might not a tax be laid for that — purpose? It is difficult to estimate the advantages that might justly be expected
from agricultural schools, in which theory and '
practice would ge hand in hand, and where the mental as well as “pee powers were judiciously cultivated. e all know, that the ‘few landed estates which are yet left to be transmitted from fathers to sons, most fre- quently fall into the hands of young men just from college, who, though they may be fine scholars and qualified to attain the highest professional rank, are yet profoundly ignorant of that which it most concerns them to know —practical agriculture. So, too, of the less wealthy portion of our people, who train their sons to the labors of the farm, but most fre- quently in the same path which has been trodden by fathers, grandfathers and great- grandfathers before them, but upon which not one ray of improvement has yet been shed. These young men are, according to circum- stances, either portioned off with small farms, or seek employment as overseers, having, ge- nerally, little else than habits of industry, with true and honest hearts, to qualify them for the business of life. It is easy to conceive, that to all these, the education of an agricul- tural school would be certain independence, if not wealth.
The want of sufficient skill in agriculture and farm management among overseers, we hear complained of by almost every farmer who employs one. It isa serious grievance ;
but the poor fellows themselves are not to
|
blamre, for they have no chance of better in- formation. A casé lately came to my know- ledge, of a lady, possessed of a good estate in land and negroes, who had been repeatedly disappointed in overseers, and at length em- ployed one whose known industry and integrity it was hoped would suffice. But with a full stock of these indispensable quali- fications, and every wish to give satisfaction, he proved so utterly ignorant of farm man- agement, and of any standard of agriculture beyond that with which he had grown up— between the handles of an old style one horse plough, with a wooden mould-board, and rope traces—that his employer has a certain pros- pect of loss upon the’ year’s work, and he of losing his place. An experienced and obser- vant farmer lately remarked in my presence, that many who were now struggling in the over-filled professions, and the uncertain risks of commercial pursuits, must soon find them- selves driven to agriculture for a subsistence ; and that, instead of every man who can com- mand the means, sending his sons to fill the classical schools of the day, uncertain what they must do when they attain to manhood, they should be (or a large majority of them) trained in schools of agriculture, which the public voice should compel the legislature to establish. ,
Agricultural schools should be alike acces- sible to rich and poor, and in the vicinity of flourishing towns, might, as you have sug- gested, to a considerable extent, support themselves. ‘To the rich they would be scarce- ly less valuable than to the poor; as the first
| would there be taught how to — and
reserve his inheritance, whilst the last would earn how to acquire independence for him- self, and an inheritance for his children. Many farmers are most anxious to give their sons such an education ; and, even among the poorest and most ignorant, scarcely one could be found who would not cheerfully surrender the labor of his son for the iiNeadaies of placing him in an agricultural school. A very poor, but most respectable man, applied to me early this year to take his son, a stout youth of 16, for five years, stating that he wished to make him a farmer—not to expose him to the vices of a town life—that he had nothing more to give him than he had already given, a plain English education—and, as he hoped, good principles and good habits. It was not in my power to take the youth, and especially be- cause I knew myself to be incompetent to teach him what his father wished him to acquire. Now, the labor of this son was worth something to the father, (a feeble man,) but he was most willing and anxious to give that up, and even to permit him to labor on my farm with my negroes, for the advantage he supposed would be derived from my instruction. It was an over estimate of my qualifications—but serves to show the infinite importance, to a large majority of our people, of agricultural schools.
The press is the most powerful engine that can be brought to bear upon this important subject. I rejoice that you have taken it up, and hope that it will be pressed with your
aon at hUCULLfAtlC OlUlUC DCO
accustomed zeal . I trust too, that it will be taken up by the press universally. Half the devotion to this great cause, that the political press bestows upon the party politics of the day, would do more for the best inter- ests of Virginia, I verily believe, than any thing besides. Our society, there can be no doubt, will do its part.
This is not written for publication. I am not qualified to discuss the subject in the pub- lic prints, and therefore, do not wish to appear vain enough to attempt it. Abler peris and more distinguished names than mine must do the work; and it is time that work was in hand. Let the word be onward. Very re- spectfully, yours,
b Mem. Henrico Agr. Soc. (To assist the press in doing the proper office, claimed from it by our correspondent, we take leave to publish his own letter, though he warns us it is not written for the public. He holds, however, a strong pen—and gives us hard common sense—and his own produc- tion brings the “ powerful engine,” of which he speaks, to bear at once “upon this impor- tant subject.”—£d. Rich. Enq.
THE HESSIAN FLY.
Carlisle, 30th October, 1842.
A FEw years ago I commenced the business of farming, more for the purpose of a pleasant relaxation from professional life, than with the hope of gain; and my fondness for the occu- pation has led me into many experiments and much close observation of things pertaining to the subject of agriculture; and I do not know but it may lead me to trouble you and your readers occasionally with the result of them. If I supposed I could add any thing to that spirit of enterprise, which you and others seem to have awakened among the farmers of this day, or suggest an idea which a practical farmer might turn to a valuable account, I should feel gratified. In my pursuit of infor- mation on this subject, whenever I have found an a gy with regard to a fact, a cause, or an effect, to be generally entertained by farm- ers whose attention has been called to the subject, I look upon it as entitled to respectful consideration, even if it does not at once com- mand entire belief; it is worth a book of phi- losophical theory. :
As you know, this is a wheat growing dis- trict, and our farmers may be supposed to know something of whatever concerns the cultivation of that grain. They entertain an opinion with regard to the Hessian fly and its appearance, which ‘is natural, and which my own observation has convinced me is in ac- cordance with the truth. It is a big-bellied insect, which makes its appearance in the fall, when the mildness of the weather will admit, especially at that season called Indian summer, and its coming is easily discovered; when it alights upon the ground, it divests itself of its wings and assumes the appearance of a large black ant, and from its hurried manner, seems to be seeking a place of deposite for its egg ; NEW SERIES—VOL. 1.—3
THE FARMERS’ REGISTER.
17
this it soon finds, either in the crevices of the ground, under’ a clod, or in the wheat plant ; and not always in the latter as is sometimes supposed. After the egg is deposited, the insect seeks shelter for itself in the ground, where it remains during the winter; and either it or its progeny appears again in the spring, to go through the same work of de- struction. ‘The opinion is entertained by some, that the egg deposited in the fall remains to be hatched in the spring,—but not so; nature makes better provision for her creatures, than to cause the ee to be laid in the fall, exposed to the frosts of winter, to be hatched in the spring. The egg laid in the fall does its injury to the grain then, or not at all; its effect is then perceptible ; and it is the re-appearance of the fly in the spring which repeats the evil. My observation has convinced me that this is the Hessian fly; and that there is a most infallible remedy for its destruction—as certain as it is simple—the use of the roller. A very little care and observation, at that sea- son of the year when the farmer expects its approach, will discover its presence; and then is the time, whether it be spring or fall, to roll the wheat fields: the weight of the roller not only destroys the insect itself, whose size and shape prevent escape, but it destroys also the tender egg, whether deposited in the wheat plant or elsewhere. I have used the roller for six years, and I have never seen the effect of fly in my wheat; while crops around me have been partially destroyed by it. Ww Farmers’ Cabinet.
FALL PLOUGHING AND SUBSOILING.
November 26th, 1842.
In a late journey through Chester and Lan- caster counties, 1 remarked numerous in- stances of fall ploughing, and cannot but attribute much of that first and most impor- tant step in improvement, to the many excellent papers on that subject which have appeared from time to time in the pages of the Cabinet. Some of the practitioners have added another step, and have spread their lime on these winter-fallows—a most essential one in the routine, and which it only remain§ to follow up by a third—I mean autumnal sub- soiling, when the system might be pronounced perfect. By this additional labor, the only objection that I have ever yet heard to fall ploughing, is completely done away, and all difficulties are obviated; as there will then be no fear of the washing away of the fresh- turned soil during the rains and frosts of winter, as these will find their way into the loosened subsoil and fertilize it to an astonish- ing degree, by the time the spring season of working has arrived; not a particle of loss accruing, but much benefit to the next year’s crop. Not that there ever has been, in my estimation, the least suspicion that any abso- lute loss would accrue in this way from fall ploughing, even although the process of sub- soiling should be omitted; but then it would be necessary to cut diagonal lines or furrows
= — ne
~~
se) tee rane ne gee ane aeaer thee
18 THE FARMERS’ REGISTER.
across those lands which lie on a declivity, to conduct the surface-water, and prevent the washing of the ploughed land mto gullies, taking especial care thai these diagonal fur- rows be carried at so small an angle of de- scent as merely to take the water away on an easy run; else, they will be found to increase the danger they were intended to obviate, and form those gullies which they were made to prevent. With this care and attention, the benefit of fall-ploughing will be found an un- mixed source of pleasure and profit; plea- surable, because expediting the labors of the spring, and enabling the occupier of the soil to enter earlier on his labors at that busy season; profitable, by enabling his land to withstand a drought without flinching, as well as be the means of relieving his soil during a wet and unkindly season; all which is ef- fected, by laying up the land by a deep furrow early in the autumn to the influence of a winter’s frost and snow. These advantages I have often urged upon the notice of my agricultural friends, aided by the pages of the Cabinet, the last number of which is generally my travelling companion; pointing out to them at the same time the perfect indifference they exhibit on the score of washing of the soil, when they sow their crops of wheat in the autumn, although the land has: been re- peatedly ploughed and pulverized,.and made light by manuring after oats, by which the soil is rendered so porous_as to be in the greatest danger of washing to a ruinous ex- tent: but the universality of the practice has rendered it familiar, and not a thought about the injury they are liable to sustain ever enters their imaginations; nor is there in fact any cause for fear; the certain good arising from the practice overbalancing the imaginary evil a hundred fold.
But let it be remembered, that the earlier fall-ploughing is performed, the better, so that the fresh-turned land may derive benefit from exposure to the fertilizing influence of the sun’s rays, Which would be found of impor- tance equal to a covering of manure; the first drying of the land and the after slaking by means of the rains, rendering the soil so porous as to admit the frosts and snows to shake and pulverize it the whole depth to which it had been turned, and preventing the evil so greatly feared, namely, a washing away of the surface. In my opinion, there is no improvement in agriculture at all com- parable to a rigid observance of fall-plough- ing, when it is carefully and seasonably performed, and accompanied by a coat of lime as a top dressing, so to lie during the winter, whether the land be designed for oats, to be harrowed in early in the spring without a second ploughing; or for corn, peas, potatoes, barley, or any other crop; convinced as I am, that such an expenditure of the lime is the proper mode of application; after which the land might be manured, without fear that the ripening of the crop will be delayed, so as to be liable to the rust—a common occur- rence, if lime be added to the manure on f:!iowed land in the autumn, preparatory to the sowing of wheat; for it is the nature of
lime, by its antiseptic properties, to retard the action of the dung, so as to cause it to be giving out its energies long after the time has arrived for vegetation to cease, and the ripen- ing process to follow—the only satisfactory mode with which I am acquainted, of account- ing for the fact, that lime operates injuriously on wheat, by causing the crop to grow and continue green for too long a period.
To those, however, who have not subsoiled their land the present autumn, I would say, do not hesitate to adopt that plan of deepen- ing and improving your soil in the coming spring. A single trial of that most remark- able instrument, the subsoil plough, will con- vince any man of reflection, that the process must be beneficial to all parties—to the soil, to the crops, and the owner of the land; and if persevered in these benefits will ultimately be of such value, as to stamp the system of sub- soiling as one of the greatest improvements of the age. I consider it peculiarly adapted to the counties of Lancaster and Chester, as many of their lands are high and rolling, with hard and gravelly subsoils, over which the common pew is apt to pass, especially in seasons of drought, with but little effect; on these, a pair of horses will be able to work a subsoil plough to great purpose, and with such ease as to, astonish those who have never witnessed its operations; much, however, depending upon the nature of the subsoil, and the depth to which the plough is sent. An ox-team is better adapted to the labor than horses; the only objection to them is, the are slower in their pace than horses, and will in a degree retard their working, as one team cannot proceed faster than the other; but this canybe obviated by employing oxen for both ploughing and subsoiling ; and in many cases the first furrow can be turned by one pair, and the subsoiling be done by another, it not being so necessary to penetrate with the first furrow so deep as would be requisite were no subsoiling to follow. In the case of balks, too, the subsoil plough following, the evil is remedied effectually, without pulling back. -
I find, upon inquiry, there are two sizes of the subsoil plough for sale at No. 176 Market street, Philadelphia, the smallest of which will be found large enough for common purposes, stirring the subsoil to the depth of a foot or more. A third size is, however, being manu- factured, suitable for a single horse; but whether the latter will be large enough to answer the purpose of stirring effectually the subsoil, is yet to be seen ; its small dimen- sions would seem to fit it for horticultural | purposes, and the land of small occupiers, where one horse only is kept; but the fear is that such an implement will not be equal to the task, and then discredit might arise to a system from which, if effectually pursued, there would be no question of the most bene-
ficial results; these, however, must not be
expected to show their full effects the first season, as much of the richness of the surface soil will at first be expended in penetrating into and fructifying the subsoil; and if this be removed to a great depth and be very
THE FARMERS’ REGISTER.
sterile, the process might not be completed |
the first year. It is to those only who con-
tend manfully, that the promise is made—“ In
due time, ye shall reap, if ye faint not.” Farmers’ Cabinet.
(FOR THE FARMERS’ REGISTER.)
EXPERIMENTS
LAID BEFORE THE PRINCE GEORGE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY,
At their Annual meeting in December, 1842, and reported by order of the Society.
Effects of gypsum.
William B. Harrison reports that, on a low flat sandy loam, that had been sown in oats in the month,of April, 1841, he sowed clover as soon as the necessary harrowing to cover the oats was completed. It was not from choice, but because the land was too wet to be plough- ed, that he was so late in sowing the oats, The oats, contrary to his expectation, turned out to be a good crop, and the clover took well. Late in March this year he applied plaster to the clover, sometimes leaving out one bed, and occasionally two, and in no stage of its growth could he ever discover any difference between the plastered and unplastered parts. On a higher and drier field, where the plaster was sown, a bed was left out, and here the differ- ence was most striking, being observable seve- ral hundred yards off, from the yellow appear- ance and great inferiority of the clover to that on the adjacent beds. These facts would seem to favor the opinion, often expressed, and as often controverted, that plaster acts mainly by attracting moisture.
Effects of plaster of Paris on different soils.
Edmund Ruffin, Jr. reports that, on 4th April, he sowed plaster on the following dif- ferent soils at rather more tian 1 bushel per acre.
1. On a stiff intractable pewter clay, seed- ed in clover in February.
2. On a light soil, me 5 sandy subsoil, origi- nally acid, elover sown in February.
3. On a fine mulatto loam naturally neutral, clover sown in February.
4th. On a good stiff wheat soil, neutral, clover sown in February, 1841.
As compared with the adjacent,clover not dressed with the plaster, no benefit was per- ceived at any time during the growing season, a very wet one, except in No. 3. Here there was a slight difference in favor of the plastered clover, but not a great deal.
Dr. R. Harrison reports that he has uni- formly found the most decided beneficial effects from the use of plaster on his farm, which he finds difficult to reconcile with the discordant and contrary opinions entertained and expressed by others on their respective
19
farms, but this explanation may be sought in difference of soil. In March, he selected two pieces of land contiguous, believed to equal fertility, the one part was dressed with plaster (sulphate of lime) in the proportion of one bushel per acre, the other had no applica- tion of any kind. ‘The soil was a loam adapt- ed to the production of both wheat and corn. The quantity of land selected for experiment contained in each piece 754 square yards. There was soon evinced a rapid improvement in .the 2 stg and luxuriance of the clover, which continued to progress, until it was fully grown. At this time the clover on each piece was neatly cut, suffered to wilt by exposure to the sun, then put up in cocks; the succeeding day the hay was opened, ex- posed to the atmosphere to dry; the quantity on each piece was separately and accurately weighed, and subsequently housed with the following result. That portion which had had a dressing of sulphate of lime, weighed 747 pounds; and the other portion without plaster weighed only 428 pounds. Thus it appears, that by an outlay of about fifty cents per acre, an additional product was realized of almost two thousand pounds of clover hay, besides an additional increased quantity of vegetable matter in the roots left for decay. This is not a solitary instance of its value, but it is also corroborated by additional testi- mony in our vicinity, Its virtues are not confined alone to the clover’ crop, but peas, potatoes and corn are also improved by it. Experiment 2. Beneath his marl bed lies a tenacious, and apparently homogeneous sub- stance, which shows no tape $0 6 change from the action of muriatic or sulphuric acids, but with nitric, a slow effervescence continues for several hours. A recent fracture of this substance, when submitted to the rays of the sun, presents the appearance of innumerable shining particles. When first dug: from the pit it is cohesive, but by atmospheric exposure it assumes the appearance first of granula- tions, but subsequently, by rains and the atmosphere, it becomes incorporated with the soil. Its superficies sometimes wears the appearance as if encrusted with a salt. About eight years ago he forwarded a portion of this earth to a chemist in Philadelphia, desiring its analysis. He was informed that it possessed no fertilizing property, but that it contained sulphate of iron and alumina, and perhaps some other ingredients. A portion of this earth was carted on some light land, previous to a crop of corn, with no visible improvement. But the succeeding year, and for several years, he discovered an increased growth in the ‘astern Shore bean; but he was at a loss whe- ther to attribute this improvement to this earth, or some other unknown cause. In the spring of 1842, he had carted out about ten bushels of this earth, upon a remarkably light soil, in the proportion of about 200 bushels to the acre. The land adjoining was of a similar character, and was clayed with about 300 bushels to the acre. These applications were made immediately after the land had been sowed in oats. The clover grew on each portion, but on the part that had been
20
clayed it wore a sickly and feeble appearance, seemed to struggle for existence, and the greater portion died during the heat of summer. On the other portion, however, the clover took finely, grew vigorously, wore through- out the summer a healthy green appearance ; and soon after harvest grew to bb hanes high, and was the best on the farm of the same age. The Eastern Shore bean also grew to be much larger than that on the.adjoining land. He thinks the growth of this bean on the one part exceeded that on the other, both in weight and size, from five to ten times. This applica- tion constituted the most encouraging and satisfactory agricultural improvement. It is true he discovered no improvement‘in the oat crop. He has also applied this article around the growing corn without any per- ceptible advantage. Yet when we reflect that our light lands have uniformly been considered as not susceptible of high improvement and successful culture, particularly in a growth of clover, the result of this experiment is of a most satisfactory character, and he now places a much higher estimate on land of this texture than formerly. The benefit from this ap- plication seemed to be of more advantage than would have resulted from an equal quantity of well-rotted stable manure; and this tes- timony in its favor is sustained by the unani- mous opinions of several intelligent farmers who have witnessed it. If this effect will generally result from the use of this earth, (and we have no reason to doubt it,) and a great portion of our farms abound with it, we possess an invaluable reservoir of valuable manure. Its height above the running stream is about 2 to 3 feet, its breadth extensive, its depth unascertained. ow if this earth abound in sulphuret of iron and alumina, and the land had previously been marled (as was the case in this instance) is it any great stretch of mind to suppose that these substances are decomposed by their chemical affinities, and thus we may have found sulphate of lime and carbonate of iron, whilst the alumina may give the tenacity, in which our light lands are so deficient ?
Mr. Peebles reports that, on Ist of April, he plastered at the rate of 3 pecks to the acre, half of an eight-acre lot of clover, the soil on a
art stiff and inclined to clay, the other part fight and gravelly. The effect produced by the plaster in a short time began to show itself, by the clover assuming a much richer color, whilst the unplastered clover remained of a sickly appearance. The Ist of June the growth was fine on the whole of the plastered clover; and very heavy on the light portion of the lands. hilst on the land not plaster- ed, the growth not more than half as heavy. And was much sooner parched up by the heat of the sun. Ist of August, plastered two 20- feet beds, across a field of young clover, which had no effect that he com receive.
Middle of June fallowed under a_ heavy growth of rye on 4 acres of land, (the soil stiff and cold,) and sowed 1 bushel of peas to the acre. Along side, fallowed half an acre of clover under, and sowed a half-bushel buck-
THE FARMERS’ REGISTER.
wheat; four weeks after he sowed plaster at the rate of half a bushel to the acre, leaving several beds not plastered to see the effect produced, which was none that he could perceive, either on the buckwheat or peas. His main object in this experiment was to destroy or prevent the wild enions seeding among wheat on this land.
August Ist, fallowed a piece of light land, damaged by too heavy an application of marl, and sowed peas. Plastered as soon as they made their x eae above ground. The effect of the plaster was soon perceptible, and quite a luxuriant growth was upon the land. This, with other experiments which he has frequently made with plaster on different soils, has brought him to believe that plaster, or the benefits resulting from it, is much more perceivable on light soils.
Mr. James Cocke reports that, he has made the following experiments, which he offers to the society, viz. :
Ist. As soon as he finished sowing oats, he sowed clover seed upon the land at the rate of three quarters of a gallon to the acre. And on four acres he followed immediately with ground plaster at the rate of 1} bushels per acre. And he believes there was no benefit to either the oats or clover.
2d. When planting corn he mixed one bushel of plaster with one bushel of seed corn, and planted thirteen rows through his whole field. The soil of each row was stiff clay, a mixture of clay and sand, and very light sand, at different parts. At no period from the plant- ing to the gathering of the crop could he perceive any difference between the thirteen rows of plastered corn, and the parts of the field adjoining.
Comparative benefits of manure turned under or applied on the top. By Dr. W. J. Dupuy.
Your society requires of each member to contribute something in the way of experi-~ ment to advance the great cause of agricul- ture. Although just recovering from a severe indisposition, | am, nevertheless, unwilling to be a delinquent, though I nrust urge that as a reason for the very brief and summary way in which my communication shall be made.
I proposed at your last meeting to give the result of an experiment, the object of which was to establish the comparative merits of fallowing in putrescent manures with marl, and of the application of similar manure, on’ the surface, after the fallowing in of marl.
During the summer of ’41, 1 marled an ex~ ceedingly poor piece of land, at the rate of 250 bushels to the acre, averaging from 40 to 50 per cent. of carbonate of lime. I should sup- pose, the land would not produce 1 barrel of corn to the acre, in its unimproved state. Du-
ring the month of November, I began to haul out, as I found leisure, with a pair of carriage horses, good putrescent manure, from my lot in town, I should say, about the same quan- tity to the acre, of which marl was applied. In the month of January, the mar] and ma- nure having been scattered, the field was
THE FARMERS’ REGISTER.
fallowed. I will say, however, that up to this time, not more than half the field had been manured. ‘The manuring progressed, without any delay, after the fallowing, upon that por- tion which had not been manured, though faliowed with the marl, as before stated. I was not able to procure manure enough of the same richness to extend throughout the field, though enough to extend a considerable distance beyond, and contiguous to that which was turned under. The last of the field was manured in the spring, with the best rotted manure which I could procure from my winter farm-pen—all spread broad-cast. The whole field was cultivated alike. ‘Throughout the whole season, a marked difference could be seen to the line, through the field, in favor of that portion where the manure was turned in at the time of fallowing; that which was top-dressed in the spring, with the farm-pen manure raised during the previous winter, being inferior to either. And here I would remark, that the theory of the de¢omposition of manures, and the necessity of applying them in a partially decayed state in order to secure the dissipating gases, has, in my opi- nion, led to the opposite error of applying them before they are sufficiently decomposed. Such has been the result of my experience for years. It may perhans be my misfortune in not knowing the precise state when the manure should be applied. Though, in fact, I have heen able to get very little from my winter farm-pen in a suitable state, (accord- ing to my notion,) to apply during the spring, notwithstanding it has been my practice to heap it in February, which very much facili- tates the decay. ith these views, I have been compelled to let a great portion of my farm-pen manure remain for summer applica- tion. On this subject I should be glad to be properly informed.
I regret that Iam not able to state to the society, in something like definite terms, the comparative product on the different portions of the field, as I had proposed. It will be re- membered, that in August there was an .easterly storm, which laid prostrate the corn. Notwithstanding this, however, (although it might have been attended with some dif- ficulty,) a measurement could have been made, but in a journey which I took about the time of gathering corn, my hands had before my return home gotten in the whole field, which put it out of my power to make the compari- son. If, however, I should venture to guess at the comparative result, I should say that that portion of the field, which had the ma- nure fallowed in, produced 4 barrels, while that which had the top dressing of the same kind of manure did not produce more than 2} or at most 3 barrels.
While I am on the subject of this com- munication, I would state a few facts which may not be uninteresting to the society. In May or June, 1841, one of the auctioneers of our town stopped me to propose to let me have some spoiled shad, then lying at his door, provided I would take them away in a given time. Having fobtained from the police mas- ter, (who was about to impose a fine for such a
21
nuisance,) an extension of time sufficient to enable me to remove them, I set to work, and in a few hours carried to my farm 17 barrels. These I deposited in one pile in the field which is the subject of this communication, and covered them over well with marl, sup- posing that they would be in a properly de- cayed state to spread as manure for the corn this year. Indeed, from the offensive charac- ter of the fish, I had supposed that they would be in a condition to fallow in during the winter. However, during that whole summer and winter, and subsequent spring, (1842,) I was surprised to find, from. the occasional exposure made by the scratching of dogs, that the fish were not only not de- cayed, but that they even smelled sweet.
ven down to the latter part of the last summer, some exposure showed that they were still sound. hether they will be suit- able manure for my crop of oats next spring is still to be seen. From the prominence of the bulk at this time, I fear they will not, but even if they should, there will be a space of nearly two years necessary for their decay. Their state of preservation may be judged of when I state that it was often a subject of regret with my negroes that such fine fish should be thrown away, and I believe, but for my restraints, they would have used them frequently for food, being used to fish as diet, and very fond of them.
There are several reflections to be drawn from the facts just stated. It is evident that marl or carbonate of lime is antiseptic, and purifying in its effects. At the same time it may be a fact that fish are slower in their decaying and decomposing process than most other animal substances. If marl or lime arrests the decay of substances intended for manure, is it the most suitable thing with which such substances should be enveloped and brought in immediate contact, the object always being to procure as speedy decay as possible ?
That the marl has the faculty to arrest and fix, as it were, for useful fertilizing purposes, that portion of the decaying matter which weal evaporate, and otherwise escape, I do not doubt; but perhaps it would be better to let the marl be on the outside of such a bulk as has been described, so as to arrest this evaporating portion as it would escape on the exterior, and at the same time not interfere with the decomposition which should go on in the interior. I would remark, however, that I have not observed the same slow decay where cows and horses have been thus en- veloped with marl; thereby leaving the im- pression that there is something. peculiarly slow in the decay of fish. With these views, I would say that it would perhaps be better to cover such a bulk first with earth or vegetable matter, which would not interfere
with the deeay, and then the superincumbent covering of marl.
Effects of greensand or gypseous earth.
Captain H. Cocke reports that he applied the above earth, containing greensand princi-
22
pally, with traces of gypsum, on wheat and clover, the latter sown in February. The ap- plication gave additional vigor to the growth of wheat and clover, though not to any con- siderable extent. He also applied a portion of the above earth containing gypsum principally on wheat and clover of the same field. Effect produced the same as in the first case, and no peculiarity of action noticed from an excess of either greensand or gypsum. He applied these two varieties of earths on different por- tions of his corn field then under culture. That portion dressed with the earth contain- ing greensand principally was very much be- nefited. The growth of the corn was luxu- riant, and when matured the ear was well filled. One eighth of an acre produced three bushels and one and a half pecks. That por- tion of the field dressed with the earth con- taining mostly gypsum produced also good corn, but not so good as the last; an eighth of an acre yielding two bushels three and a half pecks.
An applicaton of each earth was also made to clover of several years’ standing. In each case the growth of clover and weeds was be- nefited, and no difference of action was ob- served from a prevalence of either gypsum or greensand.
The above applications were all on marled land. He also applied the earth containing mostly gypsum on land not marled, in corn culture, but found the effect much less than on land marled.
Edmund Ruffin, Sen., reports the follow- ing experiments conducted by himself with — earth, on both marled and unmarled and :
Exp. 1.—A space of 33 by 22 yards, (mea- sured,) surrounded by equal and like land, was covered with six bushels (heaped measure) equal to 40 bushels per acre, of the gypseous earth, dug from near bottom of a deep ravine near the river shore. ‘The earth, judged care- fully by the eye, seemed to contain 50 per cent. of pure “green-sand”—and very little shelly matter, or carbonate of lime. The earth was applied March 20th, 1842, immediately after being dug; and was wet and lumpy, and the scattering (by hand) was therefore irregular and unequal. Care taken to spread exactly to the boundary lines of the space.
Soil, sandy loam on sandy subsoil. Had been heavily cmielad in 1819, which produced great benefit on next two crops (1820 and °21,) and great injury for some years afterwards, and, though gradually recovering since, is not yet entirely relieved of that injury. The field un- der very mild tillage, and never grazed since 1814.
Present crop, clover, sown on wheat in spring of 1841.
2 Kxperiment—At same time as the pre- ceding, a precisely similar application made on a like space of 33 by 22 yards, (separated from the other space by an interval of 11 yards wide,) in a square of nearly an acre not marled, and left out for experiment and comparison when the other land was marled in 1819. The land then equal in quality—and this part is
THE FARMERS’ REGISTER.
now, as formerly, poor. Clover, though a very mean growth, is regularly set over this un- marled part. This fact, as well as that some fragments of shells are seen here and there throughout the piece, and also inferring that the many ploughings and harrowings since 1819 must have served to convey some little marl, or marled soil, from the adjacent and surrounding ground, all prove that this space is not entirely acid, as formerly and naturally, but is very slightly affected by the neighbor- hood and accidental admixture of marl.
N. B. These two experiments are on the ground, forming the subject of 10th experi- ment of marling reported in ‘Essay on Calca- reous Manures;’ by reference to which all the circumstances of the land from 1814 to 1832, may be seen fully and minutely stated.
Results. Before the 25th of April the clo- ver of Experiment 1, was obviously improved, and the outlines of the application plainly to be distinguished throughout. The benefit con- tinued to increase afterwards; and in August the clover on the space dressed by the gypse- ous earth was at least double in quantity to that on all the surrounding land. The rowth on the surrounding land, as on the field in ge- neral, where marl had been the only manure, was very small and mean, for the strength of the land, which I supposed to be caused by the lightness of the soil, made still worse by the entire want of the treading by stock since 1814. And, therefore, the clover on the gyp- seous earth, though so greatly improved, was not a heavy growth. It stood more than knee high. One side of the surrounding space (also marled ground) was top-dressed with a good cover of coarse farm-yard manure, within a few days after the gypseous earth had been applied. The effect of this top-dressing, though considerable, was very inferior to that of the gypseous earth adjoining.
n the unmarled ground, in which Experi- ment 2 was made, the clover, though it lived through the summer, was a miserable growth. To July not the slightest effect could be per- ceived from the application of green earth. Later, a barely perceptible difference seemed to show along a small part of the boundary Ime, and certainly none elsewhere and gene- rally. The slight and limited benefit supposed was not enough to be relied on as a certain ef- fect of the manure.
The season through all summer remarkabl wet. The field, including the subjects of bot these experiments, fallowed in August, for wheat, and therefore no opportunity afforded for observations on clover to be continued longer than the first season.
It should be remarked, that in all my nume- rous former trials of this green earth as ma- nure, very little effect was ever produced in the first season, after applying in spring, and generally none at all, even in the cases where great effect was seen in the second year. This application was made a year too late for full observation, and for the greatest benefit to be derived from the state of the crop, and the pe- riod of the rotation.*
{* A specimen of the gypseous earth used for
Edmund Ruffin, Jr. reports that, 1. On what might be called a good wheat and corn soil, originally acid, but formerly marled, the first crop of clover was grazed off very close. On the 22d of May the cattle were removed from it, and on the 24th a por- tion of the field was dressed with darkest stratum of greensand as dug on the beach at Coggins Point, at the rate of 100 bushels to the acre. In ten days the benefit of the application was perceptible, and when fai- lowed in August, the clover so dressed was er per cent. better than on the adjoining
8.
2. On the same field and at the same time dressed a portion with the pale blue clay marl or grpnme earth, underlying the stratum tried in last experiment, .at the rate of 150 bushels to the acre. The effect, though not quite so quick or ultimately so great as the effect of the black stratum, was yet highly gratifying, and nearly or quite double the pam of clover by the time the field was allowed in August.
3. With the same clay, and at the same time, dressed a portion of a sandy hillside, (never marled and in a thin growth of weeds,) at the rate of 240 bushels per acre. There was a most decided improvement in the vege- table cover during the summer, and sprigs of bean and woolly-headed clover on it, were at least double the growth of the same plants on the adjoining land.
Effects of remarling.
‘ Edm. Ruffin, Jr. reports that, on April 3d, he laid off by accurate measurement half an acre of land just planted in corn, and dressed it with marl at the rate of 300 bushels per acre. The land had been in old field pines, and marled at the rate of 500 or 600 bushels
r acre, in the woods, about the year 1824.
t was shortly after cleared, and has since been under regular though mild cultivation. In 1840 it was in clover, and was covered in the early part of that year with unrotted leaves from the woods. This is the only manuring it ever received. In 1841 it was in wheat, and this year (1842).in corn, succeed- ing a fallow crop of wheat. The soil, origi- nally acid,is light, with sandy subsoil. The marl with which it was originally dressed and also with which it was remarled, is the common blue marl of the county, and contains about 40 per cent. of carbonate of lime.
At the same time laid off a half acre, (No. 2,) to the east, and to avoid any accidental differ- ence, also laid off another half acre, (No. 3,)
this experiment was analyzed by Professor C. U. Shepard, and was found to contain in 100 parts—
Carbonate of lime - - - 1.55 Bi-sulphuret of iron - - : 3.06 Sulphate of lime misle ce ey CE Phosphate of lime - - - 0.26
Traces of carbonate of magnesia and sulphate of alumina. See Essay on Calcareous Manures, 3d edition, p 223.)
t The clay used in these two last experiments, is of the stratum marked E., and described at pp 218-19 of Essay on Calcareous Manures.
THE FARMERS’ REGISTER. 23
to the north of the half acre remarled which we will call No. 1. The surface slopes greatly to the east and north. The soil on all three pieces believed to be the same. If any difference existed it was in favor of No. 3. To the west and south, half acres could not be laid off without being within the influence of the neighboring woods. All three half acres have been treated exactly alike, except the remarling on No. 1. During the growth of the corn there was no perceptible difference. On December 8th gathered, and on Decem- ber 9th shelled and accurately measured, the product of each half acre.
No. 1, (remarled,) brought 13 bushels 7 gallons 2} quarts, equal to 27 bushels, 7 gallons, 1 quart per acre.
No, 2. (remarled,) brought 12 bushels, 1 gal- lon, 1 quart,=24 bushels, 2 gallons, 2 quarts per acre.
No. 3, (remarled,) brought 13 bushels, 5 gal- lons,=27 bushels, 2 gallons per acre.
Thus it will be seen that No. 1 brought 5} gallons more good corn per acre than No. 3, and 3 bushels 4# gallons more than No. 2. It also produced about half a bushel of rotten corn in ears, about twice as much as each of the others produced.
On August 24th a heavy easterly gale pros- trated the crop very much.
Vegetative powers of different wheats.
Wm. B. Harrison reports that, last fall a friend in Baltimore sent him two bushels of large white wheat from the mountainous parts of Maryland. He received it so late that he was not able to sow it till November 4th, when the rest of the crop had been sown. It was
ut on corn land, manured for corn, and which
ad been previously fallowed for wheat. The growth was strong and luxuriant, and at har- vest he found the straw to be brighter than any wheat in the crop. The yield was 30 bushels by measurement. It was thrashed in good time and spread thin, and sown more than two bushels to the acre on well prepared land, and in good time, and yet it is so thin that he apprehends the yield must be bad next year. This is the only wheat he ever had that failed to come up well under the same circum- stances. This year has demonstrated to his satisfaction that the vegetative power of pur- ple straw wheat is stronger than that of all the other varieties that have fallen within the range of his observation this very trying sea- son. On all the hard, dry, cloddy spots it arg up in less time, and thicker than other
nds.
Corn-culture. Edmund Wilkins planted on land of the
same quality corn of the same variety, at different distances. One quarter of an acre oa 5 by 24 feet, brought 4 bushels—16 ushels pe acre. Another quarter acre plant- ed 5 by 3 feet, made 3} bushels and 3 quarts— 13 bushels 14 gallon per acre.
R. M. Harrison planted corn of same kind, on land of same quality, and the cultiva- tion was the same in every respect A half
f ?
24
acre pena 5 by 3 feet, yielded 17} bushels; | f
a half acre planted 5-by 2 feet yielded 23 bushels. And a half acre planted 5 by 4 feet, two stalks left to the hill, yielded 17 bushels.
H. W. Harrison reports, as the result of an experiment in the cultivation of corn with the trowel hoe and turning ploughs, that, having fallowed the land, and planted the corn in the same way, and at the same time, on both pieces, chosen for the purpose from a field of equal strength throughout, he then laid off the same quantity of land, and fixed marks in order to prevent any mistake. When the next operation of weeding commenced on one piece, he used the turning plough, three times in a row, throwing the land from the corn, followed by the hoes weeding it without putting any hill to it. On the other piece he used the trowel hoe plough, five times in a row, weeding it in the same way. In working it the second time, on the first piece, he threw the land to the corn, with the turning plough, running four times in a row, following with the hoes to adjust the earth around the corn. On the second piece he used the trowel-hoe ge five times ina row, hilling it with the 10es. On giving it the third, and last plough- ing, instead of harrowing it, which is the com- mon practice, he ploughed both pieces. in the same manner, with the trowel-hoe plough, four times in a row, going over with the hoes to chop the grass and weeds. On measure- ment the product from the first piece was thir- teen bushels, from the second, eleven. The estimate, which he has made, from accurate calculation, with regard to the difference in the amount of labor expended, is, that one fifth more is required in cultivating with the trowel-hoe, than with the turning plough. With respect to the product, he believes that in a common year the quantity will be nearly the same, but in a wet season, like the last, that land worked with the turning plough will yield more, on account of the more elevated situation in which the corn is left immediately after ploughing it the second time. It would be otyectionable that it should remain in this uneven state ; but the third ploughing with the trowel-hoe remedies this objection. However, he does not recommend the use of the turn- ing plough on all kinds of soils. On rich land, producing much grass of a quick growth, (such as wire grass,) the turning plough can- not be used with advantage, as the land after the first ploughing will become so overrun with grass, before the corn is sufficiently large to admit of the earth being thrown to it, that it will require a second weeding. But on poor and medium land, not yielding much grass, and on stiff land he does not hesitate to recom- mend it as the most labor-saving mode of cul- tivation.
Destruction of wild onion. By W. H. Har- rison.
For the last 4 or 5 years, I have had a small portion of land, upon which wild onions grew very plentifully, they continued to multiply, and extend with such rapidity, that the last
THE FARMERS’ REGISTER.
time I cut wheat from that piece of land, I had to take down 8 or 10 shocks, (I believe each sheaf was one-third onions,) and make the negroes get them out as well as they could. I determined this year, that I would sow the land (5 or 6 acres only) late in oats. I seeded the oats about the 18th of March. The result of my experiment is simply, that from the time the oats came up, until they arrived to maturity, I do not recollect of seeing but very few, hardly any onions with the oats, but since the oats have been cut, and particularly within the last 30 or 40 days, I discover that the onions are putting up rapidly, and are get- ting so numerous, that I apprehend at some short time, I shall have a very copious supply of them, without I arrest them by cultivating the land; and as I am now manuring that land, and expect to put it in corn next year, and wheat in the fall, I may by this rapid mode of cultivation (of whieh I do not ap- rove,) succeed in extirpating them from the and. If I should succeed in destroying them, the society may hear from me, at some future day. ‘The above is respectfully submitted.*
Experiments with marl on peach trees. By Thomas S. Pleasants.
Last spring, I planted a large number of pues trees; and after the operation was over,
concluded to try the effect of marl upon a very few of them. For this purpose, I select- ed five, and on the 24th of March, applied the marl in various modes, as follows:
No. 1. Was taken up, and the roots set in marl, without any admixture of earth.
No. 2, Also taken up, and planted in a mix- ture of marl and earth. 7
No. 3. The marl spread on the surface, and chopped in.
No. 4. The marl simply laid on the surface, but subsequently mixed with the soil, during cultivation.
No. 5. Marl laid on straw, that was spread round the tree.
The season was too far advanced, to reset the trees,with safety; and moreover the trees were ofa parcel that had suffered some da- mage by improper exposure of the roots. The result was as follows:
No. 1. Died.
No. 2. Survived and made some growth.
No. 3. Grew about as much as No. 2.
No. 4. Made a most vigorous growth, and had the appearance of being perhaps the heal- thiest tree in the whole orchard.
No. 5. Died.
In each case where the tree lived, the fo- liage was of a dark green, and no worms
*If Mr, H. would follow his next crop of corn by oats instead of wheat, he will be more apt to eradi- cate the onion. Whatever onion escapes the corn culture, will put up during the fall, and early the following oping: and would be destroyed by the ploughing of the land for oats, if done late woe Ay
whereas, if the land be sown in wheat next these same seed would merely be turned over in the soil, and be left to vegetate, grow and come to maturity with the wheat, by which nothing would be gained by the operation.— Note, by E. R., Jr.
PS ra ee
THE FARMERS’ REGISTER. 25
were discovered in the roots. In the orchard generally, the leaves were of a paler hue; and the roots, with very few exceptions, were greatly infested with grubs.
My conclusion from so imperfect an experi- ment is, that marl decidedly promotes the growth of the peach tree, and is to some ex- tent a preventive of the grub; and that it should be applied to the surface after the tree is planted, and incorporated with the soil, du- ring the culture of the orchard.
Petersburg, Dec. 5, 1842.
Prevention of ravages of crows. By J. P. Bolling.
The injury done to corn when it first comes up being much complained of, I determined to try to correct it by planting my crops very deep. I believe my corn was planted at every conceivable distance, from four inches to one. The result was not as favorable as I expected, in consequence of the coldness of the spring. In those portions of the field either of ipe or red clay the plants were unable to force themselves through the crust formed at the - of the hill, when even three inches deep.
ough a — of the field more sandy, planted as deep, came up well in the driest part of the season. The plants that did come up received little or no injury from birds. So much depends on soil and season, that it is impossible to fix on any uniform depth for planting. All that is necessary is to plant so deep that the crows cannot draw the grain to the surface, by pulling at the blades or top.
Oullure of beets on poor land. By J. S. Gee.
On 21st May, I planted half an acre of land, previously manured with farm pen manure, made with pine tags. Not more than half the seed came up, and consequently volunteer seer seg were allowed to stand and grow.
roduct, 105 bushels of beets and 150 pump- kins, in the half acre.
Turnips drilled and broadcast. By. 4. C. Harrison.
Half an acre of oat stubble was selected, manured, and ploughed, and about fifteen days after reploughed, dragged, and sowed, half broadcast, the other half in drills, two feet apart. It was my intention to have worked only the drilled turnips, but the oats left on the ground came up so thick I had the broad cast turnips chopped over once; the drilled were thinned and hoed twice; the young plants being attacked, and so many of them de- stroyed by insects, I concluded it could not be a fair experiment. I therefore did not mea- sure the turnips, to ascertain the yield per acre, or the difference of product between the drilled and broadcast. The drilled tur- nips were the largest, and I think if they had been measured they would have yielded one third more turnips.
December 9th, 1842.
NEW SERIES—VOL. 1.—4
Communication by J. P. Bolling.
Few members of the society being under the necessity of applying quick lime to their lands in this county, I thought that perhaps it might be not improper to state a few facts, that have fallen under my own observation, to the society. Some twelve or fifteen years ago stone and shell lime were applied by Mr. R. Hill on two of the fields at Athol, and al- though the fields have been cultivated a great- er part of that time in corn and small grain, the lime remains unmixed with the soil, owing, I suppose, to the fact that the only implement used was the one or two-horse turning plough. In the few fields on the Appomattox that have been limed I do not doubt that a greater part of the lime has been useless, and will be for all time, unless more care is taken, and proper implements used to prevent this waste. The shells are taken warm from the kiln, and scat- tered (by rule.) In a few nights, or after a rain, they are slaked; the next rain makes them good mortar. The plough turns them over, often without crushing them, and all the change made is, that by one ploughing they are at bottom, and the next at top. There can be no doubt that the shells used at Athol were badly burned, as many of those found in the furrow are hard, though for the most part they are reduced to powder by a very slight pressure of the fingers. I am sorry that I am obliged to recommend to the society that sec- tion of our county bounded by the City Point road, the river, and Bull Hill creek, as a fair field for its usefulness, but this obligation is forced on me by the fact that there is not more than three hundred acres of land limed or marled in all that part of the county. The in- crease of crop by the operation is sup to be over a hundred per ,centum; and if ten bushels of manure are put on every forty-nine square yards, the increase of crop would be three or four hundred. As liming is the be- ginning of agricultural blessing, I must beg of the society that the best preparation of land for its reception be elicited from some of its members, and published in the Farmers’ Re- gister. ‘The method used by Mr. Fielding Lewis is, I have no doubt, the best that has hitherto been communicated to the Farmiers’ Register.
SALT AND THE GRUB WORM.
To tHE Epriror or THE SovurH-WESTERN Farmer.—Through the columns of your valua- ble paper, I hope to make the public acquainted with the value of the common black grub, as an agent in the cultivation of corn, when their labors are directed by the genius of man. This, sir, is a new position, a position which has for its foundation that there has nothing been made in vain, but that all things were made for the benefit and service of man and subject to his direction, and that it is only in the ignorance of man that worms and insects become a scourge upon the face of the earth. The grub has been literally cursed for follow-
‘= g } Ad
J]
26
ing the instinct of his nature, which teaches him to eat the corn and reject the grass and sorrel, with which our fields are generally filled. Now, sir, if those who have cursed the grub, and have advised the agriculturist to follow him with a sharp piece of tin or a knife, with which to decapitate him, or to tie him up in a rag and let him float down stream, had but applied common salt to the hills of corn in the place of gypsum, then, throughout the land, the merits of the grub would have been duly appreciated, then he would have destroyed the grass and sorrel in place of the corn,—thus materially aiding the agricultu- rist.
In my humble opinion, the introduction of salt as a manure, and to prevent the ravages of the grub, will be an incalculable benefit to the country. Upon our farm we have used salt as a manure and as a protection to the corn from the grub, for a period of seven or eight — We ought to be capable of judg- ing of the benefits which we have received from using it. During this period we have missed the application but one season—the result was the ae of our crop; from a field of about twenty acres, we harvested but one cart load of corn, where, had not the grub injured it, we should in all probability have harvested fifty bushels to the acre. Last season, 1841, we planted about twenty acres; the grubs were so plenty that we despaired of protecting it from them; indeed, upon an average, I should think there were twenty to every hill of corn. We applied one bushel of salt to the acre; the protection was ample; scarcely a single blade was touched, but every spear of grass and sorrel was destroyed by them, and in this way they assisted in the cultivation. The application should be made just as the corn is peeping out of the ground. The salt should be put exactly upon the hills, and at the rate of one bushel to the acre—more than one bushel to the acre would do no harm, pro- vided it is put on with common judgment. One bushel is sufficient if properly applied.
If you think this communication will be of any benefit to agriculture, you will please publish it and oblige a constant reader of your valuable paper. Tuomas N. ALLEN.
(FOR THE FARMERS’ REGISTER. )
REPORT TO BOARD OF AGRICULTURE, ON NORFOLK COUNTY.
Norfolk county is intersected in various di- rections by fine navigable streams. The Elizabeth river, with its eastern, western, and southern branches, and many other smaller streams, together with the Dismal Swamp, and Northwest canals, afford means of trans- ne rarely equaled. The surface is evel, only very small portions of the county can be said to be even slightly undulating. The average elevation, I should think, is not more than 8 or 10 feet above tide water.
THE FARMERS’ REGISTER.
loam, than 3 or 4 inches, resting on a subsoil of yellow sand,
The soil is generally a light sandy average depth not more perhaps
which is based on clay. I have never seen any marl in Norfolk county. Indian banks are frequently found near the creeks and rivers, and are used with great advantage. Oyster shells, in a measure, supply the de- ficiency of marl; they are converted into lime, and used extensively, and have contributed powerfully to restore the lost fertility to our soils. My own experience justifies me in saying that I believe most of the land in this county would be doubled in value by one dressing of Indian banks, if paeey done. The proportion of cleared to uncleared land must be small. The Great Dismal, and other large swamps, are spread over a large portion of the county, and besides there is an im- mense quantity of land covered with trees of a second growth. The waste land is very con- siderable, but what proportion I cannot say.
Richard G. Baylor, Esq., I understand, has succeeded well with an artificial meadow. Mr. Willis W. a has commenced opera- ting on a large scale. His is but little more than begun. These are all that I have heard of. Our salt marsh offers fine grazing in summer, and the low swamps produce reeds which are considered good pasture for cattle in winter. We make very little a
The size of our farms varies from 50 to 1500 acres; average about 100 or 150. Very few persons have even adopted a three shift system; corn and oats, or corn and weeds generally. A suitable course of crops seems now to excite considerable attention; the clover crop is rapidly extending.
Corn, oats, sweet potatoes and melons are our staple crops. But little wheat is raised. Italian spring wheat, according to my expe- rience, is a worthless crop. I have used considerable ground plaster in various ways, on both calcareous and acid soils, but never discovered that it did any good. The cultiva- tion of garden vegetables, early potatoes, and similar crops, rapidly extending. This im- pulse was given by the daily line of steam- boats between Norfolk and Baltimore. We were informed, by a Baltimore paper, that a steam-boat at one trip brought 300 barrels of vegetables up from Norfolk. From Baltimore they are frequently forwarded to Philadelphia. The land on the Western Branch is pecuharly adapted to crops of this kind. One gentle- man, I understand, last summer raised 500 barrels of garden peas, which were sold in Philadelphia market, at a good price no doubt ; hence the great demand for manure. ‘The sweepings of the streets of Norfolk, which but a few years ago were a tax on the borough, are now a source of considerable revenue. The cultivation of fruit is an object of great importance to the people of this region. Large orchards of peaches were sold this year on the Western Branch, and delivered by the quantity at $5 per barrel, The late Richard Carney was very successful in the cultivation of the peach, and realized large profits. The peach tree suffers greatly from the depredation committed by worms at the
a
THE FARMERS’ REGISTER. a7
roots; lime, soap-suds, and a great many other things, are recommended as preventives ; but coal tar I have found to be the most effectual remedy against those destructive insects. A few inches of the earth is carefully removed from the roots of the tree early in the spring, and again about August; tar is then applied with a brush, and any worms found in the tree are destroyed. The earth is then replaced, and if hogs be then admitted in the orchard to consume the indifferent fruit, little danger is to be apprehended from the worm.
We use horses almost exclusively for farm use, mules and oxen for the swamp.
Our cattle and hogs, I can venture to say, have been very much improved of late. The Berkshires have been introduced here, and generally approved of. I have found them full as good as I expected; they fatten well at almost any age, but I do not consider them superior to any good breed, in any other re- spect. I kill them at the age of about 15 months, and they usually average 200 lbs. Both Devon and Durham cattle have been
- introduced in this neighborhood, (the Western
Branch,) and are generally thought well of. But if we keep no more stock than we can keep well, we'shall have good stock without paying such enormous prices for improved breeds.
It is thought the abundance of fish and crabs, the lumber business, and the public works, are the chief obstacles in the way of agricultural improvements in this county. The lower classes of the white population are generally engaged in the fishing business, while many who are well to do are seduced by the prospect of bettering their condition to engage in the lumber business, or get em- ployment on the public works. The inspec- tion law is also thought to operate unfavorably in this section. Our potatoes, melons, &c., are sold generally at our doors, to masters of New York vessels. The tax in the end is generally paid by the farmers. Very respect- fully, 4 ° J. rif
Norfol+ county, Nov. 25, 1842.
KEEPING COWS UP IN SUMMER, &c.
To tHe Eprror or THE MAssacHuUsETTS PLoveuman.—You will recollect some time since I called at your office and subscribed for your paper, with which I am well pleased. I promised, in conversation with you, to give my experience in regard to the mode of keep- ing cows.
Sir, lam not a farmer, but a practical me- chanic. I like to see experience and practice as well as theory in life. Ido not fancy that I am relating any thing unusual; but to those who keep one cow, and hire their pasturing, it may be useful.
My cow was raised in the neighborhood. I bought her two years ago last spring, then a heifer. She is small, and I have kept her - two seasons and fed her upon green feed. I have occupied about one half acre of ground,
well set to clover and fine grass. It is in tolerable condition, though I think one quarter of an acre in a high state of cultivation, managed aright, would abundantly support a cow through the summer season,
My statements are simply these. My cow calved the 12th of May. I kept the calf 7 weeks. I set the milk first, took off the cream, then scalded a portion of the milk with about one pint of meal, fed it three times = day: it (the calf) brought but 5 dollars.
e made 30 pounds of butter in the time. For six months we used 3 gallons of milk per week, and made 67 lbs. of butter.
Calf sold for $5 00 83 pounds of cheese worth 8 cents 6 64 67 pounds of butter, 20 cents 13 40
3 galls. milk per week, at 4c. perqt. 12 00 $37 O04
Now, sir, the advantages of keeping cows yarded are, first, they will evidently give more milk; secondly, you can save much in manure. I have made, during the year past, over 4 cords of manure, worth 5 dollars per cord, and with a very little exertion shall probably make 6 cords next year. Again, every one who has a garden, in the course of the summer finds a great many weeds to dis- pose of: if you have a cow at hand, she will readily eat them, for it gives them a good relish for their grass. My cow, instead of growing thin by the heat of summer and annoyance of flies, has thriven, or she is ina far better case than she was last spring.
SipnEy Perkins.
a
LIQUID MANURE.
To THe Eprror or THE FarMer’s JoURNAL.— When accounts of the great value of liquid manure, as proved by experiments, have been published, and its great utility is so evident on examining the subject, it is surprising that farmers do not give heed to the subject. Eve- ry one is aware that “manure is the farmer's gold mine,” and great attention is given to the subject in making compost heaps, procuring various materials, and buying manure, often at a high price, all which may be profitable ; but the far cheaper method of saving liquid manure should not be neglected, as it gene- rally is.
Animal bodies are constantly wasting away and acquiring a new supply of matter from food. The waste passes off in urine and con- tains a large amount of fertilizing matter, and being in a liquid state is well adapted to sup- port plants; as soluble matter only can be taken up by the roots of plants. 'Though dung may appear far more valuable, from its bod and substance, that part only which is soluble will be appropriated by the plant to its support.
Arthur Young manured four equal portions of a field, one with dry cut straw, another with straw soaked five hours in fresh urine, a third with straw soaked in like manner fifteen hours, and a fourth with straw soaked three days; to a fifth portion nothing was applied.
28
The whole was tilled alike and sowed with grain. The product of the first was 30, the second 50), the third 63, the fourth 126, and the fifth 9. This experiment demonstrates, by the straw, the great value of vegetable matter for manure, and by the urine, the great fertiliz- ing properties of liquid manure, which is wasted by most farmers in the country.
A farmer in Scotland dug a pit near his feeding stall, and filled it with loam, at an ex- pense of 22 dollars. On this he conducted the urine of 14 cattle for five months, and the whole was saturated. The contents of the pit were 280 loads, which were applied at the rate of 40 loads to the acre. There was no ee difference between the crops on and thus manured, and on that to which an equal quantity of dung was applied. So he considered the liquid and solid manure of equal value when applied to the land ; and the expense in the saving and application of liquid manure, will not justify its waste, and it will afford a large profit beyond all the expense and trouble.
There are various ways of saving liquid manure, and every farmer can follow that which is most convenient, and by experiments learn which is best. Dry loam, and litter, such as leaves, brakes, weeds, refuse straw, &c., may be thrown on the floor to absorb the moisture, or a portion of plaster sufficient to be used with the manure may be used to ab- sorb the moisture.
Another method is to make the floor tight, with a channel at the back part, to drain the urine into a cistern, from which it may be car- ried to the field and sprinkled upon grass or tillage lands, or used in a compost heap, or it may be directed on a quantity of loam placed to receive and absorb it.
The cattle house may be so constructed, that loam, sods, &c., may be placed under the floor to receive the’ liquid manure as it runs through. If dry loam be used, it will require much less to absorb the liquid manure, and it will be much lighter to cart.
As manure is of so much importance to the farmer, and as a large amount of liquid may be collected and applied conveniently, and at little expense, I hope the subject will no longer be neglected. Let every farmer contrive some method to save it this fall, and learn from his own experience its great value, Economy,
TURNIP FLY.
Romsey. ( Eng.) June 8.
As a most important season in the multifa- rious avocations of the farmer is approaching, I am induced to offer you a few remarks for insertion in your very useful and very widely circulating “ Express,” should you deem them of sufficient importance.
The few words I have to write are on one of the most hackneyed subjects that have en- gaged the pens of literary agriculturists, and one, too, which catch-penny empiricism has thought important enough to select as the means of access to the farmer’s pocket. I am
THE FARMERS’ REGISTER.
no farmer, nor do I understand chemistry, and therefore it may be deemed impertinent in me to offer any thing like advice on a subject of which I am confessedly ignorant. I do not presume to offer advice, but merely to give the result of my own experience in a very small way, in the hope that it may be found possible to adopt the plan with facility, largely and use- fully. I am encouraged by knowing that ignorant people have sometimes made valuable discoveries by accident; and I am sure I should feel highly gratified and rewarded if any thing I could suggest may be the means of averting vexation and disappointment in any degree from the tillers of the soil, among whom I reckon some of my best friends, and thus help to render their noble occupation somewhat less uncertain. In my constant intercourse with farmers, frequently have I heard their lamentations on the destructive ravages of the turnip fly. A small patch of turnip seed was sown in my garden some weeks since, and thought no more about for a considerable time, till one day chancing to pass by it, I observed my seed was growing, and on closer ins tion discovered it was swarming with fly, and already half destroyed. I lost no time in ap- plying what I hoped would be a remedy for the mischief, this consisted of sdme stale liquid from a lime pit, scattered over the young tur- nip plants with a watering-pot. On revisiting the patch next day, it was most gratifying to observe that the enemy was gone, and scarce- ly a fly was to be seen, except one solitary little wretch that was perched on a plant just unfolding ; but not a fly could be seen on any plant that had rari a sprinkling from the rich contents of the watering-pot.
The next apprehension was, that possibly the sprinkling might have injured the plants ; a few days, however, removed that apprehen- sion, for rain came and washed the sprinkling (of lime and animal matter in combination) off the plants, and down to the roots, and they have since grown away in rank luxuriance, have been thinned once, require the same ope- ration again. Thus, by this sprinkling, the plants have received complete protection from the fly first, and then, when the rain fell, were nourished by a highly stimulating manure. It will, however, be said, but of what avail is this information? Farmers have not access to the lime pits of the tanner, and if they had, the quantity to be procured would be so small as not to be of any material benefit ; which is very true, and therefore the writer would re- commend every farmer to have his own lime- pits which he may have in his own farm-yard.
fso situated as to take the run of the yard, all the better, or where water may be obtained ; a bricked pit or tank, into which should be thrown a few quarters of lime, with a suffici- ency of water; into which may be thrown, from time to time, as it can be procured, all manner of refuse animal matter, cut in pieces —a dead sheep, horse, &c., and the entrails of what may be slaughtered. Sometimes, on the coast, a load of worthless fish may be ob- tained. Farmers are little aware what amount of rich liquid manure may be obtained at a
very trifling cost; and yet they pay large sums
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annually for dry bones, and buy guano that has to be freighted from the Pacific, and pay rofits two or three deep into the bargain, and arge casks of compost made in London, with names attached to them almost too hard to pronounce. Being at a corn market some- where in the country some time since, the writer observed on one corn-dealer’s stand some bottles of something, carefully corked ; and on inquiring what stuff it was in one of the bottles, was informed that it was a sample of manure. This brought to my mind the prediction of the chemist, who said the time would come when a man might carry manure for an acre of land in his waistcoat pocket ; and the rude, unbelieving and sneering reply, that when that time came the crop might also be stuffed into the coat pocket. I would not, however, be supposed to speak disparagingly of the various artificial manures that are brought from far. I am not competent to give an opinion, but wish they may be appreciated according to the respective merits of each. I have no private interests to serve, but I take a great interest in any thing that will promote the general prosperity of my native land.
In conclusion, I repeat that I am not a farm- er, but I know, from effects produced at various times on a small scale in my garden, that animal matter in solution with lime is an active and powerful manure ; and what induced me to think it may be a preventive to the fly was, that I had observed, however stale and fetid, animal life cannot exist in it.
Marx Lane Express. A Tanner.
AN ESSAY,
DELIVERED BEFORE THE AGRICULTTRAL SOCIETY OF ALBEMARLE. BY T. J. RANDOLPH.
The importance of agriculture to all the substantial interests of mankind has justly placed it among the most useful avocations and necessary arts, for the well-being and pros- perity of nations. No people have preserved f@ permanent power and wealth, whose agri- culture has not advanced and pesepenne with that power. The republics of Venice and Ge- noa are striking examples of an ephemeral greatness, derived from commerce alone, not united with agriculture, manufactures and the mechanic arts, declining more rapidly than it arose. A few miserable huts of beggarly Arabs, scattered amidst the ruins of magnifi- cent temples and porticoes, mark the site of the ancient Tadmor or Palmyra; whose power, derived from commerce, enabled it to contend for the empire of the east with impe- rial Rome, and whose friendship for two cen- turies was courted with emulation and solici- tude by the Romans, and their rivals for do- minion, the Parthians. It is agriculture that clothes the earth with its luxuriant harvests, its verdant fields of herbage, its flocks and herds, furnishing the food of man, and the comforts and luxuries of life. Its raw mate- rial in the hands of the manufacturer and merchant, produces and supplies the blanket
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that clothes the Indian of the prairie, and thie gossamer fabric that adorns the belle of the sa- loon. Without claiming for it precedence, it deservedly stands pre-eminent, for its useful- ness, among all the arts and professions, which the wants, enjoyments or elegancies of society have called into being.
The life of the farmer, it is true, is one of toil and exposure ; but it is the toil of the open air, and the exposure of a salubrious employ- ment. How does his ruddy cheek and vigor- ous health contrast with the ills of sedentary occupations, the pallid hue and flaccid fibre of him whose life has been spent in counting room or office drudgery. His children may be coarsely clad; but, breathing the pure air of the country, exempt from immoral contact, enjoying the full developement of the physical and moral man, he need not envy the better dressed youth of the city, inhaling its confined air and noisome vapors, subject to its tempta- tions to indulgence, and its associations with vice. Many years since, at Lowell, Massachu- setts, being in conversation with a gentleman who had reared himself to distinction, and great wealth in his line, by a course of success- ful industry and enterprise, the men of Bos- ton who had been distinguished by success and eminence in various callings became a subject. He remarked that a few days hefore he had been in company with several individuals, long residents of Boston; that this had been a sub- ject of their conversation, and that they had been surprised to discover that, with scarcely an exception, every man remarkable for his success in any branch of business or profes- sion, had been reared in the country, settling in Boston after his moral principles and habits had been formed.
The farmer beyond all others enjoys the cheering consciousness of independence ; he is not dependent upon others for his success ; no man’s prosperity lessens his comforts or enjoyments. In common with his class he is affected by the rise or fall of the markets, but there is nothing in his vocation which makes him fear individual rivalry, or that his family may be deprived of their bread by successful competition; he is obliged to no one for the purchase of his products. The lawyer, the merchant and the mechanic have their rivals; superior talents may win off the clients of the one, superior address or skill may lure away the customers of the other, they often expe- rience a galling dependence upon public favor. Yet how often do we hear our farmers com- plain of the unprofitable character of their business. With a capital of fifteen or twenty thousand dollars vested in land, labor and stock, which in the best funds would not yield more than twelve hundred dollars per annum, a farmer, residing on his farm, supplies for a numerous family—house-rent, fuel, servants, horses for pleasure, all the comforts of life, with many of its luxuries, in an abundance that invites his friends to share his hospitality, and to an amount that, to be purchased with money, could not be had for fifteen hundred dollars; in fact furnishing them every thing in kind necessary for their comfort, but groce- ries and finer clothing. Yet this individual
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having derived from his investment more than six per cent. in his living, complains that he does not derive an additional six per cent. in money. If he would place himself upon the world with an income of twelve hundred dol- lars per annum, to rent his house, hire his ser- vants, buy his fuel and supply his family with all that they required for their consumption, diminished comforts and_ stinted supplies, would soon teach him to appreciate the value of a farm.
If a farmer has education and a taste for in- tellectual enjoyment, what a wide field has he in the contemplation of nature? In the study of plants, of animals, the properties of soils and manures ; the whole science of agricultu- ral chemistry so little understood. With all these advantages, how proverbially ignorant have agriculturists been ; how slow has been the progress of their art, and with what blind and bigoted obstinacy have they persevered in their old practices. In the early ages an individual who was more successful than his neighbors in his culture, if he escaped the punishment of a wizard—was suspected of dealing in the black art or holding converse with the evil spirit. Pliny mentions a freed- man, who, having much larger crops than his neighbors, was accused of witchcraft and brought to trial. He produced in the forum a stout daughter, and his excellently constructed spades, shears and other tools, with his oxen, and said, “'These, Romans, are my charms.” He was acquitted. Exorcisms to make fields fertile and produce abundant harvests by non- sensical phrases and ceremonies were used by the Anglo-Saxons, and Cato the Censor has transmitted to us a ridiculous receipt for the same thing.
The implements and practices of agriculture have in many countries been stationary from the earliest records of history. Modern tra- vellers describe it in Syria now as it existed among the Jews, long anterior to the Christian era. The ancient Roman plough is now used in parts of Italy with little or no im-
rovement. ‘The Romans abounded in useful implements of husbandry as cultivators, har- rows, rakes, hoes, axes, reap hooks, hand and horse machines for thrashing grain. A reap- ing machine, drawn by oxen, is mentioned by Pliny, and described by Palladius as used on the plains of Gaul. Our Anglo-Saxon an- cestors, whose husbandry had been almost created by the Roman conquest, used rakes, sickles, scythes and flails, very much like those used now in England.
‘The wheat fan was introduced into Scotland from Holland in 1710. Its use was publicly denounced from the pulpit as impious. Sir Walter Scott, in his novel of Old Mortality, has humorously and graphically described the objections to it, in the complaint of Mause Headrigg to her lady of Tillietudlem. “Your leddyship and the steward (says Mause) hae been pleased to propose, that my son Cuddie suld work in the barn wi’ a new fangled ma- chine for dighting the cdrn frae the chaff, thus impiously thwarting the will of Divine Providence, by raising wind for your leddy- ship’s ain particular use by human airt, instead
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of soliciting it by prayer or waiting patiently for whatever dispensation of wind Providence was pleased to send on the sheeling hill.” Chapter 7.
Herodotus, who wrote 400 years before the Christian era, tells us that wheat and barley, common articles of food in other countries, were considered mean and disgraceful in Egypt. Beans were not grown. The in- habitants would not eat them, and their priests would not even look at them. Wheat, rye, oats, barley, millet, Indian corn, clover and lucern, were cultivated by the Romans. The vegetables used by them seem to have been nearly such as are cultivated now, except the potato and a few others. Of fruits, the pine apple, gooseberry and orange do not appear to to have been known to them. Pliny, the younger, in a letter to his friend Septitius Clarus, mentions as delicacies of a supper he had prepared for him—a lettuce a piece, three snails, two eggs, a barley cake, olives, gourd, shalots. Snails was a common dish at a Roman table. Pliny, the elder, mentions one Fulvius Hirpinus, who had carried the art of rearing them to such perfection, that the shells of some of his snails would contain ten quarts. In some parts of Switzerland, this food was held in high repute in the last century. (Addison’s Trav. 364.)
The Anglo-Saxons cultivaled wheat and barley. Clover was not introduced into Eng- land until 1650. The list of vegetables would appear to have been a very short one. Ina cookery book supposed to have been com- piled in 1390, by the master cooks of Richard II., a monarch whose household is said to have consisted of 10,000 persons, his kitchen of 300 cooks, elaborate directious are given for cooking ‘cabaches.’ Peas, beans, onions, leeks and rapes, (turnips,) are the only other vegetables spoken of. Hume, in his History of England, chapter 33, tells us that “it was not tillthe end of the reign of Henry VIIL, 1547, that any salads, carrots, turnips or other edible roots were produced in England. The little of these vegetables that were used was formerly imported from Holland and Flanders. Queen Catharine, when she wanted a salad, was obliged to despatch a messenger thither on purpose. The use of hops, and the plant- ing of them, was introduced from Flanders about the beginning of this reign or the end of the preceding, (1509.”) The city of London petitioned against their use, lest they should injure the beer. From an entry, dated 1595, in the household book of the Cliffords, of Yorkshire, 11 shillings ($2.44) was given for six ‘cabaches’ and some ‘caret’ roots bought at Hull, a seaport, eighty miles distant, into which place they were no doubt imported from Holland. About this period an acre of good land in Cambridgeshire was let at 25 cents per acre. {t thus required the rent of ten acres of land to purchase six cabbages and some carrot roots. Beef and pork, by statute of Henry VIITI., was ordered to be sold at less than one cent. Mutton and veal at
one cent per pound, and the reason assigned was, that it was the food of the poorer sort. The potato introduced into England in 1565
ee ee a ee
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from Santé Fe, by a Captain Hawkins, and also by Sir Walter Raleigh from Virginia, who stopping in Ireland, some were planted there ; in the commencement of the 17th century it was deemed so great a rarity, that it was only served at the queen’s table at 2 shillings, (46 cents) the pound, treated as a fruit, baked in pies with spices and wine, or eaten with sugar. The college of learned physi- cians of Paris pronounced ita deleterious food, and its use was prohibited by royal ordinance. Two hundred years elapsed from its first introduction into England before it was cul- tivated as a field crop. It now forms the sole food of the laboring poor of England and Ireland, and it may well be doubted whether its introduction has been a blessing or a curse; whether the: introduction of a cheap and abundant food that will sustain a dense population in the most debased scale of human existence can be a blessing. Whether the existence of man in a condition but little re- moved from the brute of the field, his moral and intellectual faculties extinguished by the incessant struggle to maintain a mere animal existence,can be desired by the philanthro- pist or the Christian.
Near our own time, Mr. Jefferson could recollect when the tomato was cultivated as an ornament to the flower garden; called love apples and deemed poisonous. It was eaten by but one individual, a foreigner, a resident of Williamsburg, and whose peculiar constitution was supposed to resist its delete- rious effects; it now forms an article of agreeable and healthful food for all conditions of our population. )
The ox, the mule, and the ass appear to have been the only animals used anciently for agricultural labor. None other seem to have been used by the Romans. By one of the laws of the Anglo-Saxons they were prohibited from ploughing with horses, mares and cows, and restricted to oxen.
The ox appears from the writings of Moses to have been, at a very early period, subdued to the uses of man, even before the flood, as well as the sheep. See Gen. iv, 2-20. The ass and the camel later. Gen. xii, 16. The horse is not mentioned until about 1700 years before Christ. Gen. xlvii, 17. He was reared at first exclusively for war. In the time of the Romans, this appears to be the great object to which he was devoted. As late as 785, horse flesh seems to have been on article of food with our ancestors, the Anglo- Saxons. The penitentiale of Egbert says, “Horse flesh is not prohibited, although many families will not buy it.” But in the council held in 785, in Northumbria, before Alfwold, and in Mercia, before Offa, it was denounced. “Many among you eat horses, which is not done by any Christian in the east. Avoid this.”—See Turner’s Anglo-Saxon, vol. ii. 200.
This recital, designed to amuse that portion of our audience who cannot be supposed to be interested in the dry detail of practical agriculture, may nevertheless be useful in part,.in showing how slow, and how tardy has been the introduction of useful imple- ments, and the culture of those plants, now
—
so necessary for the comfort of the poor, and the luxury of the rich; and how desirable it is that the snail pace of agricultural improve- ment, should be accelerated by ‘all the ap- pliances which lie within our reach.
When we look into the early agricultural history of our own country, and particularly to this portion of it east of the mountains, We trace causes operating with a blighting desolation over its beautiful and fertile surface, as received by the white man from the hand of nature. It was settled about the year 1730; sixty years afterwards, the price of the best high lands scarcely exceeded two dollars per acre, the average price of the period was under $1.50. ‘The consideration expressed in the deed of sale, now in my possession, of two hundred acres of land, on which the Shadwell mill and factory are situated, was Henry Wetherbarn’s (the then keeper of Ra- leigh tavern, Williamsburg) biggest bowl of arrack punch.” This is some of the most valuable high land in the county, independent of its water-power. The appraisements of decedent’s estates about 1760, of record in the clerk’s office, show the value of negro men to have been one hundred and fifty dollars and under. Among such inventories, but one horse was rated as high as forty dollars. Cows and calves from $3.50 to $5.00. All other stock and implements in proportion. An individual could then have purchased five hundred acres of the best highland, for from $900 to $750, supply it with ten working hands, at from one thousand to twelve hun- dred dollars, procure his implements, stock, and a year’s supply of corn for $250. The implements consisted, almost exclusively, of axes and hoes; a few ploughs of a construc- tion so simple that the butt of a shingle was deemed a most appropriate piece of timber for a mould board. Cabins were constructed without a nail or bit of iron. Houses at a later period were shingled, wooden pegs be- ing used instead of nails. Few farms boasted a pair of cart wheels; the tobacco was rolled to market i the hogshead in which it was prised. Corn rose, from the great drought of 1755, to ten shillings the barrel: a price so unexampled, that for years afterwards it was known as the ten shilling year.
For $2000, a farm of the best highland could be purchased and stocked for culture. To- bacco was the sole crop for market, corn with its shucks, tops and fodder supplied food for man and animals, Wheat was cultivated in a “patch,” and flour formed an article of oc- easional luxury. The tobacco was raised exclusively upon virgin soils, which produced it from two to three, and even five years in succession, according to their fertility, leaving the land in the finest condition to produce corn with the least possible labor. It was continued annually in corn until shallow cul- ture and heavy rains had stripped it of its soil, and marked the gullies for future wear; new portions turned off annually from tobacco, supplied fresh fields to desolate. A fair crop of tobacco, with good management, upon lands not picked or culled by previous clearings, was probably not under 2000 lbs to the hand,
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(it was sometimes doubled) 20,000 Ibs. to the farm. This tobacco sold from $2.50 to $3.33 per hundred weight. ‘The whole crop of the state sold for the same price, all that passed the inspection was held of like quality. The merchant purchased by the inspector’s certi- ficate, without seeing the tobacco. The gross sales of such a farm fluctuated from $500 to $667 per annum, from 25 to 334 per cent. upon the capital invested, ‘The expenses were of the simplest kind, and of the smallest amount, and were fully balanced by the living of the family out of the other products of the farm. And this enormous per centage was made‘by bending all their energies to clearing the country of its forests, and desolating it in their progress. The product of an acre of virgin land in tobacco was then worth from $20 to $27. The first crop paid 300 per cent. upon the cost of clearing. The offal of the crop for manure was as nought; the cattle few and poorly fed, the means of improve- ment scarcely existed. To have attempted it, promised no remuneration. Uncleared lands — in tobacco where cheap and abun- ant.
This state of things operated as a high bounty upon desolation, and desolation follow- ed, as the natural consequence, in the footsteps of our fathers. Many of us can recollect the aspect of the country, its fertile hills converted into barren wastes, abraded every where by impassable gullies. The labor of smoothing its surface and again covering it with vegeta-
tion has been in many instances accomplished. The facility with which it has been done has given the most encouraging evidences of the
natural fertility of the soil. It has developed energies which the most sanguine had not an- ticipated, and gives an assurance that however fair and remunerating our present produc- tions may be, they certainly form but a small ortion of that, which a judicious system of usbandry would lead us to anticipate. Com- are what it was, with what it now is; and ow cheering has been our progress in im- provement. See what remains to be done on our best farms. Compare our present means with those which existed twenty years ago, and every thing justifies the prediction that this is destined to be the garden spot of the state. We are in the habit of comparing our lands with those of the Valley; is this just, under their present aspect? The valley was not a tobacco country, their lands have never been desolated by its early culture. They had no crop which would pay immediately the expenses of clearing, and had to look for re- muneration to a regular system of cultivation. Ours paid promptly and prodigally, and were east aside by a cupidity which sought new bounties, from the virgin soil of the forest. This consideration in the valuation of our lands, forms a most important feature, and one which every judicious man should esti- mate, the omission of which, has held them below their real value.
‘To produce remunerating returns for our lahor, and increase the product of our lands must be the object of our systems of cultnre. These systems must vary somewhat accord-
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ing to the varied conditions and qualities of the soil of different farms: the application of one rule to every farm would be as preposter- ous as that of one remedy to every disease. The great defect of Virginia culture has pro- bably been, the want of variety in our pro- ducts ; putting too much to hazard, by relyin upon one crop as a source of revenue; and losing the benefits of the auxiliary aid of others, in affording profit, and the means of making manures, and supplying the necessi- ties of the farm. The exclusive tobacco culture pursued in some portions of the state, is perhaps the most precarious of all. The whole resources of the farm are applied to this one object; scanty supplies of subsis- tence are produced; many things which a farm should furnish are calculated to be ob- tained by purchase. An unpropitious season, and a reduction in price, leaves the proprietor without net revenue; with reduced means, and impoverished lands. The exclusive wheat culture is scarcely better; the attention to grass necessary for the production of wheat, and the general improvement, furnishes more a