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OODWORKING FOR

BKCHNNERS

A Manual for Amateurs

CHARLES G

Know what thou canst work at and work at it like * 1

CAJ

WITH OVER 7OO ILLUSTRATIONS

G. P. Putnam's Sons New York and London Ube fwicfeerbocfcer press

1906

WOODWORKING FOR BEGINNERS

BY

CHARLES G. WHEELER, B.S.

Know what them canst work at and work at it like a Hercules."

CARLYLE.

WITH OVER 7OO ILLUSTRATIONS

G. P. Putnam's Sons New York and London ZTbe Ifcnicfeerbocfeer press

1906

COPYRIGHT, 1899

BY CHARLES G. WHEELER

"Cbc ftnicfterbocher press, "Hew jporh

TO THE

YOUTHFUL FOUNDERS

OF

"TOTLET TOWN"

WITHOUT WHOSE INSPIRATION THIS BOOK WOULD NOT HAVE BEEN UNDERTAKEN

2065868

PREFACE

THE aim of this book is to suggest to amateurs of all ages many things which they can profitably make of wood, and to start them in the way to work successfully. It is hoped that, in the case of boys, it may show them pleasant and useful ways to work off some of their surplus energy, and at the same time contribute toward their harmonious all-round development.

It is not an attempt to teach the arts of architecture, carpentry, cabinet-making, or boat-building. Although not intended primarily to impart skill in the use of tools (some- thing which can only be acquired from experience and ob- servation and cannot be taught by any book), still no one can go through the processes indicated without gaining at least some slight degree of manual skill as well as a fund of practical information and experience.

Many books which give directions for mechanical work (particularly those addressed to boys) have several serious faults, and can be grouped in three classes. Some seem to be written by practical workmen, who, however well fitted to do the work themselves, lack the pedagogical training or the psychological insight necessary to lay out such work with due regard to the mental and physical capacity, ex- perience, and development of youth, or to the amateur's lack of experience in the rudiments of the subject. Others are written by teachers or amateurs who lack the trained mechanic's practical and varied knowledge and experience in serious work. Others (and this last class is, perhaps, the worst of the three) seem to be made by compilers who have apparently been satisfied to sweep together, without requisite

vi Preface

knowledge or sufficient moral purpose, whatever they may have found that would be interesting or attractive, without due regard to its real value. All these writers are constantly falling into errors and making omissions harmful alike to the moral and the manual progress of the readers.1

Effort has been made in the preparation of this book to avoid these evils, to keep in line with the advanced educa- tional ideas of the time, and to look at the subject from the standpoints of the teacher, the mechanic, the boy, and the amateur workman. The treatment is neither general nor superficial, but elementary, and no claim is made that it will carry anyone very far in the various subjects ; but it aims to be thorough and specific as far as it goes and to teach nothing which will have to be unlearned.

Great care (based upon an extended experience with boys and amateurs) has been taken to include only what can be profitably done by an intelligent boy of from ten to eighteen or by the average untrained worker of more mature years. It is hoped that from the variety of subjects treated he may find much of the information for which he may seek — if not in the exact form desired, perhaps in some typical form or something sufficiently similar to suggest to him what he needs to know.

It is hoped and confidently believed that a work so com- prehensive in scope and giving such a variety of designs, with detailed and practical directions for their execution, will be not merely novel, but may serve as a vade-mecum and ready-reference book for the amateur of constructive tastes.

CHARLES G. WHEELER.

BOSTON, June, 1899.

1 These criticisms are meant to apply to the class of manuals, compendium^, and so-called " Boys' Books" and "Amateurs' Books," in the popular sense of the word, and not to the many admirable works on sloyd, manual training, and the various special branches of wood-working.

CONTENTS

PART I— A WORKSHOP FOR AMATEURS

CHAPTER PAGE

I — INTRODUCTORY i

II — TOOLS ......... 9

III — WOOD ......... 29

IV — WORKING DRAWINGS, LAYING OUT THE WORK,

AND ESTIMATING ...... 49

V — THE WORKSHOP ....... 56

PART II— ARTICLES TO BE MADE IN THE WORKSHOP

VI — INTRODUCTORY ....... 103

VII — A FEW TOYS ....... 106

VIII — HOUSES FOR ANIMALS . . . . . .126

IX — IMPLEMENTS FOR OUTDOOR SPORTS AND ATHLETICS. 141

X — FURNITURE . . . . . . . 175

XI — A FEW MISCELLANEOUS OPERATIONS . . . 218

PART III— HOUSE-BUILDING FOR BEGINNERS

XII — SOME ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES .... 238 XIII — SIMPLE SUMMER COTTAGES . . . . .271

XIV — A FEW SIMPLE STRUCTURES ..... 291

vij

viii Contents

PART IV— BOAT-BUILDING FOR BEGINNERS XV — A FEW SIMPLE BOATS ...... 298

PART V— TOOLS AND OPERATIONS

XVI — THE COMMON HAND-TOOLS, AND SOME EVERY-DAY OPERATIONS, ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED FOR READY REFERENCE ...... 344

APPENDIX — MATTERS RELATING TO WOOD, SUGGESTIONS

ABOUT WORKING DRAWINGS, ETC. ... . 507

INDEX 539

INTRODUCTORY NOTE

IT has seemed best to address parts of this book particu- larly to boys, because the majority of beginners are boys, because boys need more suggestions than men, and because a man can easily pick what he needs from a talk to boys (and perhaps be interested also), while it is usually un- profitable to expect a boy to take hold of a technical subject in the right spirit if it is treated in a style much in advance of his degree of maturity. It is hoped, however, that the older reader also will find enough of those fundamental principles of successful work (many of which do not readily occur to the untrained amateur except as the result of much costly experience) to be a material help to him.

ix

" It is not strength, but art obtains the prize, And to be swift is less than to be wise ; 'T is more by art, than force of numerous strokes."

HOMER, Iliad.

WOOD-WORKING FOR BEGINNERS

PART I

A WORKSHOP FOR AMATEURS

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY

WHEN one has made up his mind to make something, he usually wants to begin work at once; so, as I wish you to read this chapter, I will make it quite short. There is a great deal in getting started right, and there are some things to bear in mind if you wish to do good work, as of course you do.

One thing is not to be in too much of a hurry to begin the actual sawing and pounding. The old Latin phrase, " Festina lente " (make haste slowly), is a capital motto for the beginner. Do not wait until your enthusiasm has oozed away, of course, but do stop long enough to think how you are going to make a thing before you begin to saw.

The workman who thinks first and acts afterwards is the one who usually turns out good work, while the one who begins to work without any reflection (as boys, and even

2 Wood-Working for Beginners

men, have been known to do) is apt to spend much of his time in undoing his work, and usually d®es not get through till after the one who laid it out properly in the first place.1

If Homer, in the quotation at the head of this chapter, had been writing about the way boys' work is sometimes done, he might, perhaps, have reversed the positions of some of the words and made " swiftness " and " numerous strokes " the subjects of his emphasis. He has expressed well enough, however, the way that your work should be done, and it is one aim of this book to give you useful hints to that end.

Do not spend your time in working out a lot of set exer- cises, like joints and odd pieces that do not belong to any-

1 An old gentleman whose help, on account of his accurate workmanship, I once frequently obtained when " rushed," was an extreme example of this sys- tematic way of doing work. I would give him perhaps three hours' work, which he would agree to have done at the end' of that time. Looking in after an hour or so I would find the work apparently untouched, which was a little provoking, of course, as the average workman would have had it perhaps one third done. But instead, this old gentleman would be apparently only " put- tering around," touching up his saws, fixing his planes, whetting his chisels, looking over the wood, and not getting ahead a bit. Going off in disgust (until I got acquainted with his ways, I mean), I would return at the end of the three hours, to find that the work had been ready some time and done to per- fection. While he was at first apparently accomplishing nothing he was really getting everything in perfect shape to do the work and laying out in his mind every detail of the whole process, so that when he began the actual work it almost did itself, and he forged right ahead of the average workman, who would either have been behind time or slighted the work in order to get it done, and in most cases have made some mistake to be corrected in some part of the process. I never knew that man to make a mistake. Why ? Not be- cause his ability was extraordinary, but because he concentrated his mind on the work and thought it out clear through before he began. Now I know the average boy too well to expect him to have the patience to do just as this workman did. It would be unreasonable. But it is the true way to do good work, so try to think it all out as far as you can and to get ready before you begin. The work will go ever so much more quickly and easily.

Introductory 3

thing in particular, merely for practice. You will be much more apt to put the right spirit into your work when you make complete and useful articles, and you will get the same practice and experience in the end. There is no need, however, to go through a deal of toilsome experience just to learn a number of simple little things that you might just as well be told in the first place. Begin the process of learning by experience after you have learned what you can from the experience of others. Begin, so far as you can, where others have left off.

Before you begin work it may be interesting to look for a moment at the way boys did their work from fifty to one hundred years ago. Have you read the books by Elijah Kellogg ? The reason for speaking of these old-fashioned books is because of the picture they give of the time, not so very long ago, when boys and their elders made all sorts of things which they buy to-day, and also because of the good idea they give of how boys got along generally when they had to shift more for themselves than they do nowa- days.

The majority of the boys of that time, not merely on Casco Bay, where Mr. Kellogg places the scenes of his stories, but in hundreds of other places, had to make many things themselves or go without. Of course there was a smaller number in the cities and larger towns who had no good opportunity to make things and were obliged to buy what they could afford (out of what we should call a quite limited variety), or to get the carpenter or other mechanic to make what they needed. But the majority of the boys of that time made things well and had a good time making them. The life they led made them capital " all-round " boys. They could turn their hands, and their heads too, to almost any kind of work, and do it pretty well.

4 Wood-Working for Beginners

Boys did a good deal of whittling then. This habit, as you doubtless know, still clung to them after they grew up, and opening a jack-knife and beginning to whittle was a common diversion whenever the men rested, whether at the country-store or in the barn or dooryard or at their own firesides.- You can see the same habit to-day in some places. The boys whittled splint-brooms of birch in Colonial days in almost every household.1 Among some of the minor articles made by boys and young men were axe-helves and handles of all sorts, wooden rakes, wooden troughs for bread and for pigs, trays, trenchers, flails, rounds for ladders, bobbins, reels, cheese-boxes, butter-spats or -paddles, wooden traps, and dozens of other articles, not to speak of their handiwork in other materials than wood.

For that matter much of the same life can be found to- day in the remoter regions, and I have known young men brought up to this kind of life, who (within my recollection) have, as a matter of course, done all the farm work of good- sized cultivated farms with live stock, cut and hauled wood from their wood-lots, done a good deal of sea-fishing and salting down and drying of fish, tended and mended their

1 " It has been said that the snow-shoe and canoe as made by the Indians could never be improved. To these might be added the split birch broom, or splinter broom, also the invention of the Indians, but made in every country household in New England in Colonial days. The branch of a large birch tree was cut eight feet long. An inch-wide band of the bark was left about eighteen inches from one end, and the shorter and lower end was cut in fine pliable slivers up to the restraining bark band. A row of slivers was cut from the upper end downward, turned down over the band, and tied firmly down. Then the remainder of the stick was smoothed into a handle. These brooms were pliable, cleanly, and enduring, and as broom-corn was not grown here until the latter part of the past century, they were, in fact, the only brooms of those days. They were made by boys on New England farms for six cents apiece, and bought by the country storekeepers in large numbers for the cities' use." — The Chautauquan.

Introductory 5

fish-nets, weirs, and lobster-traps, and sailed or rowed twenty-five miles to market with their produce and back again with their supplies. They also built their sheds, barns, and houses, and part of their furniture, their dories, big scows, and capital sailboats; made their own oars and rigged their boats; made many of their farm tools and im- plements; built their waggons and " ironed " them, their ox-sleds and small sleds, and shod them; made some of their tools; did their own blacksmithing, mason-work, brick- laying, and painting; made their own shoes, and did I do not know how many other odd jobs — all with but a limited supply of common hand-tools. This work did not interfere with their going to school through the winter months until they were twenty-one years old, and they still found time for the usual recreations of the period.

Now a young man must have been pretty well developed after going through all that, even if he did not know much about Greek or calculus or was lacking in superficial polish. And it is only the truth to say that quite a number used to tackle the higher branches of study too, with success made all the more assured by their development in other ways, and many, in addition to all this, paid their way through college by teaching or other work. How did they do sc much ? Partly, I suppose, because their life was so much simpler and less complex than ours. They did not have so many wants and there were not so many interests to distract their minds. Partly because when they wanted something they knew they must make it or go without. They did not draw so much as we do now, but they did a great deal of observing. They examined things like what they were, to make and asked questions, and, knowing that where they had so much to do they could not afford to keep trying things again and again, they learned from their relatives

6 Wood-Working for Beginners

and neighbours what was considered the best way to do their work, and having thought it out carefully they went at it with great energy.

To-day we have only to go to a large factory to see a man standing before some machine and doing some simple piece of work, requiring but little thought — the same thing over and over again, hour after hour, day after day, year after year, until he seems to become almost a part of the machine itself, and is not fitted for doing much else. That is the other extreme. Of course we get things cheaper (even if they do not last so long) because of the factory ; but how about the workman ? Which of these two types is the better-developed man ? First you want to be well- developed all-round boys, so that you will not become machines or badly one-sided men. After that — each to his special bent, of course.

Now because we no longer cut down trees ourselves, haul them to the mill to be sawed, or rive or saw or hew them ourselves, leave the wood to season, and then laboriously work it up into whatever we have to make — because we no longer do that, but go instead to a lumber-yard and a mill and have a large part of the work done for us — it is a good thing for us to pause a moment before we begin our work to take in the fact that all the advantage is not with us now, and to think what a capital gymnasium that former life was for strengthening a boy's muscle and mind, not to speak of his morals.

You could not go back to those days now if you wished to, of course (except, perhaps, when you go to some of the remoter regions in vacation), and you are doubtless better off for all the advantages you have now and for all our time- saving contrivances, but the advantage depends partly on how you use the time saved from their laborious tasks, does

Introductory 7

it not? You can, however, get inspiration from the example of those older boys and from some of their methods, and can put their self-reliant, manly zeal, grit, and perseverance into your work, and have a capital time making the things and more sport and satisfaction afterwards for having made them.

This book does not try to show you a royal road or a short cut to proficiency in architecture, carpentry, cabinet- making, boat-building, toy-making, or any other art or science. It does not aim to cram you with facts, but merely to start you in the right way. It is for those of you who want to take off your coats, roll up your sleeves, and really make things, rather than sit down in the house and be amused and perhaps deluded by reading enthusiastic accounts of all the wonders you can easily do — or which somebody thinks you would like to be told that you can do. It is for those of you who do not wish to have your ardour dampened by finding that things will not come out as the book said they would, or that the very things you do not know and cannot be expected to know are left out.

It does not aim to stir up your enthusiasm at first and then perhaps leave you in the lurch at the most important points. I take it for granted that if you have any mechani- cal bent or interest in making things, as most boys have, and are any kind of a real live boy, you have the enthusiasm to start with without stirring up. In fact, I have even known boys, and possibly you may have, who, strange as it may seem, have had so much enthusiasm to make something or other that they have actually had to be held back lest they should spoil all the lumber within reach in the effort to get started !

What you want is to be told how to go to work in the right way — how to make things successfully and like a work-

8 Wood- Working for Beginners

man — is it not ? Then, if you mean business, as I feel sure you do, and really want to make things, read the whole book through carefully, even if it is not bristling with in- teresting yarns and paragraphs of no practical application to your work. You will not find everything in it, but you cannot help learning something, and I hope you will find that it attends strictly to the business in hand and will give you a start in the right direction, — which is half the battle.

" Man is a Tool-using Animal. ... He can use Tools, can devise Tools ; with these the granite mountain melts into light dust before him ; he kneads glowing iron as if it were soft paste ; seas are his smooth highway, winds and fire his unwearying steeds. Nowhere do you find him without Tools ; without Tools he is nothing— with Tools he is all."— CARLVLE, Sartor Resartus.

CHAPTER II

TOOLS

YOU can do a great deal with very few tools. The bear- ing of this observation lies in " the application on it," as Jack Bunsby would say.

Look at the complicated and ingenious curiosities whittled with a jack-knife by sailors, prisoners, and other people who have time to kill in that way ! Have you ever seen the Chinese artisans turning out their wonderful work with only a few of the most primitive tools ? But of course we can- not spend time so lavishly on our work as they do, even if we had their machine-like patience and deftness acquired through so many generations.

We cannot hold work with our feet and draw saws to- wards us or do turning out on the lawn with a few sticks and a bit of rope for a lathe; carve a set of wonderful open- work hollow spheres, each within the other, out of one solid ball of ivory; and the rest of the queer things the Orientals do: but it is merely a matter of national individuality — the training of hundreds of generations. We could learn to do such things after a long time doubtless, but with no such wonderful adaptability as the Japanese, for instance, are showing, in learning our ways in one generation.

Examine some of the exquisite work which the Orientals sell so cheaply and think whether you know anyone with skill enough to do it if he had a whole hardware-shop full

9

10

Wood- Working for Beginners

of tools, and then see with what few simple and rude tools (like those shown in the following illustrations, or the simple drill, Fig. I, still in use) the work has been done. Mr. Holtzapffel describes the primitive apparatus in use among the natives of India as follows ' :

" When any portion of household fur- \\ niture has tobe turned, the wood-turner

f&M is sent for; he comes with all his outfit

^Sr and establishes himself for the occasion

T at the very door of his employer. He

commences by digging two holes in the

ground at a distance suitable to the length of the work, and in these he fixes two short wooden posts, securing them as strongly as he can by ramming the earth and driving in wedges and stones around them. The centres, scarcely more than round nails or spikes, are driven through the posts at about eight inches from the ground, and a wooden rod, for the support of the tools, is either nailed to the posts or tied to them by a piece of coir or cocoanut rope. The bar, if long, is additionally supported, as represented, by being tied to one or two vertical sticks driven into the ground. During most of his mechanical operations the Indian workman is seated on the ground, hence the small elevation of the axes of his lathe. The boy who gives motion to the work sits or kneels on the other side of it, holding the ends of the cord wrapped around it in his hands, pulling them alternately; the cutting being re- stricted to one half of the motion, that of the work towards the tool. The turning tools of the Indian are almost confined to the chisel and gouge, and their handles are long enough to suit his distant position, while he guides their cutting edges by his toes. He grasps the bar or tool-rest with the smaller toes and places

1 Quoted, by kind permission, from Turning and Mechanical Manipulation,

Tools

ii

the tool between the large toe and its neighbour, generally out of contact with the bar. The Indian and all other turners using the Eastern method attain a high degree of prehensile power with the toes, and when seated at their work not only always use them to guide the tool, but will select indifferently the hand or the foot, whichever may happen to be the nearer, to pick up or replace any small tool or other object. The limited supply of

FIG. 2.

tools the Indian uses for working in wood is also remarkable; they are of the most simple kind and hardly exceed those represented in Fig. 2; the most essential in constructing and setting up his lathe being the small, single-handed adze, the bassoolah. With this he shapes his posts and digs the holes; it serves on all occa- sions as a hammer and also as an anvil when the edge is for a time fixed in a block of wood. The outer side of the cutting edge is perfectly flat, and with it the workman will square or face a beam pr board with almost as much precision as if it had been planed;

i2 Wood-Working for Beginners

in using the bassoolah for this latter purpose the work is generally placed in the forked stem of a tree, driven into the ground as shown in the illustration."

If we are inclined to feel proud of the kind of woodwork turned out by the average wood-worker of this country or England with his great variety of tools and appliances and facilities, we might compare his work with that done by the Orientals without our appliances. Read what Professor Morse tells us of the Japanese carpenter ' :

" His trade, as well as other trades, has been perpetuated through generations of families. The little children have been brought up amidst the odour of fragrant shavings, — have with childish hands performed the duties of an adjustable vise or clamp; and with the same tools which when children they have handed to their fathers, they have in later days earned their daily rice. When I see one of our carpenters' ponderous tool-chests, made of polished woods, inlaid with brass decorations, and filled to repletion with several hundred dollars' worth of highly polished and elaborate machine-made implements, and contemplate the work often done with them, — with everything binding that should go loose, and everything rattling that should be tight, and much work that has to be done twice over, with an indication every- where of a poverty of ideas, — and then recall the Japanese car- penter with his ridiculously light and flimsy tool-box containing a meagre assortment of rude and primitive tools, — considering the carpentry of the two people, I am forced to the conviction that civilisation and modern appliances count as nothing unless accompanied with a moiety of brains and some little taste and wit. . . . After having seen the good and serviceable car- pentry, the perfect joints and complex mortises, done by good Japanese workmen, one is astonished to find that they do their

1 Quoted, by kind permission, from the valuable and entertaining work on Japanese Homes and their Surroundings (copyright, 1885), by EdwardS. Morse.

Tools

work without the aid of certain appliances considered indispens- able by similar craftsmen in our country. They have no bench, no vise, no spirit-level, and no bit-stock; and as for labour-saving machinery, they have absolutely nothing. With many places which could be utilised for water-power, the old country saw-mill has not occurred to them. Their tools appear to be roughly made and of primitive design, though evidently of the best-tempered steel. The only substitute for the carpenter's bench is a plank on the floor, or on two horses; a square, firm, upright post is the nearest approach to a bench and vise, for to this beam a block of wood to be sawed into pieces is firmly held (Fig. 3). A big wooden wedge is bound firmly to the post with a stout rope, and this driven down with vigorous blows till it pinches the block which is to be cut into the desired propor- tions.

" In using many of the tools, the Japanese car- penter handles them quite differently from our workman ; for instance, he draws the plane towards him instead of pushing it from him. The planes are very rude-looking implements. Their bodies, instead of being thick blocks of wood, are quite wide and thin (Fig. 4, D, E), and the blades are inclined at a greater angle than the blade in our plane. In some planes, however, the blade stands vertical;

FIG. 3. — A JAPANESE CARPENTER S VISE. From Morse's Japanese Homes.

1 4 Wood- Working for Beginners

this is used in lieu of the steel scrapers in giving wood a smooth finish, and might be used with advantage by our carpenters as a substitute for the piece of glass or thin plate of steel with which they usually scrape the surface of the wood. A huge plane is often seen, five or six feet long. This plane, however, is fixed in an inclined position, upside down; that is, with the blade

FIG. 4.

CARPENTERS TOOLS IN COMMON USE. From Morse's Japanese Homes.

uppermost. The board, or piece to be planed, is moved back and forth upon it. Draw-shaves are in common use. The saws are of various kinds, with teeth much longer than those of our saws, and cut in different ways. . . . Some saws have teeth on the back as well as on the front, one edge being used as a cross-cut saw (Fig. 4, B, C). The hand-saw, instead of having the curious loop-shaped handle made to accommodate only one hand, as with us, has a simple straight cylindrical handle as long

Tools 15

as the saw itself, and sometimes longer. Our carpenters engage one hand in holding the stick to be sawed while driving the saw with the other hand; the Japanese carpenter, on the contrary, holds the piece with his foot, and stooping over, with his two hands drives the saw by quick and rapid cuts through the wood. This style of working and doing many other things could never be adopted in this country without an importation of Japanese backs. . . . The adze is provided with a rough handle bend- ing considerably at the lower end, not unlike a hockey-stick (Fig. 4, A). . . . For drilling holes a very long-handled awl is used. The carpenter seizing the handle at the end, between the palms of his hands, and moving his hands rapidly back and forth, pushing down at the same time, the awl is made rapidly to rotate back and forth; as his hands gradually slip down on the handle he quickly seizes it at the upper end again, continuing the motion as before. One is astonished to see how rapidly holes are drilled in this simple yet effective way. For large holes, augers similar to ours are used."

When you are obliged to work some day with few and insufficient tools (as most workmen are at times), you will quickly realise how much you can do with very few in case of necessity, and will "more fully appreciate the skill of those Eastern people who do so much with so little. We do not need so many hand-tools for woodwork as our grandfathers and our great-grandfathers, although we make a greater variety of things, because machinery now does so much of the work for us. Wood-workers of fifty years ago had, for instance, dozens of planes for cutting all sorts of grooves, mouldings, and the like, which are now worked by machine at the nearest mill.

Suggestions about Buying. — Do not start in by buying a chest of tools, certainly not one of the small cheap sets. They are not necessarily poor, but are very apt to be. Get

1 6 Wood-Working for Beginners

a few tools at a time as you need them. In that way you will get all you need in the most satisfactory way.

Besides the fact that you can do good work with few tools there are various reasons which make it better to begin with but few. You will probably take better care of a few than of many. If you have thirty chisels on the rack before you and you make a nick in the end of the one you are using, there is a strong chance that instead of stopping to sharpen it you will lay it aside and take one of the remaining twenty- nine that will answer your purpose, and before you realise it have a whole rack full of dull tools. If you have but few chisels, you will be compelled to sharpen them, and so get into the habit of taking proper care of them — not to speak of the time which is often wasted in putting away one tool and selecting another unnecessarily.

The longer you work the more you will get to rely on a small number of tools only, however many you may have at hand for occasional use. After you have worked for some time you will be very likely to have your favourite tools, and find that certain tools do better work in your hands than certain others which perhaps someone else would use for the purpose, and you will naturally favour the use of those particular implements, which is another less important reason for not starting in with too great a variety. I do not mean that you will imagine you can do better with one tool than another, but that you really can do so. That is where individuality comes in — the " personal equation."

Watch a skilful carver at a piece of ordinary work. See how few tools he spreads before him, and how much he does with the one in his hand before he lays it down for another. You would think it would take twenty-five tools, perhaps, to cut such a design, but the carver may have only about half a dozen before him. He gets right into the spirit

Tools 1 7

of what he is doing, and somehow or other he does ever so many things with the tool in his hand in less time and carries out his idea better than if he kept breaking off to select others.

This shows that confidence in the use of a tool goes a long way toward the execution of good work, which is one reason for learning to use a few tools well and making them serve for all the uses to which they can advantageously be put. In short, if you have but few tools at first you get the most you can out of each tool and in the way best for yourself.

Now I do not mean by all this that it is not a good thing to have a large kit of tools, or that you should not have the proper tools for the various operations, and use them. I mean that you should get your tools gradually as you find that you need them to do your work as it should be done, and not get a lot in advance of needing them just because they seem to be fine things to have, or because some car- penter has them in his chest.

Do not place too much reliance on the lists of tools which you find in books and magazines — the " tools necessary for beginners," " a list of tools for boys," etc. Such lists are necessarily arbitrary. To make a short list that would be thoroughly satisfactory for such varied work as a boy or amateur may turn his hand to is about as impracticable as the attempts you sometimes see to name the twenty-five greatest or best men or the one hundred best books. When you can find half a dozen independent lists which agree it will be time enough to begin to pin your faith to them. The most experienced or learned people cannot agree ex- actly in such matters. It depends somewhat, for one thing, on what kind of work you begin with, and, of course, some- what upon yourself also.

1 8 Wood-Working for Beginners

Now while, as we have seen, most wonderful work can be done with the most primitive tools, the fact remains that you are neither Chinese nor Japanese, but Americans and English, and you cannot work to the best advantage with- out certain tools. fc Well, what are they ? Why don't you give us a list to begin with ? That 's what we are look- ing for." Simply because a quite varied experience has taught me to think it better to give you suggestions to help you make the selection for yourselves.

Just as the great majority of boys would agree upon Robinson Crusoe, for instance, as belonging in the front rank of boys' books, but would make very different selections of second-rate or third-rate books, so there are a few " univer- sal " tools, upon the importance of which all agree, such as the saw, hammer, hatchet or axe, and a few others; but beyond these few you can have as many " lists " as you can find people to make them, up to the point of including all you are likely to want. So let your list make itself as you go along, according to your own needs.

It is safe to say, however, that if your work is to be at all varied, such as is given in this book, for instance, you can- not get along to good advantage for any length of time without a rule, a try-square , a straight-edge, a knife, two or three chisels, a hatchet, a gouge, a smoot king-plane, a spoke- shave, a panel-saw, a hammer and nail-set, a bit-brace and three or four bits (tzvist -drills are good for the smaller sizes), a countersink, a few bradawls and gimlets, a screw-driver, a rasp and half-round file for wood, a three-cornered file for metal, an oil-stone, a glue-pot; An excellent and cheap combination tool for such work as you will do can be bought almost anywhere under the name of " odd jobs.1' Of course you will need nails, screws, sandpaper, glue, oil, and such supplies, which you can buy as you need them. A

Tools 19

section (18 inches or 20 inches high) from the trunk of a tree is very useful for a chopping-block, or any big junk of timber can be used.

You will, however, quickly feel the need of a few more tools to do your work to better advantage, and according to the kind of work you are doing you will add some of the following: a fore-plane, a splitting-saw, a mallet, a back-saw, compasses, one or more firmer chisels, one or more framing- chisels, a block-plane, pincers, a gauge or two, one or more gouges, a steel square, a draiv-knife, a large screw-driver, a scraper, a few hand-screws (or iron clamps], a few more bits, gimlets, bradawls, or drills, cutting -pliers or nippers, a bevel, a jointer (plane), a wrench. An iron mitre-box is useful but rather expensive, and you can get along with the wooden one described further on. A grindstone is, of course, essential when you get to the point of sharpening your tools yourself, but you can have your tools ground or get the use of a stone without having to buy one for a long time.

The following list makes a fair outfit for nearly and some- times all the work the average amateur is likely to do, ex- cepting the bench appliances and such contrivances as you will make yourselves and the occasional addition of a bit or chisel or gouge or file, etc., of some other size or shape when needed. This is not a list to start with, of course, unless you can afford it, for you can get along for a good while with only a part, nor is it a complete list, but merely one with which a great amount of useful work can be done to good advantage. You can always add to it for special purposes.

For further remarks about these tools and others and their uses, see Part V., where they will be found alphabeti- cally arranged.

20 Wood-Working for Beginners

i two-foot rule, i try-square (metal-bound). i pair of wing compasses, i marking-gauge. i mortise-gauge, i steel square (carpenter's fram- ing-square), i bevel, i " odd jobs." i chalk-line and chalk.

1 knife.

5 firmer chisels (^", ^*, £*, •§•*,

2 framing- or mortising-chisels

3 gouge's U*,r, i').

i iron spoke-shave (adjustable).

i draw-knife.

i hatchet.

i block-plane.

i smoothing-plane.

i long fore-plane (or a jointer).

i jack-plane.

i rabbet-plane (f or -J" square).

i cutting-off saw (panel-saw,

i splitting-saw (26"). i back-saw(i2"). i turning-saw (14").

An adjustable iron mitre-box this list, and a grindstone is of your grinding done.

A few carver's tools are also afford them, as a skew-chisel (%" veining-tool.

s compass and key-hole saw

(combined), i bit-brace.

3 auger-bits (£*, £*, iff). 3 twist-drills (£', T3/, ±')- A few bradawls and gimlets, i screw-driver for bit-brace, i countersink.

1 hammer and 2 nail-sets.

2 screw-drivers (different sizes). Files of several kinds (flat,

three-cornered, and round for metal, and half-round and round for wood).

i large half-round rasp.

i cabinet scraper and burn- isher.

i mallet.

i pair cutting-pliers.

i pair of pincers.

i wrench.

1 oil-stone and oiler.

2 or 3 oil-stone slips (different

shapes).

1 glue-pot.

2 or more iron clamps.

2 or more wooden hand-screws. 2 or more cabinet clamps (2' to

4')-

will be a valuable addition to use even when you get most of

convenient at times if you can I, a parting-tool (£*), and a small

Tools 21

General supplies, such as nails, screws, glue, etc., specified in Part V., will of course be required.

There are still more tools than those given above, as you doubtless know, but by the time you have become workman enough to need more you will know what you need. Ploughs, matching-planes, and all such implements are omitted, because il is better and usually as cheap to get such work as they do done by machine at a mill. I also assume that all your heavy sawing and planing will be done at some mill. It is not worth while for the amateur to undertake the sawing and planing of large pieces, the hewing and splitting of the rougher branches of woodwork, for such work can be done almost anywhere by machine at very slight expense, and stock can be bought already got out and planed for but a trifle more than the cost of the wood alone.1

Be sure to get good tools. There is a saying that a good workman is known by his tools, and another that a poor workman is always complaining of his tools, that is, excus- ing his own incompetence by throwing the blame upon his tools. There is also another saying to the effect that a good workman can work with poor tools; but it is simply because he is a skilled and ingenious workman that he can if neces- sary often do good work in spite of inferior tools, and of course he could do the same work more easily and quickly, if not better, with good ones.

So do not think that because you sometimes see a skilled workman making shift with poor tools that you are justified in beginning in that way, for a beginner should use only good

1 If you are so situated, as possibly a few of you may be, that you cannot get the benefit of modern methods, but must do all the rough work that your grandfathers did, you will require a few additional tools, but these you can readily select from the descriptions given farther on.

22 Wood-Working for Beginners

tools and in good condition or he may never become a good workman at all, so make your tools and their care a matter of pride. If your tools are of good quality, and proper care is taken of them, they will last a lifetime and longer; so good tools prove the cheapest in the end.1 There are some cases, however, in which it is as well not to buy the most expensive tools at first, as a cheap rule will do as well as an expensive one, considering how likely you are to break or lose it, and a cheap gauge will answer quite well for a good while; but this does not affect the truth of the general statement that you should get only the best tools. There are also quite a number of tools, appliances, and makeshifts which you can make for yourselves, some of which will be described. I advise you not to pick up tools at second-hand shops, auctions, or junk shops, except with the assistance of some competent workman.

Care of Tools. — Keep your tools in good order. You cannot do nice, fine, clean work with a dull tool. A sharp tool will make a clean cut, but a dull edge will tear or crush the fibres and not leave a clean-cut surface. You can work so much more easily and quickly as well as satisfactorily with sharp tools that the time it takes to keep them in order is much less than you lose in working with dull ones, not to speak of the waste of strength and temper.

I assume that you will not attempt to sharpen your tools yourselves until you have had considerable experience in

1 There are many reliable makers of tools. Among them the following can be named, and their tools can be obtained almost anywhere : Saws — Henry Disston. Chisels and gouges — Moulson Bros.; Buck Bros. Planes — Stanley ; Moulson Bros, (plane-irons) ; Wm. Butcher (do.) ; Buck Bros, (do.) Files — P. S. Stubs. Rules and squares, levels, gauges, spoke-shaves, etc. — Stanley Rule & Level Co. Braces — Barber. Bits — Jennings. Knives (sloid) — Taylor. Carving tools — Addis ; Buck ; Taylor.

Tools 23

using them ; for sharpening tools (particularly saws and planes) is very hard for boys and amateurs, and not easy to learn from a book. So, until then, be sure to have them sharpened whenever they become dull. The expense is but slight, and it is much better to have fewer tools kept sharp than to spend the money for more tools and have them dull. When you get to the point of sharpening your tools, one lesson from a practical workman or even a little time spent in watching the operations (which you can do eas- ily) will help you more than reading many pages from any book. So I advise you to get instruction in sharpening from some practical workman, — not at first, but after you have got quite handy with the tools. You can easily do this at little or no expense. For further points, see Sharpening, in Part V.

It is a good plan to soak tool handles, mallets, and wooden planes, when new, for a week or so in raw linseed oil and then rub them with a soft rag every day or two for a while. If you use wooden planes give them a good soaking. They will absorb much oil and work more freely and smoothly. You can save tool handles from being split by pounding, by sawing the ends off square and fastening on two round disks of sole-leather in the way adopted by shoe- makers. If there is any tendency to dampness in your shop the steel and iron parts of the tools should be greased with a little fat, — tallow, lard, wax, vaseline, — or some anti-rust preparation.

Use of Tools. — It is very important to get started right in using tools. If your first idea of what the tool is for and how it should be used is correct you will get along nicely afterwards, but if you start with a wrong impression you will have to unlearn, which is always hard, and start afresh.

24 Wood-Working for Beginners

If you can go to a good wood-working school you will of course learn much, and if you know a good-natured carpen- ter or cabinet-maker or any wood-worker of the old-fashioned kind, cultivate his acquaintance. If he is willing to let you watch his work and to answer your questions you can add much to your knowledge of the uses of the different tools. In fact, so far as instruction goes that is about all the teaching the average apprentice gets. He learns by observing and by practice. Do not be afraid or ashamed to ask questions. Very few men will refuse to answer an amateur's questions unless they are unreasonably frequent. There will be prob- lems enough to exercise all the ingenuity you have after you have learned what you can from others.

But the day for the all-round workman seems to be rapidly passing away and the tendency nowadays is for each workman, instead of spending years in learning the various branches and details of his trade, to be expert in only one very limited branch — or, as sometimes happens, a general botch in all the branches ; so unless you find a real mechanic for a friend (such as an old or middle-aged village carpenter, or cabinet-maker, or wheelwright, or boat-builder, or carver), be a little guarded about believing all he tells or shows you ; and beware of relying implicitly on the teach- ings of the man who " knows it all " and whom a season's work at nailing up studding and boarding has turned into a full-fledged " carpenter."

If you can learn to use your tools with either hand you will often find it a decided advantage, as in getting out crooked work, or particularly in carving, where you have such an endless variety of cuts to be made in almost every possible direction, but " that is another story." A bad habit and one to guard against is that of carrying with you the tool you may be using whenever you leave your work temporarily,

Tools 25

instead of laying it down where you are working. Edge-tools are dangerous things to carry around in the hand and there is also much chance of their being mislaid.

For directions for using the different tools see Part V.

Edge-Tools. — Bear in mind that all cutting tools work more or less on the principle of the wedge. So far as the mere cutting is concerned a keen edge is all that is required and your knife or other cutting tool might be as thin as a sheet of paper. But of course such a tool would break, so it must be made thicker for strength and wedge-shaped so that it may be pushed through the wood as easily as possible.

You know that you can safely use a very thin knife to cut butter because the butter yields so easily that there is not much strain on the blade, but that when you cut wood the blade must be thicker to stand the strain of being pushed through. Soft wood cuts more easily than hard, because it is more easily pushed aside or compressed by the wedge- shaped tool, and it does not matter how keen the edge may be if the resistance of the wood is so great that you cannot force the thicker part of the tool through it.

You will understand from all this that the more acute the angle of the cutting edge the more easily it will do its work, provided always that the angle is obtuse or blunt enough to give the proper strength to the end of the tool ; and also that as the end of the tool encounters more resistance in hard than soft wood, the angle should be more obtuse or blunter for the former than for the latter. Theoretically, therefore, the angle of the cutting edge, to obtain the greatest possible advantage, would need to be changed with every piece of wood and every kind of cut, but practically all that can be done is to have a longer bevel on the tools for soft wood than for hard. Experience and observation will teach these angles. See Sharpening in Part V.

26

Wood-Working for Beginners

FIG. 5.

When you cut off a stout stick, as the branch of a tree, you do not try to force your knife straight across with one

cut. You cut a small notch and then widen and deepen it by cut- ting first on one side and then on the other (Fig- 5)- The wood yields easily to the wedge on the side to- wards the notch, so that the edge can easily cut deeper, and thus the notch is gradually cut through the stick. The same principle is seen in cutting down a tree with an axe. You have only to look at the structure of a piece of wood when magnified, as roughly indicated in Fig. 6, to see why it is easier to cut with the grain than across it.

You can often cut better with a draw- stroke, i. e., not mere-

FIG- 7> ly pushing the tool

straight ahead, but drawing it across sideways at the same time (Fig. 7). You

Tools 27

can press the sharp edge of a knife or razor against your hand without cutting, but draw the edge across and you will be cut at once. Even a blade of grass will cut if you draw the edge quickly through your hand, as you doubtless know.

If you try to push a saw down into a piece of wood, as you push a knife down through a lump of butter, or as in chopping with a hatchet, that is, without pushing and pulling the saw back and forth, it will not enter the wood to any extent, but when you begin to work it back and forth it cuts (or tears) its way into the wood at once. You know how much better you can cut a slice of fresh bread when you saw the knife back and forth than when you merely push it straight down through the loaf. You may have noticed (and you may not) how much better your knife will cut, and that the cut will be cleaner, in doing some kinds of whittling, when you draw it through the wood from handle to point (Fig. 7), instead of pushing it straight through in the common way, and you will discover, if you try cutting various substances, that as a general rule the softer the material the greater the advantage in the draw-stroke.

Now put the sharpest edge-tool you can find under a powerful microscope, and you will see that the edge, instead of being so very smooth, is really quite ragged, — a sort of saw-like edge. Then look at the structure of a piece of wood as roughly indicated in Fig. 6, and you will understand at once just what we do when we cut wood with an edge-tool. You see the microscopically small sticks or tubes or bundles of woody fibre of which the big stick is composed, and you also see the microscopically fine saw to cut them. Now if the edge of the tool is fine you can often do the work satisfactorily by simply pushing the tool straight through the wood, but do you not see that if you can draw or slide

28

Wood-Working for Beginners

the tool either back or forth the edge, being saw-like, will do its work better ?

This stroke cannot be used of course in chopping with the axe or hatchet, splitting kindling-wood, or splitting a stick with the grain with a knife or chisel. In these operations the main principle is that of the wedge, pure and simple, driven through by force, the keen edge merely starting the cut,

FIG.

after which the wedge does the rest of the work by bearing so hard against the wood at the sides of the cut that it forces it to split in advance of the cutting edge, as in riving a log by the use first of an axe, then of an iron wedge, and finally a large wooden wedge (Fig. 8).

Practical directions and suggestions about the different Tools and their Uses and the various Operations will be found alphabetically arranged in Part V.

CHAPTER III

WOOD

BEFORE you can make anything successfully, you must have not merely wood, but the right kind of wood for the purpose. There are, also, " choice cuts " in lumber, as the butcher says of meat, and judicious selection of the stock often makes all the difference between a good job and a poor one ; so let us examine a log and follow it through the sawmill. You have, of course, seen the rings, or circular lines, on the ends of pieces of wood (Fig. 9). These are called the annual rings,1 and each ring marks a new layer of wood added to the tree, for, as perhaps you may have learned, the trees we use for wood-working grow by adding new layers of wood

FIG. 9.

on the- outside. Examine the ends of pieces of wood of various kinds. In some pieces these rings will be very plain. In others they will be quite indistinct.

Notice that the wood nearest the bark, known as the sap- wood, usually looks different from the inner wood, which is called the heart (Fig. 9).

In some trees you will see rays, or lines, radiating from the centre, and known as the medullary rays (Figs. 9 and

1 So called because in the common trees of temperate climes one layer is added each year.

29

Wood-Working for Beginners

10), because they spring from the pith (Latin medulla}.

Sometimes these lines are too fine to be noticed.

You will see from Fig. 10 that the layers of wood are

also shown in the lines of what we call the " grain " on the

surface of a piece of wood cut lengthways, and that the lines of the grain are continuations of the annual rings. You will also notice at the ends of timber, after the season- ing has begun, cracks radiating from

FIG. 10.

FIG. n.

the centre, showing the natural lines of cleavage or separa- tion.

The way the log is sawed is important, though you might naturally think that the only thing is to saw it any way that will give pieces of the required size and shape.

Why is green wood heavier and softer than dry wood, and the sapwood of green timber softer than the heart? Because of the sap or water contained. The amount of water is sometimes even as much as fifty per cent, of the weight of the wood, but the quantity depends upon the kind of tree, the season, etc. Now the more water the green log contains, the more it will shrink. It begins to dry and

Wood

shrink as soon as the tree has been cut down. The sap- wood shrinks more than the heart because it contains more water, and faster because, being on the outside, it is more ex- posed. The log shrinks most in the line of the annual rings, that is, around the tree. It shrinks much less in the line of the medullary rays, that is, across the tree. Shrinkage length- ways is too slight to be considered ' (Fig. 1 1).

The result of all this unequal shrink- ing is that the log tends to split, orcrack open, at the circum- ference (Fig. 12), the cracks running in to- ward the centre, in the line of the med- ullary rays. If the log is halved or quarter- ed, so that the inner parts are exposed, the drying goes on more uniformly throughout, the cracking is not so bad, and the parts of the log will shrink some- what as shown in T-- j FIG. 13.

Figs. 13 and 14.

The beams, joists, planks, or boards cut from a log have

1 Although the shrinkage lengthways is not usually noticeable as affecting the length of a board, it shows slightly by its effect in causing the pieces to spring, or become bowed lengthwise, as you will see in many boards which have been left free to spring while seasoning.

Wood-Working for Beginners

the same tendency to shrink unevenly that is found in the log itself. This causes them to be irregular in shape and to curl or warp more or less, according to the part of the log from which they are taken. A piece cut from the centre of

a log will thus hold its shape better than if cut from one side

(Fig- 15).

When a log is sawed into boards or planks (Fig. 16) the middle board shrinks but little in width and in thick- FlG- I4' ness at the centre,

but becomes thinner towards the edges. It does not curl, because it is cut through the centre of the log and has no more tendency to curl one way than the other. The

FIG. 15. FIG. 1 6.

outside board shrinks least in thickness and most in width, and all, except the middle one, shrink differently on one side from the other. They become convex toward the pith, or heart, and concave toward the outside. Different kinds

Wood

of wood shrink and warp to different degrees. You can learn something about these matters by examining the stock in any lumber-yard.

Now to come to the practical application of our brief study of the log and the sawing process: if you merely wish to get the most that you can from a log in the form of boards or plank,havethepiecessliced off in the simple way just shown (Fig. 17). This is the usual way of sawing for ordinary purposes. Boarding, for the outside of a house, for instance, cut in this way answers every purpose. By this process the central boards will be good and the outer ones inferior,1 as just shown (Fig. 16), but for common work all can generally be used.

If you wish the highly figured i grain a often seen in oak, ash, chestnut, etc., you can get it by sawing the log as just shown in Fig. 17. The figure of the grain will be most marked in the outer boards (Fig. 18), because the annual rings are cut more

1 In addition to the curling, the outer boards will be poorer because they contain a greater proportion of sapwood, which is usually inferior to the heart- wood.

2 By this is not meant the figure or flashes shown by the medullary rays, or "silver grain," seen in quartered oak and some other woods, but the figure of the grain without the medullary rays, as seen \nplain oak, etc.

3

FIG. 18.

FIG. 19.

34

Wood-Working for Beginners

F G. 20.

obliquely in them than in the boards at or near the centre. These boards (Fig. 17) will tend to change their shape, as

just shown (Fig. 19), but if they are to be firmly fastened in some way, or confined (as in a panel), handsome grain effects can be ob- tained.

If you wish the beautiful figure formed when the medullary rays show on the surface of the board, as in " quartered " oak, the log should be cut in the direction of the radii, that is, along the lines of the medullary rays (Fig. 20). The more exactly the side of a board is cut on the radial line the more richly the figure of the medullary rays will be shown, as in Fig. 21. This method of sawing is more expensive than the first way, of course, as it re- quires more labour and wastes more of the wood. The wide board shown in Fig. 21 and either of those in Fig. 22 are examples. If you wish boards that

will shrink the least in FIG. 22. . , . i ,

width and remain as true

as possible, then the log should be sawed on the radial lines as just shown, so that all the boards will be from the middle

Wood

35

of the log. Wood shrinks but little in the direction of the radii, as just shown, and middle boards will be alike on both sides as regards heart- and sap-wood, etc., and, therefore, have the least tendency to change of shape. The middle

FIG. 23.

FIG. 24.

FIG. 25.

board by the method of Fig. 17 will be a good board in these respects.

Various methods of radial sawing, or in which part of the boards are so cut, are shown in Figs. 20 and 26, Figs. 23, 24, 25, and 26 showing the log quartered and various ways

FIG. 26.

FIG. 27.

of sawing into boards. Thus we see that the middle boards, those passing through or near the centre, are the best for most purposes.

Split or rift stock is stronger than sawed. If you wish a piece especially tough and durable, as for an axe handle or

36 Wood- Working for Beginners

a stout pin, it should be split out rather than sawed, unless the wood is very straight-grained, because the splitting is sure to be in the line of the fibres, thus avoiding " cross- grain," which cannot well be entirely prevented in sawing. If the grain is straight, there may be no practical difference in the result between sawing and splitting, as in the so-called rift flooring, which is really sawed, but with crooked-grained pieces the difference is marked in such cases as the block shown in Fig. 27, from which four pins can be sawed, while but one can be split out. That one will be straight-grained, however, and stronger than the sawed ones, which will be cross-grained.

Try your best to get well-seasoned wood for your nice work. If it is not dry before you use it, it must of course dry afterwards, which is likely to cause cracks, warping, opened joints, and often the entire ruin of the article you have made. You will have to trust the dealer, or some friend, until you have had enough experience to judge for yourself, for it is no easy matter for an amateur to decide, except in case of very green stock, which is of course wet and soggy.

There are two ways of drying wood in common use. One is the old-fashioned way (commonly known as seasoning, weather-drying, or air-drying] in which the wood is gradually seasoned by the natural process of exposure to the air (but protected from the weather), that is, letting it dry of itself.

Do not believe the statements so common in books that it " takes lumber " some definite time, as one year or two years, " to season." It all depends on the kind of wood, its shape and size, the condition of the atmosphere, and various circumstances. For some rough work (a pig-pen, for instance) there is no advant- age in seasoning at all, because the stock can just as well dry after the work is done as before. For many kinds of com-

Wood 37

mon work one or two years is sufficient for some kinds and sizes of wood ; for a nicer grade of work two or three years is none too much, while for very nice indoor work four years or more is not too long for the stock to season. There is very little danger of its being kept too long. It never will get perfectly dry (see Ap- pendix). Whether it is dry enough or not depends on what you want it for.

To save time and money the artificial way (known as kiln-drying) of shutting it up in a room and drying it quickly by steam or other heat is now used, and, so far as drying the wood is concerned, this process can do the work well and much more quickly than the old way — sometimes too quickly. It is no exaggeration to say that in factories where cheap furniture and other common articles are made nowadays, a standing tree is felled on Monday, the log rolled into one end of the factory, and before Saturday night the finished articles made from it, all varnished and complete, are sent out from the other end of the shop — and some articles are turned out even quicker.

In the natural process of air-drying the moisture gradually and slowly works out to the surface and evaporates, until the wood is seasoned, though never absolutely dry, and the stock is firmer, more elastic, and less affected by heat and cold, moisture and dryness, than if kiln-dried. The latter process tends to dry the outside and ends of the lumber too fast for the inside. It certainly lessens the elasticity of the wood and weakens it. Making it so unnaturally dry (as if baked), as is often done, only makes it more susceptible to the atmosphere when taken from the kiln, and, unless it is at once protected from the air in some way, it will reabsorb moisture until it gets into a more natural condition ; but that will not fully restore the loss of elasticity (see Appendix). The deterioration in the quality of the wood can be plainly

38 Wood-Working for Beginners

seen by any wood-worker, and is often a subject of remark in regard to oak.

The kiln-drying " takes the life out of the wood," as work- men express it, but just why this is so is not easy to ex- plain, for the structure and properties of wood are very complex. I have seen too many illustrations in my own experience and that of others to have any doubt of the fact, however, and lumber left for years to season naturally, " stands," as the expression is, better than if kiln-dried — a fact which is, I think, generally conceded by wood-workers who have had experience with both kinds.

The gain by kiln-drying, in time and money, is, therefore, more or less offset by impairment of the quality of the wood, so if you can find stock that you know has been seasoning for years by the natural process, buy it by all means for your nice work, even if you have to pay more, regardless of what the dealers in kiln-dried stock or the makers of articles for sale may tell you about the advantages of kiln- dried wood.

On the other hand, if a dealer brags of his new patent " chain-lightning " dryer that will make green wood "dry as a bone " in two or three days, go elsewhere to buy your stock, for wood dried in a few days is not the kind to use for good work. You will probably have to use kiln-dried stock for most, or, perhaps, all of your work, but get it from a slow-drying kiln and keep it for further seasoning as long as you can.

Even if wood has been well seasoned, it is best, before put- ting it into nice work, to cut it up and dress it approxim- ately to shape and leave it in a dry place for some time for a final seasoning, particularly in the case of thick stock. Do this with kiln-dried stock fresh from the dry-house. Let it have a little time to get into harmony with the atmos-

Wood

39

phere. Whenever wood has been exposed to damp air, as in a wet shed or cellar, let it stand in the warm shop a while before using it for nice work.

The stock is arranged for seasoning so as to allow the air to circulate around and between the pieces. A common way is simply to arrange them in piles, each piece being separated from those above and below by strips or sticks laid across (Fig. 28). These sticks should be placed directly over one another, and so that the lumber will lie

FIG. 28.

straight, else the weight of the pile, which should tend to make the pieces dry straight, will have the opposite effect and make them permanently crooked. There are other ways of arranging wood for drying, but this method is common and illustrates the most important principles. Stock is sometimes stacked upright, and small pieces are occasionally hung up for such nice work as billiard cues and bows.

Seasoned wood is lighter in weight than green, dryer to the touch, usually has a different odour, cuts differently when you whittle it (and the piece you whittle off breaks differ- ently), and it shows a difference when you saw it. It is impossible to define these differences and you will have to learn them by actual work. It is not always easy even for

40 Wood-Working for Beginners

an experienced person to tell with certainty about some pieces until he has " worked " them, so much do the charac- teristics of different pieces vary. One test is to rap the boards sharply with a hammer. A green board and a dry one of the same kind will " rap " differently, — that is, will have a different vibration and give out a different sound. Of course this cannot be described, but you can judge quite well in this way. It is one of the many things you can learn only by experience. You can ascertain much about the character and condition of lumber by sawing or planing or whittling a piece. This is a good test for dryness, toughness, and elasticity (which you can tell about by breaking the shavings).

Weather-dried timber is usually somewhat darkened from exposure, but kiln-drying lightens the colour of some woods.

Stock with a bright lustrous appearance and of dark hue is generally superior to that of a lighter colour and duller appearance, but such characteristics depend much upon the kind of wood. Green wood is tougher than seasoned wood, but the latter is more elastic. To subject seasoned wood to moisture and heat brings it back, to a certain ex- tent, to its original condition, and renders it for the time being tougher, hence the process of bending wood by the application of steam or hot water (see Bending in Part V.).

Reject " wany " lumber, or that of which the edges or corners have not been squared (Fig. 18), and also boards and planks which have not been sawed to a uniform thickness. It is not uncommon for a board to be considerably thinner than it should be in some part of its length, due to irregular- ity in sawing.

For plain work avoid " cross-grained " stock, as well as that having knots (which are sometimes " tight " and some- times " loose "), as it is harder to work and to smooth, is not

Wood 41

as strong, and does not hold its shape as well, as a rule. Sometimes it is desirable, however, on account of the beauti- ful figure of the grain shown in many crooked-grained pieces, as in mahogany for furniture (see Appendix). Bear in mind that when especial strength is required rift stock is best. Reject wood which smells musty, or has rusty-looking spots,

FIG. 29.

which are signs of decay, or of the attack of fungi, which may spread and under favourable conditions attack other pieces which are sound (see Appendix).

Reject crooked stock. The worst form is rvinding or twisting. Of course no one would take such an extreme case as Fig. 29, unless for some very rough work, but even a very slight winding may make much trouble in your nice work. So look particularly for this defect, which you can often detect at once by the eye, but if your eye is not well trained use winding-sticks (see Part V.). Warped or curled stock, with the surface rounded or hollowed (Fig. 19), is also bad, but you will need no instructions to detect this defect

FIG. 30.

by the eye or any straight stick. When boards are rounding on one side and hollowing on the other, it is due either to the way the log was sawed, as we have seen, or to one side having been more exposed and so having dried faster and shrunk faster than the other, causing that side to be concave, while the other became convex. Stock is sometimes crooked

42 Wood-Working for Beginners

lengthways, — either a simple bending in a curve or at an angle, or wavy (Fig. 30), or both, — often due to careless "sticking" (Fig. 28) while the wood was green. Sighting lengthways will of course show these defects.

Reject stock badly checked at the ends, or cracked. There is apt to be more or less of this in most lumber. In season- ing, the pieces dry faster on the outside than in the middle, which causes checks or cracks, usually worse at the ends of the pieces, where the drying takes place most rapidly. The ends of valuable boards and planks are sometimes painted or cleated, which in a measure prevents this result. Occasion- ally, when the cleat is removed a crack will suddenly extend and even split the board.

Do not take a cracked or partly split board, thinking that you can use the sound end from the point where the crack appears to stop. Possibly you can, but oftentimes and in some kinds of wood it is impossible to tell before the stock is cut where the cracks end. In mahogany, for example, they sometimes are found to extend, or develop, several feet beyond where they appear to stop. Sometimes you can buy wood with such defects at a discount. Unless you are sure, however, that there is enough sound, clear wood out- side of the cracks or knots, and unless the discount is pretty large, it will usually be better to buy clear, sound stock for nice work, as the waste is very apt to offset the saving, not to speak of the extra time and labour it takes to work up such material. (See Shakes in Appendix.)

Reject sapwood as far as possible, because it is usually inferior to the heartwood.

In the case of elm and young ash the sapwood is, however, superior to the heart. The heartwood is usually harder and more durable than the sapwood, heavier, of better texture, and com- monly of better colour.

Wood 43

" The sapwood is, as a rule, darker in the whitewood class than the heartvvood, whether seasoned or unseasoned, but is paler in colour in most hardwood trees which have had time to season. In some of the white, or softer woods, when fresh cut, the differ- ence is scarcely perceptible ; but exposure to the air quickly gives to the outer layers a greenish tinge, due to a species of mould fungi which attack them." — LASLETT and WARD. (See also Appendix.)

When buying, do not take boards just as they happen to come from the pile. Select them yourself. Most good- natured dealers will let you do this if you do not expect them to unstack a whole pile just for one or two boards. It is better to do this for nice work even if a slight charge should be made for the privilege. When you come to pick out boards you will see the application of what has been said about the ways of cutting the log, and you can tell by the annual rings at the ends of the boards, by the sapwood (when visible), the grain, etc., from what part of the log the pieces were sawed.

Use good, clear stock for everything but rough work. Of course in rough or temporary work you can save expense by using wood from packing-cases, boxes, old fence-rails, or anything that will serve the purpose, but as a rule avoid try- ing to make nice, new things of wood taken from old work or boxes. The quality of the wood used for boxes nowa- days is apt to be poor and hard to work. The wood taken from old cabinet-work is, however, often better than you are likely to buy, but you need to be very cautious about working over old material, for the dirt which has been ground into it is apt to dull your tools, and, moreover, the presence of con- cealed nails, etc. (which it is sometimes almost impossible to detect), will often injure your tools so much as to more than offset what you save in expense,

44 Wood- Working for Beginners

Do not buy thick stock with the idea of sawing it into thinner pieces (unless necessary). Of course it can be sawed into thinner or smaller pieces, but you cannot always be sure that these will be as true as the original stock. Suddenly exposing the middle of a piece of wood to the air in this way sometimes plays queer pranks with the shape of the pieces (see Appendix). If you want to use boards for good work buy those which have seasoned as boards, instead of splitting up thicker lumber ; and always try to treat both sides of a board alike so far as you can.

Bear this in mind: If you take an inch board to the mill to be planed down to three eighths of an inch, for instance, have it planed equally, as nearly as may be, from both sides. Ignorant hands often simply smooth off, or " surface," one side, and then plane the board down on the other side, when it will sometimes warp badly at once and be useless, perhaps, for the purpose intended.

If you carefully pile and " stick " the stock you have bought (Fig. 28), it will tend to keep the pieces straight and true. Never lay good boards down flat directly upon one another unless they are thoroughly seasoned. It is the best of all ways, however, to keep a pile of thoroughly seasoned stock, but not the way to season it. The top board will warp. Never lay a single board of nice stock flat on its side. Keep short pieces of nice stock standing on end where they will be equally exposed on both sides to heat and cold, moisture and dryness.

The best way to learn about any kind of wood is from the wood itself. It is a capital idea to make a collection of specimens of as many kinds as you can.' You will be sur-

1 The forests of North America, exclusive of Mexico, are now believed, ac- cording to Sargent, to contain four hundred and twenty-two species of plants, besides numerous varieties, which can fairly be considered trees.

Wood 45

prised to see how varied, interesting, and handsome a collec- tion you can make at little or no expense. (See Appendix.) The kinds of wood which you are likely to use are commonly known as either hard or soft, the former class from trees with broad leaves, as the oak, the latter from the coniferous or needle-leaved trees, as the white pine. This dis- tinction between hard and soft wood you may find somewhat puzzling at first, for the common whitewood of the hardwood class you will find softer and easier to work than hard pine of the softwood class, but the distinction is based on botanical reasons. The hard woods are usually more durable as well as stronger than the soft. For various woods see Appendix.

Timber. — The word timber is applied in a general way to the log and to the material itself, and to the standing trees. It is also applied more specifically to the larger squared pieces, or " dimen- sion " stock, such as sills, beams, etc.

Lumber. — As the term is used in the United States, lumber consists, according to Webster, of " timber sawed or split for use, as beams, joists, boards, planks, staves, hoops, and the like."

Lumber may be either undressed or dressed, that is, rough (as it comes from the saw) or planed. It is usually sawed in regular thicknesses, and for stock which is in steady demand, such as joists, floor timbers, etc., in regular widths, as 2 " x 4," 4 " x 6 ", etc. It is commonly sold in lengths varying from 10 feet to 20 feet. Twelve feet is a common length for boards. Planing (by machine) rough or undressed boards on both sides will usually reduce the thickness of an inch board to about seven eighths of an inch. Other thicknesses will of course be reduced correspondingly. Bear this in mind. The terms I " board, 2 " plank, etc., apply, as a rule, to the stock in the rough state as it comes from the saw. When you buy planed or dressed lumber it will be thinner — that is, the

46

Wood- Working for Beginners

" inch board " that you wish to get for a shelf will not be one inch thick (unless you get it unplaned), but seven eighths of an inch.

FIG. 31.

You must make allowance for this when you figure on dressed lumber. If for example the board must be one inch thick when

planed, you will have to get a thin plank and have it planed down, or pull over the pile until you find a board which hap- pens to be sawed as thick as one inch and one eighth. You can sometimes find boards planed one inch thick, but as a rule you will find the thickness seven eighths of an inch. A similar statement will apply to the various thicknesses of planks also. The sawing is often very irregular, however, and frequently some boards or planks will run thick enough in sawing to give the required thick- ness when planed, so it is well to look for such when you need pieces a little thicker than planed stock usually runs.

For such work as you are likely to do you will chiefly need boards, planks, and joists. Other forms will be referred to farther on.

Boards. — These are one inch thick or less.

Matched-boards, or " sheathing," have a groove on one edge and a corresponding tongue on the other (Fig. 31.) Any number of boards can thus be joined to make a wide surface. The edges of these boards were formerly tongued and grooved by hand

Wood

47

with " matching-planes," but now this is done by machine, usually with some form of bead or moulding at one edge (and sometimes in the middle) to render the joint less noticeable.

Planks. — These are thick boards, — more than one inch in thickness. Both planks and boards can be of any width or length, the distinction being merely in thickness.

Joists. — These are the same as narrow planks, but of some

FIG. 33.

fixed width, as 2 * by 3 *, which is the same as a 3 " strip sawed from the edge of a 2 " plank.

Most of the lumber you will require is sold by the square foot, at so much an M (1000 feet), or so much a foot. The square foot has an area of 144 square inches and is one inch thick, or contains 144 cubic inches, regardless of the shape or size of the piece. That is, Figs. 32, 33, and 34 each equal one square foot by board measure.

Thus a board 12' long, 12" wide, and i" thick, contains 12 feet, board measure. A board 12' long, 6" wide, and i" thick, con- tains 6 feet. A plank 12' long, 12" wide, and 2" thick, contains 24 feet. A plank 12' long, 6" wide, and 2" thick, contains 12 feet, or the same as the board first mentioned. You can bear in mind that in case of boards 12' long the contents in feet is indi- cated by the width in inches, as you will see from the examples

48 Wood- Working for Beginners

just given. A board 12' long and 7* wide contains 7 square feet. So all you have to do to measure 12' stock is to find the width in inches. If the board tapers in width, measure at the middle. The same is true of planks, only the width in inches must be multiplied by the thickness of the plank. A plank 12' long, 7" wide, and 3* thick, contains 21 square feet. Of course this prin- ciple can be quickly applied to pieces whose length is any conven- ient multiple or fraction of twelve. Thus a board 18' long, 8" wide, and i" thick, contains i\ times as many square feet as one 12' long, or 12 feet. A plank 9' long, 6" wide, and 2" thick, contains f as many square feet as if 12' long, or 9 square feet.

Boards less than one inch thick are usually sold by the square foot of surface, regardless of thickness — the price varying according to the thickness, except in cases where an inch board is planed down, when, of course, inch thick- ness is charged for. There is no distinction made in measur- ingbetween a rough board i" thick and a planed board |", as, of course, they represent the same amount of lumber. The cost by the foot of the planed board is greater because of the expense of planing. In cities, and sometimes in the larger towns, you can find thin boards (£", f", £", T3T", £" thick) already planed, and even scraped, for nice work.

Some of the rarer and less commonly used woods are often sold by the pound, as ebony, leopard wood, tulip wood, etc. Pieces turned out in quantities for special uses, as strips, mouldings, etc., are often sold by the " running foot," meaning simply the length, the price varying according to the amount of lumber and labour required. Certain regular sizes and shapes of lumber are sold by the hundred or by the piece. Shingles, clapboards, laths, and the like, are sold in bunches or bundles.

For other matters relating to wood, see Appendix.

CHAPTER IV

WORKING DRAWINGS, LAYING OUT THE WORK, AND ESTIMATING

Working Drawings. — A simple drawing will often give you a better idea of an object than you can get from any de- scription in words, for drawing is not only a very ancient form of language but one readily understood by people of all countries and all times. It is one of the chief tools of a workman in these days, so of course the quicker you be- come familiar with it the better, for the day for " rule-of- thumb " work and feeling one's way along step by step is fast giving way to the guidance of the working drawing, which shows one not only exactly what is to be made but exactly how to make it.

When you wish to make some particular thing, you should begin by making rough sketches to -express your idea, and from them an accurate working drawing in which every de- tail and measurement is clearly given. Make all your work- ing drawings carefully to scale (see Appendix), and whenever you can, make them full size. Do not guess at the height, width, and length, but measure, and measure very carefully. Never mind if it takes time. Learn first to do it right, and practice will soon teach you to do it more quickly.

The time to make changes in your plans is when you are making the drawings — particularly the rough preparatory sketches. Making the drawings will, if you make them com- plete and accurate, show you what you know and what you

49

50 Wood-Working for Beginners

do not know about the subject. The working drawing should be complete and final.

Begin the making of sketches and detailed drawings with the first article you make, no matter how simple it may be. You can go about the work with confidence, which goes a long way toward success, when you know that you have thought it out to the end and have it all done on paper. For practical suggestions about working drawings, see Ap- pendix.

Laying out the Work. — Try to get the measurements and lines exact, and do not be satisfied with coming within an eighth of an inch. You cannot do good work unless it is laid out right, and cutting exactly to a line will do no good if the line is in the wrong place. It makes no difference how accurately you saw off a board if you have marked it half an inch too short, nor how nicely you make the two parts of a joint if you have laid them out so that they can not fit together. The work is spoiled in either case.

Go over all your measurements a second time. It is a good plan to check them by measuring back in the opposite direction, just as you prove your addition of a column of figures downward by adding again upward. Nothing is easier than to make mistakes in measuring. No amount of experience will prevent the chance of it. It takes but little time to measure twice, much less time than to correct mis- takes— as you will discover when you cut off a mahogany board five inches too short and have to go half a mile to the mill and pay a dollar or two for a new piece.

In getting out stock for nice work it is best to make plenty of allowance for the pranks which expansion and contraction may play with the pieces (see Appendix). How to arrange the various parts of your work with regard to this swelling and shrinking, warping and winding, is a matter of practical

Laying Out the Work 5 1

importance, for a piece of wood can no more keep still than an active boy can, and, although its movements do not cause so widespread havoc as the motions of some boys, you will have to keep a careful eye on its actions if you wish to turn out good work.

This applies not merely to the way green wood shrinks, as we have already seen, but particularly to the way seasoned wood acts. Many people think it is only green wood that causes trouble with wood-work, but there is much difficulty with dry wood — that is, what we call dry wood. It never is really absolutely dry, except when it is baked, and kept baked (see Appendix). The moment you take it out of the kiln or oven, it begins to take up some of the moisture from the air, as we have seen, and swells. If the air be- comes more damp, the wood sucks in more moisture and swells more. If the air becomes dryer, it sucks some mois- ture from the wood, and the wood becomes dryer and shrinks. It is thus continually swelling and shrinking, ex- cept in situations where the amount of moisture in the air does not change, or when the wood is completely water- logged.

" What does such a little thing as that swelling and shrink- ing amount to? Use more nails or screws or glue and hold it so tight it cannot move." Well, it amounts to a good deal sometimes when you cannot open the drawer where your ball is, or a door or a window, without breaking something.

In the days of high-backed church pews with tall doors to every pew, each pew door would swell in damp weather, of course, and in continued dampness the doors of a certain church fitted quite snugly. There was usually no special trouble, how- ever, for, many of the doors being open, the pew frames would give way a little so that the closed doors would open with a slight

52 Wood-Working for Beginners

pull ; but if all the doors were shut the whole line would be so tightly pressed together that it would take the utmost strength of a man to start a door. Some boys one day catching on to this idea (though they were not studying wood-work), got into the church one Sunday morning before service and by using their combined strength succeeded in closing every door. They then climbed over the top into their own pew, where they awaited de- velopments, as one after another sedate churchgoer, after a pro- tracted struggle, finally burst open his pew door with a ripping squeak or a bang. You will understand that those boys always remembered the expanding power of wood. I feel sure that I am not putting any boys up to improper mischief in telling this story, because pews are not so often made in that way now, and there is slight danger of their having any chance to try it.

Did you ever see stone-workers split big rocks by drilling a row of holes and driving dry wedges into them and then wetting the wedges, when the stone will split?1 Do you think nails or screws or glue will stop a force which will do that ? You cannot prevent the swelling and the shrinking any more than you can repress a boy's animal spirits. You may be able to crush the wood, but so long as it remains a sound, natural board it must swell and shrink.

What shall you do then ? Why just the same as with the boy ; give it a reasonable amount of play, and a proper amount of guidance, and there will be no trouble. You must put your work together so as to allow for the expan- sion and contraction which you cannot prevent. You will find abundant examples, in almost every house, of work

1 The peculiarity of the wood is that the water is not simply drawn in to fill up what we call the pores, as in chalk or any ordinary porous inorganic substance, but enters into the very fibre of the body, forcing apart the minute solid particles with an extraordinary force which does not seem to be fully un- derstood.

Laying Out the Work .53

which has split or come apart or warped because proper allowance was not made for this swelling and shrinking. So try to avoid these errors so common even among workmen who should know better.

For instance, if you were to put cleats on one side of a drawing-board three feet wide, and were to firmly glue the cleats for their whole length (Fig. 35), — you sometimes see such things done, — you would probably not have to wait many weeks before you would hear a report like a toy pistol, and the cleats would be loosened for at least part of their length,

because of the expansion or contraction of the board. Similar cases are continually occurring. In such cases the cleats should be screwed, the screws having play enough in their holes to allow for the changes in the board (see Appendix).

You must also make plenty of allowance for planing down edges and surfaces and for the wood wasted by sawing. No rule can be set for these allowances. If you do not leave enough spare wood, the pieces will finally come out too small. If you leave too much you will increase the amount of planing or shaping to be done, but of the two extremes it is better to err on the side of allowing too much.

A rod (any straight stick), say six feet long, and another ten or twelve feet long, with feet and inches marked, are very handy to have when laying out work roughly, or for measur- ing outdoor work approximately.

Lay out your work from only one edge or one surface

54 Wood- Working for Beginners

of a piece of lumber unless you are sure the edges or surfaces are exactly parallel. Having selected the best edge for a " working edge" and the best surface for the " face," mark them with an X or other mark to avoid mistakes (Fig. 36). This is quite important in laying out a number of pieces, as before the stock is accurately worked into shape you cannot usually rely on the edges being parallel. One mark like a V as shown in Fig. 36 will indicate both the working edge and the face.

Estimating. — You must, of course, learn to make your estimates yourself, often a very important preliminary.

V

FIG. 36.

Prices vary, and you cannot always rely on other people's estimates for your own work. It is a matter of simple arithmetic and of making correct allowance for waste and incidentals.

You can always get the prices easily. Figure the amount of wood required, the number of square feet (see page 47) of each kind, or running feet, as the case may be, and multi- ply by the price a foot ; but after this comes the allowance for waste, etc., which cannot usually be figured exactly, but must be estimated.

For instance, if you wish to make a double-runner, with a seat ten feet long, the board from which to make it will very likely be twelve feet long, in which case you must, of course, buy the whole board. Perhaps you can use the two feet left over some- where else on the sled, perhaps part may be checked or injured.

Estimating 55

There is almost always some defective wood (worthless, except for fuel) ; some pieces are too short or small to be of use ; and very often some quite good-sized pieces are left over, which, so far as the particular job is concerned, are waste, — that is, you must buy them in order to get enough. Such pieces can be used on other work, and are not really wasted in the end.

Just how much to add to the number of feet to cover waste varies, of course, with every job. Some people add a fixed per cent, to their measurements or calculations, which, although not exactly correct for any one job, strikes an average for a good many. It would not be easy to state any such per cent, for the varied work you will do, but the main thing to bear in mind is that you must make a liberal al- lowance. Just so with the other materials. Remember to allow for waste and for unforeseen extras. Even with ex- perienced people things are very apt to cost more than the estimate.

Make a neat schedule to take to the lumber-yard or mill, specifying the kinds and dimensions of the stock required.

CHAPTER V

THE WORKSHOP

IF you have a place where you can build a workshop you will find one described in Part III. If not, try to find a well-lighted shop, both on account of your eyes and your work ; one that is dry, or your tools will rust and your work be injured ; and one that can be heated, for there will be no time you will wish to use it more than on cold, stormy days.

As a rule, an outbuilding is better than a basement or attic, other things being equal, because a basement is liable to be damp and dark, and an attic is bad about carrying ma- terials and finished work up- and down-stairs. Noise in the top story of a house is usually more disturbing to the occu- pants than noise in the basement ; but all these conditions vary in different places.

Have a lock on the door of your workshop, partly to keep small children from getting cut if they should come in with- out leave, and partly to prevent your work being interfered with in your absence and the edge-tools used for various domestic purposes by your feminine relatives, who might, in their innocence, mistake your best gouge for a tack-puller or the quarter-inch chisel for a screw-driver.

Of course you will have overalls and jumper or a work- man's apron made of denim, ticking, or some strong cloth. If you use an apron, have a pocket in it. A small slip of a pocket on the outside seam of your overalls above the right knee is also useful for holding a rule. When you have a

56

The Workshop

57

long job of dirty work before you, a good way i» to change your clothes for any " old duds" that you may have. This saves your clothes, and in warm weather is more comfort- able and healthful than to wear overalls.

Your shop can be all fitted up for you by a carpenter, but it will be better, and better fun, to do it yourself. After the workshop itself is ready the first important thing is the work-bench.

The Work-Bench.— A very simple one (Fig. 37) will answer your purpose for a long time. When you become a

FIG. 37.

pretty good workman and feel the need of something better (for a first-class bench with the best attachments is really a great help toward doing good work), you will still find this first simple affair very useful in some part of your shop.1 There is no need of a bench being made of stock of exactly the dimensions given, so if you have a pile of boards and joists to draw from without buying, you can, of course, substitute other-sized pieces, provided you use stock heavy enough

1 If you can afford to buy one ready made, you cannot do better than to begin with such as are sold for sloyd or manual-training schools, but do not get a very small one unless you are only going to do very small work. Get one as large as you can afford. A second-hand bench can often be bought for a small sum, but be sure that it is firm and steady.

58 Wood- Working for Beginners

to make a firm bench. Heavier legs and top (front board) would be better, and in fact there is little danger of making a bench too solid.

Before beginning to work read carefully Marking, Square, Rule, Saw, in Part V., and look up any other references.

The design is for a small bench, 5' 10" long, 2' wide, and 2' 6" high. A larger one can be made on the same principle. ' You will require for stock :

i piece of 3" X 4" joist 10' long.

i board, -J* thick, planed, 12" wide, 12' long.

i " " " " 10' " 12' "

i " " " " 10*. " 6' "

i plank, i^" or 2" thick, planed, 5' or 6" wide, 2' 9* long.

i strip, |* to -J* thick, 3" or 4* wide, 15* long.

Pine is good, and almost any cheap wood can be used. Hem- lock is not very suitable, unless for the legs. Spruce is cheaper than pine or whitewood, and can be used for economy, but is prone to warp and twist and should be thoroughly nailed.

First make the legs and fasten them together. To do this,

1 The reason for making this bench 5' 10" long, instead of cutting a 12' board into two lengths of 6' each, is that it is hard to get boards sound and square at the ends, and so it is best to allow a few inches for waste. Of course your bench can be of any desired length. Six or eight feet is suitable for ordinary work, but there is no objection to making it as much longer as your space and material will admit. The height should bear a proper relation to the height of the workman. No definite height can be given. Try moving a plane back and forth. If your right elbow, when holding the plane, is slightly bent and your back about straight, the height will be not far from right. Do a little simple work at a table, trying different heights, and you can soon tell what will be satisfactory. If the bench is too low, you cannot manage your work well and your back will get tired from bending over, not to speak of becoming round-shouldered. If the bench is too high, it will be hard to manage your work, you cannot plane well, and your arms will be tired from holding them up unnaturally high. A bench for heavy work like carpentry is usually rather lower than one for cabinet- or pattern-making, while a carver's bench is usually higher.

The Workshop

59

take the joist and lay it on two boxes or old chairs (Fig. 38), which you can use temporarily for horses, until you make a pair. See whether either end is cut off squarely. If neither is, mark a line by the square a short distance (perhaps half an inch, according to the condition of the end of the joist) from one

FIG. 38.

end, on one side of the joist. Carry this line around the joist by applying the square to each side successively, and saw off the waste end with the cross-cutting saw. Having one end square, measure from that end 2' 5* and mark a line around the joist as before. Saw this piece off, and using it as a measure (but not as a square), mark and saw off three more pieces. These are for the legs.

Next, from the short 10" board, mark and cut off two pieces

FIG. 39.

i' 10^" long in the same manner (Fig. 39), seeing first that the end from which you begin to measure is square. You do not need to mark the under side of the boards, but only the top and the edges. Now square a line i* from each end of each of these 3hort boards, and start three nails on each of the lines by driving

60

Wood- Working for Beginners

them nearly through the board (Fig. 40). (See Nailing.} Next, place the end of one of these boards on the narrow side of one

FIG. 40.

FIG. 41.

of the legs, and, holding it firmly in position, nail it securely to the leg. You must take pains to keep the leg and the cross- piece " square." Nail only one nail first and then adjust, testing with the try-square before driving the other nails (Fig. 41). Then nail the other end to another leg, and repeat the process with the other board and the remain- ing legs. This will give two frames like Fig. 42.

Next, fasten the sides to the legs. Take the io* board and mark and saw off two FIG. 42. pieces 5' 10" long in the same way as be-

fore (Fig. 43). At distances of 7" and 12" from each end of each board, mark lines across the side with the square and start

FIG. 43.

nails between these lines (Fig. 44). Then, fitting these lines at the outside edges of the legs, nail the sides securely to the legs,

The Workshop

61

as shown in Fig. 45. But drive only one nail through into each leg at first, until you are sure that the frame is coming together square and true throughout. Test the angles with the square.

FIG. 44.

Stand the frame on as level a surface as you can find and sight across the top endways and crossways to see if either corner

FIG. 45.

sticks up or down. If the top is not true, twist the frame enough to make it so, which you can easily do if you have but one nail

62 Wood-Working for Beginners

in each corner. When the top is true and the legs at right angles, drive in the rest of the nails (Fig. 45). Be sure to test the top for winding, as just said (see Part V.), rather than to trust to the way the legs stand on the floor. Floors are often uneven, and the legs may not be cut exactly the same length. Make the top true and the legs can easily be made to fit the floor after- wards. The piece of 10" board left over you can fit to slip in between the sides, as in Fig. 45. If you nail through the sides and top into this piece, it will stiffen the bench. In

FIG. 46.

FIG. 47.

FIG. 48.

making a long bench after this pattern, it is well to insert a few pieces of plank or joist between the sides in this manner.

Next, put on the top. Cut two lengths of 5' 10" from the 12" board. Lay them in position, square lines across as guides for the nails (as before), and nail them down to the legs and cross-boards. Also drive carefully a few nails at the edge down into the sides of the bench. Sink all the nail-heads well below the surface (as much as ^") with the nail-set (see Nail- Set}.

A better bench can be made by using a plank (say a 2" plank, planed) for the front of the top (Figs. 46, 47, 48). This bench with plank front is much better than the common carpenter's bench just described, and the difference in ex-

The Workshop 63

pense is but slight. It is easier to do good work on, as it is stiffer, steadier, and much better to pound on.

Of course a thicker plank can be used if available. Hard wood is best. Maple is excellent for a bench-top. Take par- ticular care to select a good sound plank, from the centre of the tree if you can (see Chapter III.), as straight and free from wind- ing as possible, and have it planed so as to be straight and true. This can easily be done at any properly equipped planing-mill.

To make this bench with a plank in front, you can proceed exactly as with the bench just described, except that the front legs should be as much shorter than those at the back as the plank you have is thicker than the %" board used for the top of the bench just described. That is, if your plank is i-J" thick the front legs should be i" shorter than the back ones. Pieces must be cut out of the cross-boards in order that the top may be even (Fig. 46).

The simplest way, however, is to make the bench just like the preceding one until you come to the top. Then, after putting on the front plank, raise the back top-board to be flush with the plank, instead of lowering the plank to be flush with the board. You can do this by putting small pieces of board of the required thickness under the back part of the top (Fig. 47).

Some workmen prefer having the back board of the bench top lower than the front by an inch or so, with a strip fastened on the back, and sometimes at each end, so as to be level with the top of the front plank, thus forming a sort of tray (Fig. 48) where tools, nails, small bits of work, etc., can remain when in use, keeping the front plank clear for the actual operations. The work, if large, can be rested on the back strip as well as the front part, both being on a level.

The bench can be all filled up underneath with shelves, drawers, cupboards, compartments, or in any way that you wish, but at first, and for a simple bench like this, it is as well to have only one shelf, as shown in the frontispiece. You can

64 Wood-Working for Beginners

easily put this shelf in after the bench is put together. You can tell better whether you want drawers and compartments after you have worked for some time and wish to make a more com- plete bench.

A nice bench should, of course, be built independently of the shop, — that is, be complete in itself, so that it can be readily moved. But a common bench can sometimes be

FIG. 49.

best built against the wall, using the side of the building to support the back. Sometimes one or both of the ends of the bench can be advantageously carried to the walls of the room, thus requiring legs only in the middle or at one end. But such arrangements are not to be advised if you are likely to wish to move the bench before you have used it enough to pay for making it.

Figure 49 is merely suggestive. The process of construction is the same as already shown, except that you omit some of the legs and the back side-board, a saving sufficient to allow you to use a plank for the front of the top. As the floor is likely to be uneven, you can first saw the posts a little too long, stand them in line, stretch a cord or a chalk-line (see Chalk- Line) along the line of the front edge of the bench at the proper height for the tops of

The Workshop 65

the posts, cut the posts off where this line crosses them, nail on one end of the cross-boards at right angles, and then fasten the other end to the wall-studding, sighting and testing to have the top straight and true, as in the case of the bench already described. If instead of vertical studding the joists of the wall run horizontally

FIG. 50.

(as is often the case), you can easily nail cleats on the wall if there is no horizontal timber at the right height to nail to.

Bench-Vise. — The kinds shown in Figs. 50, 56, 57, though not as good as some more improved forms, are in common use by carpenters, and will answer your purpose very well for ordinary work — until you get to the point of building a first-class bench.

66

Wood- Working for Beginners

At a distance of about 14 " from the end of the bench and in the middle of the side board mark the point a (Fig. 45). Bore a hole at this point (see Boring] if you have a bit a trifle larger than the screw of the vise. If not, using this point as a centre, describe a circle (see Compasses) with a diameter a trifle greater than that of the vise screw, and remove the wood within the circle (see Boring and Paring^) Now take the piece of \\" or

2 * plank which is to make the

/-• --9-~-yy movable jaw of the vise, and mark a

line lengthways along the centre of FIG. 51. each side (Fig. 51). At a distance

of about 8 " from one end mark a point upon this centre line and make a hole for the vise screw as before. The nut for the screw must now be fastened in position on the inner side of the bench, the vise screw passed through the movable jaw and the side board, and the handle plate fastened upon the face of the jaw. FIG. 52. You can now open and close

the vise by the screw, but the mov- able jaw needs to be made steady and the end projects above the top of the bench. Screw the vise tight together and slide the movable jaw around until it is in the position shown in Fig. 52, when the centre line on the back side of the jaw will cross the edge of the leg a few inches from the floor, according to the width of the jaw and the degree of slant given it. When the jaw is in this position, mark from the back side the lines indicated in Fig. 52, and saw off the projecting ends of the jaw by these lines, which will give the shape shown in Figs. 37 and 50.

Next take the small strip, and marking points upon its side as shown in Fig. 53, bore holes with a f* or \" bit. Screw the end of the strip to the edge of the movable jaw (being careful to get it at right angles with the vertical edge of the jaw), as shown in

The Workshop

Figs. 50 and 53 (see Screws). strip crosses the post of the thicker than the strip) so that it will pass easily be- tween them. Cover these with a longer piece, making a slot, as shown in Fig. 53, through which the strip can slide freely. If the two

Just above and below where this bench nail small blocks (a trifle

FIG. 53.

FIG. 54. RIGHT. FIG. 55. WRONG.

blocks are no thicker than the strip, you can put pieces of paste- board between them and the post to make the slot wide enough to let the strip slide through freely. Fit a pin or piece of dowel to the holes in the strip. The use of these holes and the pin is to keep the face of the jaw approximately parallel to the side of the bench. Contrivances for this purpose can be bought. After the jaw is all fitted, bevel or round the edge on the face side at the top (see Bevelling], and you can also bevel or round all the front edges if you wish. The vise is now in working order.1

FIG. 56.

1 This vise is fitted slanting, so that the slide at the bottom comes on the outside of the leg and at the same time in the centre line of the movable jaw in line with the screw, A common form has the movable jaw upright, the sliding

Wood- Working for Beginners

The important point with this vise (and in fact with any vise) is to have the inside surface of the jaw parallel with the surface of the side of the bench, so that the wood will be pressed equally at all points, else it will slip just when you wish it to be securely

FIG. 59.

FIG. 58.

held. Be sure that the vise is not open more at the top than at the bottom (see Figs. 54 and 55).

The holes bored in the side of the bench are to support the end of a long board (Fig. 50).

If you cannot afford to buy a vise, or have to work where there is none, there are a number of makeshifts with which you can get along quite well, though not as rapidly or conveniently.

bar being mortised into it and sliding through a mortise cut in the leg, as shown in Figs. 56 and 57. If you wish to make this kind, study Alortising, in Part V., and lay out and cut the mortise in the leg before nailing the cross-board to it (Figs. 41 and 42). This is the most difficult part of the bench to make nicely, and you can spend a good deal of pains upon it. If you have not yet the proper tools to make this mortise you can mark it out and have it cut for a very small sum at a wood-working mill or shop. When nailing the cross-board upon the legs, bear in mind to put this leg in the right place. Fig. 58 shows a simple arrangement with an additional post, or two posts can be put together and one half the notching done in each (Fig. 59).

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69

Carpenters often nail a piece on the side of the bench (Fig. 60), which holds boards for planing fairly well, for common work, but tends to bruise the ends of the boards a little against the cleat, and requires a knife, or something, driven in at the other end of the boards to hold them with any degree of security. Another cheap substitute is

shown in Fig. 61.

This holds boards of regular sizes quite well. Thin pieces can

be held tighter by wedging, as shown.

Another sim- ple contrivance,

and more of a

vise, is easily

made by boring

a couple of

holesin a board,

say 6 * wide and

12" long, and

screwing it loosely to the side of the bench (Fig. 62), making

the holes in the board larger than the diameter of the screws so

that it will be free __ to play. By insert- ing the piece to be

FIG. 61.

FIG. 62. FIG. 63.

held in the end and double wedging the opposite end (Fig. 63)

;o

Wood-Working for Beginners

the piece will be held fairly well (see Wedges). For thin boards, blocks can be inserted to make the jaw parallel with the side of the bench. An upright vise made on this principle

x - - ^-—— is often used to hold saws for filing.

>^L=__l^g:— __!__ • IT If you can find an old wooden

^=-' hand-screw, you can use one jaw (sawing off the ends if necessary) for the nut to go inside of the bench, leavingthe other for the movable jaw, using one screw to tighten or loosen the FIG. 64. FIG. 65. vise and the other to

keep the jaw parallel with the side of the bench. You will re- quire no description to contrive something of this sort. Vises on somewhat this principle can be bought, attachable and detach- able at will.

The jaw in Fig. 64 can be hinged upon the strip at the bottom and the latter fastened to the side of the bench. The jaw can then be tightened or loosened by the screw. This gives a square grip only when the jaw is vertical (Fig. 65). You can put in blocks, however. The longer the jaw the less objectionable the slanting grip becomes, of course.

Always try to devise some such expedients, which you can think up for yourself, when you are without the regular ap- pliances, for even a poor vise is better than to hold pieces in the hand or to push them against chairs or tables or the wall.

For nice work by far the best "vise of -moderate cost is that shown in Fig. 143, which has been in use for a long time by wood-workers of the better class.

There are a number of excellent iron vises (some with jaws of wood, and also with an " instantaneous grip "). Some of them are admirable, but quite costly compared with the common screw.

The Workshop 71

You can work quite well with a good-sized common iron vise by fitting wooden blocks or leather or rubber to the inside of the jaws, to save marring your woodwork, though a regular vise for wood is much to be preferred.

Bear in mind when doing work that requires to be held at unusual angles, or in fashioning odd-shaped pieces, that you can usually get the angle or position required by a combina- tion of hand-screws or clamps with the bench-vise as sug- gested in Figs. 66 and 67.

FIG. 66. FIG. 67.

Bench-Stop. — You must have something on the forward end of the bench-top to push your work against for planing and other operations. A simple and good way is to use one or two stout screws (Fig. 68). These can be screwed in so as

FIG. 68. FIG. 69. FIG. 70.

to project about a quarter of an inch, which will answer for the greater part of your work, and the height can be changed when necessary with the screw-driver, The heads of the

Wood- Working for Beginners

screws will be sharp enough to hold the work, and a stop of this kind will answer your purpose very well for common work. The wooden stop (Fig. 69) has the advantage of not making any nicks in the end of the wood, which is important in nice work, such as furniture, but for common work screws are just as good, except that, as they are left permanently sticking from the bench, you may dull your tools against them or scar your work. This applies to a common bench. Of course for a really nice bench with a tail-screw the regular stops should be used (Fig. 143).

Carpenters sometimes nail a small piece of board, with a V-shaped notch at one end, to the top of the bench to hold boards or joist for planing on the edge (Fig. 70). Sim- ply nailing a strip

FIG. 71.

FIG. 73.

across the end of the bench (Fig. 71), and setting the nails well in, will do to push boards against for planing for common work.

Iron contrivances (which can be raised or lowered) can be bought for a small sum and are convenient for common work, especially for thin pieces. Sink them deeply enough in the bench- top so that when lowered nothing will project to injure the tools or the work.

The old-fashioned bench-stop shown in Fig. 69 consists merely of a square stick of hard wood, one or two inches square, fitted quite tightly to a hole in the top of the bench, so that it will slide up or down by a blow from the mallet or hammer. This stop will not damage the work or the tools. To make the mortise for this bench-stop, see Mortising. Take care to keep within the lines, so as not to make the hole too big. You can easily make it larger if too small.

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73

The stop should fit tightly and should be set with a very slight slant toward the work (Fig. 72), — that is, the mortise should be cut slightly slanting. The stop should be of hard wood, such as maple. If the top of the bench is only of board thickness, screw

FIG. 74.

cleats of hard wood on the under side to give more bearing sur- face (Fig. 73), or the continued pushing against the stop will be liable to get the hole out of shape so that the stop will slant the wrong way, when the work will be apt to slip or, in case of a thin board, jump over the stop (Fig. 74). If the stop wears loose in the hole, a saw kerf is sometimes made lengthways in one side and a bent piece of springy wire inserted, or a flat spring fastened on the side (Fig. 75). A loose stop can r_^. easily be wedged

FIG. 75. FIG. 76. FIG. 77.

(preferably from underneath), and it is sometimes made loose on purpose, the wedging tightening the stop and at the same time giving the required slant (Fig. 72). An iron plate with teeth can be screwed on top of a wooden stop (Fig. 76), or a screw can be inserted (Fig. 77).

Two strips, like Fig. 78, can be nailed or screwed on the top of the bench so as to separate V-fashion (Fig. 79). Two wedges,

74

Wood- Working for Beginners

like Fig. 80, can then be made of such a taper that when fitted between the strips their inner faces will be parallel. By tapping in the wedges on each side of the work to be held (Fig. 79), it will be securely fastened without injury. If the inside edges of the strips and the outside edges of the wedges are slightly bevelled, which you can do with a plane or a knife, the wedges cannot jump out of place. The best way to fit this con- trivance is to make the wedges first, place them in position on the bench with the square sides inside (facing each other), and then fasten the fixed strips outside of them. Pushing the work tends to tighten this vise. This is much better for permanent use than

FIG. 78.

FIG. 79.

the notched board shown in Fig. 70. If you have a good vise you will not often have occasion to use such contrivances, but they are sometimes useful as makeshifts.

The top of a good bench should be as true and as smooth as possible (see Plane and Scraper). Rub it with linseed oil, wipe it off with a rag, and after a few days give it a couple of coats of shellac (see Finishing).

You should place your bench so that when you stand at it you will face the light and not have it come from behind you. If it can come from the forward end of the bench and also from behind the bench, as shown in the frontispiece, it will be best, for a

FIG. 80.

The Workshop

75

cross-light is often very useful, not merely that you may have light enough, but also that when testing your work with the try-square, straight-edge, and the like, any inaccuracy may be detected by the light passing through the crack be- tween the testing tool and the work, and also when sighting by the eye alone. Fasten the bench firmly to the floor (and wall if you can) with screws, cleats, or L irons. '

Avoid chopping on the bench top or whittling it or boring holes or marring it by saw-cuts or chisel- marks. Do not use paint, varnish, or glue at the bench if you can help it. If necessary to do so, clean the bench-top carefully when you get through. Lumps of hardened glue will hinder you and deface your work.

Filing-Bench. — Yon cannot do much of such varied woodwork as you will undertake without having to do a good deal of metal work. It is a poor plan to do such work at the vise you use for your woodwork, or even at the same bench. It scars and defaces the wooden vise and the bench, and the particles of metal are bad for your woodwork and for the tools. It is much better to have another bench — if nothing more than a wide shelf or a box — for such work (Fig. 81). You will find suggestions in the illustrations.

An iron vise is the proper thing for holding metal. There are many different kinds at various prices, but one of the simple patterns will probably answer every purpose. If you

FIG. 81.

1 In case your bench is in the house and you wish to deaden the sound and vibration from your work you can put rubber cushions under the legs.

76

Wood- Working for Beginners

have room for only one bench this vise can be put at the

back part of one end.

A small vise can be made of a hand-screw, the hand-screw itself

being held in any desired position in the large bench-vise, but metal jaws are better for working on metal. You can make a rough sort of vise for metal-work with a piece of stout board or plank (Fig. 82). Find a couple of pieces of iron with screw holes, as you can probably do in a pile of waste iron junk, and screw them on the board and

FIG. 83.

FIG. 84.

the bench to form metal jaws. The vise can be tightened or loosened by means of a big screw or bolt ; or the board can be loosely fastened in the middle and tightened by wedging below (Fig. 83). A screw with a handle to turn it by and a nut for the thread is better, of course. Another form, such as you will find in use by leather-workers, can be easily made (Fig. 84), and works

The Workshop 77

with the foot, the connection between the jaw and the treadle being made by a strap or rope. You can make a vise in some of these ways that will answer quite well for most of the metal- work you will have to do for some time, although such con- trivances are less reliable and less convenient than a regular iron vise.

An anvil is often useful and is sometimes combined with a vise. It should have a flat steel surface and also a tapering rounded (conical) point. An old flat-iron does quite well. You can easily find some way to keep it in position on the filing-bench. You should have some sort of anvil, even if nothing better than a junk of old iron (which you can of course find somewhere), for you will be continually wanting to straighten nails, bend wire, and pound pieces of metal. Try to find a flat plate of thick sheet iron — \ " thick if you can — to fasten on the top of the filing-bench (Fig. 81). It is very handy for many anvil uses, straightening metal and nails, and for much pounding.

Finishing-Bench. — Have also a finishing-bench (Fig. 91) if possible, — if nothing more than a shelf or box, — to keep the regular work-bench neat and clean for its proper uses, for even a skilful workman can hardly avoid making a mess when it comes to using paint and varnish.

Now, while there are many of you who can afford either singly or by two or three clubbing together to fix up a shop in first-rate style, there are also many who cannot afford even so cheap a bench as that just described. What can you do in such a case? Only one thing — patch up a bench out of whatever old stuff you can find. Patched-up makeshifts are not to be recommended, except in case of necessity, but when it comes to the pinch, and a matter of having a bench made of whatever old materials you can find or having no bench at all, by all means make one of boxes

Wood- Working for Beginners

and anything that can be worked in. For of course the boats, skis, squirrel-houses, and so on, must be made !

But, whatever you patch up, make it solid and strong. Do not try to work at a rickety, shackly apol- ogy for a bench that shakes and jumps and sidles all over the room every time you saw or pound or plane. You can probably get all you need in the way of boxes, packing-cases, and such material, at very little FlGt 8s> or no expense. The illus-

trations (Figs. 85 and 86) are merely suggestions, for you must use your own ingenuity, according to the materials you can find. Most experienced workmen have often been obliged to work at much worse benches than these, frequently with no bench at all.

Those of the boxes which you do not use whole you should take apart carefully (see Withdrawing Nails). This will add to your supply of nails. Use nails freely in fastening the boxes and boards together and to the wall or floor wherever allowable, strength.

FIG. 86. A few screws will add much

The Workshop

79

The bench shown in Fig. 86 calls for one good board for the front of the top.

Some of you live in the crowded parts of the city, in flats or small houses where there is no possible chance for a shop of any kind. Whatever woodwork you can do must be carried on in the kitchen, or some other living-room, where even a small bench may be out of the question. Still you would like to make

such small work — model boats, for instance — as can be carried on in such limited quarters. If you are forced to use the kitchen table for a bench, try, for the first thing, to brace or block or screw it to make it steady, for unsteadiness is the greatest hindrance to doing good work at such a bench.

You can fit a good board to the table-top with cleats, and a stop to hold the work (Fig. 87). If you can now get a common iron vise, you can get along quite well for small work, and the board and attachments can be quickly taken off and put away when the table is needed for domestic purposes. You can easily

contrive some way to attach wooden pieces or leather or rubber to the inside of the jaws of the

FIG. 88. vise'. t0 save

marring your

woodwork. A fairly good bench can often be made from an old table (as a kitchen table) by screwing a plank on top and a board

8o

Wood-Working for Beginners

on the front side, and bracing the legs (Fig. 88). The plank should be screwed on from underneath.

If you can get hold of an old bureau or chest of drawers you can arrange a serviceable and compact little " parlour shop" for small work. If you cannot fasten permanent attachments to the bureau, you can fit a removable board (Fig. 87), and you will be equipped for such work as can be suitably done under such circumstances — and that includes quite a long list of small things. The drawers can be fitted with compartments and trays, accord-

FIG.

FIG. 90.

ing to what you have to keep in them and your own ingenuity, but make the arrangement simple. Figs. 89 and 90 are merely suggestions.

The best way to arrange your tools and supplies depends somewhat upon the circumstances, but the main point is to have the most convenient place for each thing and always to keep it in that place when not in use. The first part of this proposition is almost as important as the last. It is nearly as bad as being disorderly to keep the glue-pot in one corner of the shop, the glue in another corner, the glue-brush in the third corner, and the water in the fourth, — which is no exaggeration of the way some very orderly people stow away things, and is about equal to the arrangement of the person, of whom you may have heard, who always kept everything in its place and that place the floor! The workshop interior shown in the frontispiece and in Figs. 91 and 92, and the various other illustrations, furnish sugges- tions which may help you in the arrangement of your shop.

The Workshop

81

Have everything where you can lay your hand on it in the least possible time, the tools used the most the nearest to you, tools that go together, as bit-brace and bits, kept near together. Have all the common tools right within reach, and not put away in chests and out-of-the-way drawers, just because you have seen somebody pack away his tools

FIG. 91.

in a highly polished chest, inlaid with forty kinds of wood, and containing ninety-three separate compartments and trays and seven secret drawers, the whole cornered and strapped and decorated with shining nickel plate ! Do not bedazzled by that sort of thing, which is not an evidence of true system and orderliness, but merely shows poor taste and a great lack of appreciation of the value and importance of time. Time may not be exactly money in your case, but it may be even more valuable, and can be spent much better than in running around after tools and supplies, and making

6

82 Wood-Working for Beginners

ingenious tool-chests. To be practical, five minutes a day saved by having things convenient and in place means about twenty-five hours in a year — which means a boat, a sled, or a lot of Christmas presents. So study out the best arrange- ment for your particular shop and then keep things in order. When working keep only the tools in actual use lying around

on the bench. As soon as you are done with a tool for the operations actually in hand, put it back in place, and so avoid the confused litter seen in so many shops.

Hang saws against the wall on pegs, or nails, or at the end of the bench. Hang all tools which you put on the wall well above the bench, to be out of the way.

'L.^.j planes on their sides or ends, for obvious reasons, or arrange a little block to raise one end of the plane slightly from the surface of the bench or shelf. The last way is usually more convenient than to lay the plane on its side or

The Workshop

end. Keep planes either at the back of the bench or against the wall, or on a shelf under the front of the bench.

Such tools as squares, bit-braces, and the like are usually most accessible on the wall, in some such arrangement as shown in the front- i sp iec e . A con- v e n i e n t way to arrange such tools as chisels, gouges, and the like, is to keep them in racks either against the wall or fastened to the back edge of

the bench, accord- ing to circumstan-

FIG. 93.

ces. Keep each tool in a particular place in the rack and you will soon learn to reach for it instinctively without any

waste of time.

Bits can be kept in a drawer or box, care being taken to ar- range them in racks or between partitions, or they can be stuck on end in the racks at the back of the bench. A good way is to stick each bit point downwards in a hole bored by itself. Various FlG- 94- forms of tool-racks, which you

can easily arrange for yourself, are suggested in Fig. 93.

Fig. 94 shows a rack to fit on the back of the bench, an excel- lent way, in common use with movable benches. Get a board,

84

Wood- Working for Beginners

FIG. 95.

say 3* or 4" wide and the length of the bench, a strip from %' to %" thick, perhaps i" wide, and the length of the bench, and a strip y^," thick, perhaps i" wide, and perhaps two thirds of the

length of the bench. Saw from this last strip a number of blocks from i" to 2" long. Arrange these along the top edge of the board, ac- FIG- 95. cording to the

kinds and sizes of the tools, as shown in Fig. 95. Then lay the long strip on them (Fig. 96) and nail it through each block with wire nails long enough to reach perhaps two thirds through the large strip. You can put this rack together by first nailing at each end. Then all the intermediate blocks can easily be fitted in place and nailed one at a time. The whole can then be screwed to the back of the bench so that the tools will be at the back (Fig. 94). You can make part of this rack solid and bore small holes of various sizes for bits, gimlets, nail-sets, and such tools, which would drop through the

larger spaces. „ , ' , , FIG. 97. FIG. 98.

Good metal tool- racks and -holders can be bought, but the home-made ones answer every purpose.

The large steel square can be hung very well with nails

The Workshop 85

or small blocks of wood bevelled toward the wall (Fig. 97). For the try-square nail a rectangular block against the wall (Fig. 98). A smaller block nailed in front will hold another smaller square. Slanting saw-kerfs in another block will hold scrapers (Fig. 99). Always keep your oilstones in shallow boxes for protection from dirt. You can easily make one, or cut a depression in a block to fit the stone, with another for a cover. Fasten one end of your strop to a strip of thin board (Fig. 100) with a hole by which to hang it. You can then use the strop lying flat on the board or loose in your hand for curved edges.

Do not keep nails and screws after the usual domestic fashion, — all sizes, shapes, and kinds mixed up promiscuously with a lot of

metal rubbish and carpet tacks in

r FIG. 99. FIG. 100.

some old box or pail. You will

waste twice as much time trying to find what you want as it takes to keep them in separate boxes, or trays with divisions. A good way is to use either small open boxes or flat open boxes with divisions, so that they can be reached as conveniently as possible. Tin boxes or canisters or pails (of various sizes), such as cocoa, coffee, lard, and such substances come in, are good. Put labels on them and arrange them neatly in some accessible place, as on a shelf over or at the end of your bench, or in a cupboard or a drawer.

Keep scrap boxes for old pieces of metal (iron, brass, etc.? in separate boxes), so that you will know just where to look for what you want. Keep a brush for cleaning off the bench and the work, a broom for the floor, and a box for shavings, sawdust, and chips.

86 Wood-Working for Beginners

Any workman is liable to cut or pound his fingers, so have a small box in a handy place with some neatly rolled bandages of cloth, some surgeon's plaster, and a bottle of witch-hazel (hamamelis) or some other preparation for cuts or bruises. In case of a bruise, or if you pound your nail, put your finger at once in as hot water as you can bear. Do not, as is often done, put glue on a cut, because of danger of infection, for the glue is made, as you know, from animal refuse and is not always in a pure state.

Do not leave oily rags lying around in your shop to get wadded into a pile in some corner and catch fire by spon- taneous combustion. Either put them in the stove at once, or, if you want to keep a few, put them in a stone jar or covered tin box. Matches should always be kept in a covered metal box in a wood-working shop.

Lay in a supply of strips, waste junks, and odd pieces of wood, which you can usually get at any shop at little or no expense. They will be very useful until you accumulate a stock from your own work.

Chopping-Block. — A good solid chopping-block is a great convenience, so watch for a chance to get a section of a tree, which you can often do when one is felled.

Straight-Edge. — You should have at least one ; two are very useful — one two or three feet long and another five or six feet long. Making them is simply a matter of skill in plan- ing. When you can plane well enough make some yourself of well seasoned, straight-grained white pine or mahogany, or other wood which holds its shape well. Until you can do it accurately, however, get some good workman to make one, for a straight-edge that cannot be relied on is really worse than none at all. (See Straight-edge.)

Bench-Hook. — The bench-hook (Fig. 101) is very useful to

The Workshop

hold work firmly for sawing, planing, etc., and also saves some marring of the bench-top. Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, and Plane, in Part V., and look up any other references.

Take a board, say 15" long x 6" wide, of some good wood like

FIG. 10 1. FIG. 102.

white pine, making both ends square. The surface should be planed true (see Truing Surfaces). With the square mark the line a b (Fig. 102) accurately, say 2" (or the width of any blocks you may already have for the end cleats) from each end, but on opposite sides. The cleats c (Fig. 101) must be true and the edges square. Bore the holes in the cleats with a bit a little larger than the screws (see Boring). Hold the cleats exactly in place at the cross-line a b and start holes in the board with a gimlet or bit a little smaller than the screws. Countersink the holes (see Countersink). Use screws long enough to get a good hold* on the board but not long enough to go through it If board and cleat are each $" thick, \\" screws will be suitable. Screw one of the middle screws in each cleat firmly '1G' I03'

to a bearing (see Screws), keeping the cleat as nearly on the line as possible. Adjust each cleat exactly in place, in case it has slipped, hold it firmly, and drive the remaining screws. Before screwing on one of the cteats mark a line around it in the middle with the square, as shown in Fig. 103, marking first across the

88

Wood- Working for Beginners

edge o (against which the work is to be pressed), from that line squaring across the top, and then across the outer edge. After this cleat is screwed on, carefully saw it in two exactly on the line. By letting the saw run in the kerf thus made, you can cut pieces off square. Sometimes one cleat is made shorter, so that you can saw clear through a piece without damage to the See Mitre-board, page 92. Two bench-hooks

FIG. 104. bench (Fig. 104).

are useful for long work.

Horses or Trestles. — These are to lay stock on for mark- ing and sawing, to put large work to- gether on, and are convenient for var- ious uses (Fig. 105).

FIG. 105. Before beginning

work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, and Saw, in Part V., and look up any other references.

The proper height for your horses, as for the bench, depends somewhat on your own height, and may be anywhere from 18" to 2 3*. Experiment with boxes to find the most convenient

height. If too low, you will have to stoop over too much. If too high, it will be awkward to rest your knee on a board, to saw, and to fit work FIG. 106. together.

If you have a piece of fairly good joist, from i£* x 3* to 3" x 6", you can use it for the tops of your horses. Saw off two pieces from 2' to 3' long. Mark the best sides for the top. Mark each end like Fig. 106 (showing top and bottom) with the pencil, measuring carefully so that the bevel or slant will be the same for both legs (see Bevel}. Holding the work in the vise, with saw

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89

FIG. 107.

FIG. 108.

FIG. 109.

alone or saw and chisel remove the pieces marked, so that the end will have the shape shown in Fig. 107. If you use the chisel, look out for the direction of the grain at each corner and cut well outside of the line, until you find which way to push the tool in each case (see Paring, etc.). Trim these cuts as ac- curately to the lines as you can. Get out eight pieces for legs, of such a length that the horses will be of the height decided on. First make them all of a width, then saw one piece off the right length and mark the others by it — not each new piece by the one last marked. Nail or screw these legs in place with 2" nails or if* screws, keeping the inner edges of the tops of the legs even with the tops of the horses (Fig. 108). See Nailing and Screzvs, and look out for splitting. Get out the cross-braces of board and saw the ends at a bevel to correspond with the slant intended for the legs. See that the ends of these cross-braces are cut at the same bevel. Use the bevel if you have one. If not, first square each end with the square and pencil, and then measure carefully equal distances

on one edge before drawing the slanting lines (Fig. 109). Nail or screw these on (Fig. no), adjust- ing the legs to the bevels just cut. Saw or plane off the projecting ends of the legs on top. If you plane, do so both ways to avoid splintering (see Plane}.

Now stand the horses on their legs (Fig. in). If they should FlG- IIJ- happen to stand firmly and evenly,

see first if it is not due to unevenness of the floor. If the floor is true, and they stand steadily in different positions, you can throw

FIG. no.

90 Wood-Working for Beginners

up your caps, for you will have beaten the average workman.

To make them stand B^ evenly, see Scribing,

FIG. 112.

FIG. 113.

Winding-sticks, etc., in Part V. Make the tops of the horses as smooth as you can. Scrape them and keep them scraped (see

Scraper], for you will be continually

dropping glue or varnish on them, to

harden and deface

your nice, smooth

work. Wipe them off

as carefully as the

bench-top. These

easily made horses will

answer your purpose FIG. 114. for a long time.1 FIG. 115.

Mitre-Box. — Great care is necessary to make an accurate wooden mitre-box (Fig. 1 16), although the process is simple. Do not make it of spruce or any wood liable to warp or twist. Pine or mahogany is good. Use stock from a mid-

1 Fig. 112 shows a nicer pair of horses. Take two pieces of pine, or any wood not likely to warp, 2" x 3" (or 4") x 2^' or 3', mark with rule, square, and gauge (see Gauge), and cut with saw and chisel the shallow gains (Fig. 113) for the legs. Make them the same depth at the top as at the bottom (Fig. 114), and clean them out as accurately to the lines as you can. Get out eight legs, and regulate their length as before. Saw the upper ends on a bevel (Fig. 114) corresponding to the slant they are to have. Nail or screw them in place. You can glue the joints for additional strength. Fit on cross-pieces and finish the work as described above. If you ever need horses for very heavy work you can make the legs of plank or joist with the tops cut like Fig. 115.

The Workshop

FIG. u6.

die board if you can (see Chapter III.). A mitre-box can be of any desired size.

Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, and Plane, and look up any other references.

A good size is from i' to 2 long and from 3* to 6" square (inside), according to the work for which it is to be used, and of stock •§" thick. The pieces must be prepared with care, so that the edges shall be square and the surfaces true, particularly on the inside, for when the box is put together the sides must be parallel and square throughout with the bottom, on the inside. Test each piece with the square. Use care in screwing the sides to the bottom to keep them exactly in place (see Screws). Nails can be used, but screws are better. Lay out the lines for the sawing from the inside, with the steel square if you have one, or with the end of the tongue of the try-square. Mark the line a on the inside of the side x (Fig. 117), squaring from the bottom. Mark the point b at a distance from a just equal to the distance between the sides. Square a line at this point from the bottom, on the in- side as before. Carry this line across to the side y, squaring from the inner surface of the side x, and mark the point c on the inner side of the side y. Also from the point c draw a vertical line on the inside of y corresponding to the line a. Carefully mark the line g h, which will give the mitre. The lines should be laid out from the inside, because it is against the inside surfaces that the pieces to be cut in the mitre-box will bear.

FIG. 118.

Wood- Working for Beginners

Another way is to square a line m n (Fig. 118) across the top side of the bottom piece, before putting together, and to lay off from one end of this line a point o on the edge, at a distance equal to the width of the bottom, thus fixing the points m, n, and o. Next fasten on the sides, square upright lines on the inside of one side from the point m and on the inside of the other side

from the point o. The diagonal line/ q (Fig 119) will represent the mitre.

FIG. 119.

FIG. 120.

The cuts for the saw to run in should be made with a back- saw or a panel-saw. In a similar manner square on the inside two upright lines opposite each other, draw a line across the tops of the sides to meet these lines (squaring from the inside as be- fore), and make a saw-cut, as shown by the middle line in Fig. 116. This will be very useful to saw strips squarely across.

You can put buttons on the outside near the lower edge to catch against the front edge of the bench-top if you wish, or use the mitre-box on the bench- hooks when necessary to hold it firmly.

A very useful mitre-board for sawing strips, mouldings, and the like, can be made with two short boards, one wider than the other, being sure that the surfaces and edges are true and square (Fig. 120). This can be of any size. A good size is from i' to 2' long, 6" wide (in all), and of stock f" thick, but it is better to

FIG. 121.

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93

make the narrow piece thicker, perhaps i^f or if". Mark the lines first on the bottom of the narrow piece, then on the edges, and lastly on the top, as with the mitre-box just shown, to ensure the lines being at the correct angles with the surfaces against which the wood to be sawed will rest. An excellent plan is to make saw-kerfs for mitres in the cleat of a bench-hook (Fig. 121), in the way just shown.

Shooting-Board. — This is useful for squaring edges and small surfaces and ends with the plane, and for jointing edges,

FIG. 122.

^ij 1 1 i.'i

FIG. 123.

the plane being pushed forward on its side (see Shooting- board, in Part V.). It can be of any wood which holds its shape well. Clear white pine or mahogany is good. If carelessly made it will be of but little use. The stock must be planed free from winding. Several forms are shown in Figs. 122, 123, and 124.

Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in Part V., and look up any other references. The construction is plain (Fig. 122). Approximate dimensions are given, Fig. 122 being made of \" stock, Fig. 123 of \" and \" stock, and Fig. 124 of -J" stock. Screw the pieces together from

94

Wood- Working for Beginners

the under side (see Screws). See tha.t the stop or cleat a is put on at right angles to the edge b. Mark the lines for this accu- rately with knife or chisel. A groove is sometimes cut for this stop, but this is a refinement that is not at all necessary if you

FIG. 124.

do your work well. This board must have a rabbet or groove cut out of the upper piece, as shown, to give room for shavings. In Fig. 123 the top board overlaps the ends of the cleats a trifle, which (with the spaces between the cleats) allows the escape of the shavings. Arrange some way to hold the board firmly on the bench. Care is necessary in using the shooting-board not to plane slices from your left hand. Guides, to attach to the plane to ensure square edges, can be bought and used instead of the shooting-board. Some of them are serviceable, particularly those

adjustable at various angles.

A mitre shooting- board (Fig. 1 25) is also useful. It requires to be made with even more care than the board just given, but on the same principle. The angular stop or

stops must be fitted FIG. 125. . . ,

to make the angles ex- actly 45°. A sawed mitre holds glue better than a planed mitre, but sawed mitres often require trimming with the plane to get a perfect fit.

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95

Form for Rounding Sticks. — You will be continually wanting to make sticks eight-sided or round. A form to hold the pieces for planing is a great convenience.

Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Gauge, Plane, and Nailing, in Part V., and look up any other ref- erences.

Take two strips and plane off (or even chisel or whittle) one corner of each, first gauging lines equidistant from the corner for a guide. Then nail the two strips together, with the bevels facing each other, to make a trough as shown in Fig. 126. Put a screw in one end to push the work against, push the form against the bench-stop or screw

FIG. 126.

FIG. 127. FIG. 128.

it in the vise, put the piece to be " cornered " or rounded in the V-shaped trough, and it will be firmly held with the angle upward. Two or three of these for larger and smaller pieces will be very useful. They are quickly made of waste strips. If you think 2 the right length for one of these forms, for instance, make it a foot or so longer, and after it is made saw off the extra length in one or two pieces, which will serve as an extension for holding a long stick (Fig. 127). If your bench [has wooden bench-stops you can make some stops with notches in the top (Fig. FIG. 129. 128) for this purpose.

96

Wood- Working for Beginners

For making pieces tapering, as well as eight-sided or rounding, you have only to modify this idea by planing off the corners in a tapering way (Fig. 129). See Rounding Sticks.

Level and Plumb. — Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Gauge, Saw, and Plane, in Part V. To make a plumb like Fig. 130, take a piece of straight wood from 3" to 5" wide and 4' or 5' long with the edges straight and parallel. Gauge a line down the middle of the side, exactly parallel to the edges, and cut the notch shown at the bottom. Make a saw-kerf at the upper end of the line and another beside it in which to catch the end of

FIG. 130.

the line, or fasten the line around a nail. (See Plumb.)

To make the level shown in Fig. 131, it is essential that the bottom board c d be straight on the lower edge. The two braces a c and a d should be of the same length. The strut a b should be nailed across at the middle of c d and at right angles to it. The essential thing is to have the line a b exactly at right angles to c d, the object of the braces a c and a d being to stiffen the board c d, and to keep the lines a b and c d at right angles to each other. The plumb-line is hung and used as in the case just given, the board c d being used for horizontal work. (See Level.)

Cabinets, etc., for Tools and Supplies.— A tool-chest, though a very convenient (and in fact necessary) thing for a

The Workshop 97

workman who is moving around from place to place or who needs a safe receptacle in which to lock his tools in a fac- tory, is not at all necessary in a private shop, nor half as convenient as to have the tools where they can be more readily reached. It is quite a piece of work to make a good one, and it will be better to defer such a job until you feel the need.

An old case of drawers, or bureau, or cupboard, or some such receptacle, if you can find one, will be useful in your shop. A bureau, in fact, makes a good tool-cabinet or substitute for a tool-chest, but if you keep tools in drawers make compart- ments, trays, or divisions, else the edge-tools may be dam- aged, not to speak of the inevitable confusion.

You do not need a tool-cabinet for half a dozen tools, but when they begin to accumulate it is a good thing to have and a good thing to make, if there is occasion to keep your tools locked up or if you have limited room. Otherwise it is just as well to keep the common tools as already shown. A cabinet is fully as useful for miscellaneous articles like brads, hinges, etc., as for tools.

Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, Nailing, and Screws, and look up any other references.

Perhaps you can find a good box, wide and shallow, all made, or if deep you can saw off part to make it shal- low (Fig. 132). This will answer perfectly for a shop. For the house you would of course make a cupboard of new wood. The size must depend on circumstances. Get two boards for doors that will just cover the open side of the

box, unless the box cover will do, which is un- FIG- J32'

likely. If the edges are not good you must allow extra width for jointing. Lay these boards in position and mark the lengths (on the side next the box) by the box itself, not with the

98

Wood-Working for Beginners

square, for the box may not be square. From the lines just made mark the edges with the square, and, with the straight- edge, connect these edge marks by lines on the face sides. Saw off by these lines. Mark the box and each door in some way (Fig. 133), as " top," and " R " (for right) and " L " (for left), or by marks, as X, O, 8, etc., to prevent finally putting them

FIG. 133.

FIG. 134.

FIG. 135.

FIG. 136.

on wrong side out or wrong end up, as is very likely to happen if you neglect to mark them.

Now for hinges. The best thing, on account of the weight to be hung on the doors and the poor quality of the wood generally used for boxes, will be iron strap-hinges made for work of this sort, screwed on the outside (Fig. 134). Two will do for each door. Next to this come the common iron hinges. If the sides of the box are thick and firm, three of the common long and narrow kind (Fig. 135) will do for each door. If the sides are thin and flimsy, nail or screw a strip inside of each edge and use

wider and shorter hinges (Fig. 136). To fit the hinges, see Hinges. The doors being hung, take them off while fitting up the case. Gauge a pencil line around the outer edge and each end of the inside surface of each door, where it fits against the edge of the box, as FIG. 137. a limit beyond which racks or tools

must not project or the door will not shut (Fig. 137).

The fitting up of the cupboard must depend on its size and what and how many tools or supplies are to be kept in it. Shelves

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99

you can simply make of the right size and nail into place from

the outside, using the rule and square to get them in the right

positions. The illustrations are merely suggestions which you

can alter or improve upon to suit your par-

ticular case. Fig. 138 shows another form,

and Fig. 139 a small cabinet with one

door, with suggestions for the arrangement

of the tools, but the matter of fitting up

you must, of course, contrive for your-

selves, according to the circumstances.

Do not attempt to put full-width drawers into these wide, shallow

cabinets, as is often done. It takes an expert to fit drawers that

are wide and short (from front to back) and they are not always

satisfactory even then. If you wish drawers, either put in a row

FIG.

FIG. 139.

of narrow ones, or use the simple device described below (Figs.

141 and 142), and shown in Fig. 139. (See Drawers in Part V.)

To fasten the doors you can hook one on the inside and put

a button (which you can whittle out) on the outside to hold the

ioo Wood-Working for Beginners

other. If you wish to lock, hook one door inside and lock the other to it (see Locks]. A padlock with staples and iron strap is easier to put on. To make a cupboard of boards instead of using a box, you simply make a box yourself (see Box-making in Part II.) and then proceed as above.

Fig. 140 shows a good form of cabinet. Make a tight box, perhaps 2' x 3' x 6" to 9", the sides and ends of -J" stock, and the top and bottom (/. e., the front and back of the cabinet)

of £" stock. Saw it open carefully on the line a b c about 2" or 3" from the top or face, according to the thick- ness of the box, first marking the ends or *IG- I4°' the sides so that you

can finally put them together again in the same positions. When nailing the box together omit all nails which could interfere with the sawing. They can easily be put in afterwards. (See Box- making^ in Part II.) Carefully smooth the edges after the saw. Reckless and hasty planing will spoil the joint. Fit two strap- hinges, or three of the common kind. Fit up inside as you wish, and fasten with hasp, padlock, or a lock working on the prin- ciple of a chest lock.

All these cabinets must be firmly fastened to the wall, for they will be very heavy when filled. Do not trust to a couple of nails or screws, the way amateurs so often put up shelves and cabinets in the house. A ledge of some sort below is a great help (Fig. 140) to relieve the screws or nails of the weight. If the back is not very strong, do not trust wholly to it, but add cleats outside 'or inside. If in the house, stout screw-eyes of heavy wire in the sides of the cabinet, through which you can screw to the wall, are good (Fig. 140).

Good shelves can be made by arranging empty boxes one on top of another, or by taking a wide, thin (flat) box and fitting

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101

shelves across it, like a bookcase, and then fastening the whole to the wall.

A small drawer can be fixed under a shelf, anywhere in your shop, on the principle often used in sewing-machine tables and the like, by taking a small box of suitable shape, strengthening one corner if necessary

.(Fig- MO, and

pivoting it with a screw at that corner (Fig. 142).

FIG. 141.

FIG. 142.

First-class Bench. — You can do all the work you will be equal to for a long time on such a bench as has been shown, but some day you will want a first-class bench, such as Fig. 143. Do not attempt anything of the sort at first, however,

FIG. 143.

though if you can afford it, such a bench is good to begin with. A few details are given in the Appendix.

Other Appliances. — A number of other appliances and contrivances will be found, under their respective headings, in Part V.

A FEW ESSENTIALS TO SUCCESSFUL WORK

Do one thing at a time. Finish one job before you start two or three others.

First learn to work well, then ability to work quickly will come of itself.

Plan your work to the end before beginning to use your tools.

Make drawings carefully to scale before beginning any but the simplest work.

Lay out the work carefully on the wood with sharp, accurate lines, according to the drawings, measuring everything with exactness at least twice.

Cut the work accurately with sharp tools to the lines you have laid out.

Keep testing the accuracy of the work with the square, straight- edge, rule, level, or plumb.

Keep your tools sharp and in good order.

Have the most convenient place for each tool and always keep it in that place when not in use.

Do your work thoroughly and strongly. Do not half make it. Do not half fasten it together. The only time you will regret thor- ough work is when you have to take it apart again.

103

" The labor is small, the pastime is great." — GOETHE.

PART II

CHAPTER VI

ARTICLES TO BE MADE IN THE WORKSHOP

EVEN if you are able to use tools quite well, you may still not know how to go to work to make some par- ticular thing, so it is quite important to know how to lay out, put together, and finish different kinds of work.

The number of things you can make is legion. The num- ber it is worth while for you to make is much smaller. Amateurs often say that the work they do themselves costs more (even counting their own labour as nothing) than to hire the work done, and it is one aim of this book to prevent that undesirable result, in some cases at least.

The number of things which you can make more cheaply than you can buy grows smaller every year. Many things can now be bought ready-made for less than you would have to pay for the materials. It is foolish to take the time and money to make many of the games and toys, for instance, sold so cheaply nowadays. A wheelbarrow is in itself a good thing to make, but it can be bought so cheaply that it is hardly worth while to make one. It is true that some of these things you can make better ; although not cheaper, than you can easily buy (a sled perhaps) ; but, as a rule, your time can be better spent than upon this class of objects, and you will find but few such given here.

104 Wood- Working for Beginners

Things like whistles, pea-shooters, and clappers, which are so familiar to every boy and require no more instruction to make than is handed down and around from boy to boy, are not given here, as a rule. A few other things which you might perhaps look for, such as tennis rackets and snow- shoes, are omitted, because they require more special know- ledge and skill than most beginners can be expected to have. It is easy enough to see how to make a tennis racket, for instance, so far as the general idea is concerned ; but simply bending a loop, fastening it to a stick, and lacing the loop, does not make a tennis racket. The holes for the stringing must be made in a particular way, the stringing must be done properly, and the whole affair must balance or " hang " right, or be of little use. It is better to buy such things.

You boys, and many of your elders, like to try all the new-fangled ideas as fast as they come out, and it is well that you do, but you (as a class) accept them " for keeps " only after they have stood the test of many trials. A large book could be filled with descriptions of the novelties which have appeared within my remembrance, but out of this number I can count on my fingers all that have come to stay. You will find all the novelties you can attend to (and more) in the magazines, etc., so I have been rather conservative in my selection, knowing that you will permanently accept but the best of the new ideas and come back in the end, year after year, to the same old things, with only such additions as have stood the test of actual use.

The objects included embrace a sufficient variety of types to form a basis of experience and practice, in different kinds of work and in various details, from which you can launch out into any of these new plans, or any experiments of your own which you may wish to try, and thus supply for your-

The Workshop 105

selves the information lacking in many of the popular descriptions.

Before you make anything bulky measure your shop door or window to see that you can get it out after you have made it. This may seem a superfluous caution, but there have been many cases where people have spent much time in making things which could not be taken from the room in which they were made without tearing out the door or window casing. Even Robinson Crusoe, you know, built a boat so far from the water that he could not launch her.

Do not be deceived by all the complicated, new-fangled variations of familiar things which abound in the popular publications. Try to make everything as simple as you can. Look askance on contrivances that are all tangled up with springs, and levers, and complicated mechanism, and study them well before you begin to make them.

First figure the cost of the object you intend to make. This book is not to do your work for you, but to put you on the right track to do it yourselves, so read Estimating, page 54, and the whole of Part I had best be read before you begin to make the things described hereafter.

CHAPTER VII

A FEW TOYS

Wooden Swords, Knives, and Daggers. — Before be- ginning work, read Marking, Knife, Whittling, Paring, Rounding Sticks, Rasp, File, and Sandpaper, and look up

FIG. 144.

any other references. The construction of those shown in Fig. 144 is too obvious to require special description. First Cut the general outline as shown, then round or pare or

A Few Toys 107

shave to the thickness required. If you have a bow-saw or scroll-saw, it will save much time in shaping the outlines, or you can have them sawed at the mill. If you stain these weapons with various colours, as red, black, yellow, etc., and in various patterns, and shellac them neatly (see Finishing), you can turn out quite a formidable array of awe-inspiring weapons. They should be made of some straight-grained and easily whittled wood. Nothing is better than white pine.

To make a sword like that shown in Fig. 145, first select a

FIG. 145.

piece of straight-grained wood (ash or any strong wood) about 2\' in length, ^" thick, and i" wide. About 4" from one end make a mark. From this mark taper the edges to the other end. Do not taper the stick too gradually. Then draw a line along the centre of each side and taper from this centre line to the edges, leaving the edges about -jV' thick. Next get out two pieces of wood £" thick and 4" long (some dark-coloured wood can be used for contrast). Nail one of these pieces with brads on each side of the 4" space left for the handle. Next get a piece 4" long, J" thick, and f " wide (see Fig. 145). Mark it as shown, making the marks for the holes (iV') so tnat the outside edge of one will be just i" from the outside edge of the other. Then

io8 Wood-Working for Beginners

bore these holes carefully (see Boring) and cut out the wood be- tween them with a knife or chisel (being careful about splitting) and shape the outside as marked. Slip the blade through the hole in the guard you have just made up to the handle and nail the guard to the blade.

Wooden Snake. — This

imitation reptile (Fig. 146) if well made will (when grasped at the middle) by a slight movement of the hand undu- late and writhe in a very life- like manner, as you may know, so do not be eager to terrify your feminine relatives, or those of other boys, too much.

Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Knife, Saw, and Rounding Sticks. The snake can be of any size — say from 2' to 6' long and from i" to 2" in diam. Select a piece of straight-grained wood, — w h i t e pine or any wood easy to work. First see that the stick is square, then make it hexagonal (six- sided), then taper it to the general shape of the snake, and finally round and smooth it (Fig. 147). Remember not to use sand- paper in the smoothing, as the grit will dull the tools yet to be

1G'

FIG. 147.

used. The head you must whittle or carve according to your ingenuity and skill. The mouth can be cut with a fine saw. The snake having been shaped, mark pencil lines lengthways

A Few Toys 109

along the middle of the top and bottom (except at the head), and cut with a knife a little slit or groove merely wide enough to hold a fine cord (like fish-line). This can be done with a fine saw (as a back-saw), using the teeth only at one end of the saw blade, but much care is required and the stick must be firmly clamped or held in the vise. You will probably do it more easily with the knife. Mark equal spaces (Fig. 148) of £" to 2", according to the diameter of the snake, from the neck to within a short distance of the end of the tail. If you make these marks as near together as f ", the snake will look more natural, as the notches will not have to be so wide, but you will have to cut more of them. Number these sections so that you can finally put them together again in the right order. With the knife or chisel notch in to the centre from each side at each of the marks, or use the saw and knife or chisel, until the body of the snake is cut into sections (Fig. 148). Put the sections together again by sinking a fine strong cord in the longitudinal grooves in the top and bottom. Set the cord in place with glue (see Gluing), and fasten with little staples (which you can make of bent pins), or something of the sort, at the end of each section.

Set beads in the head for eyes. Sandpaper the whole with fine sandpaper (see Sandpaper], Paint in imitation of whatever kind of snalte you prefer (see Painting], using red for the inside of the mouth.

Windmills. — These are made in a great variety of forms. A few patterns which can be readily constructed of wood are given below. Bear in mind to make them strong, as they are under very great strain in a violent wind, and, also, that the larger they are the stronger they must be; for little models, you know, are much stronger in proportion than large structures made after the same designs. Dimensions are given merely to help illustrate the principles of con- struction. The windmills will work just as well if made

1 10 Wood- Working for Beginners

larger or smaller, within any reasonable limits. They should be made of straight -grained white pine, whitewood, or some wood easy to work.1

Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Knife, and Paring, and look up any other references. In case of using heavy stock, see also Drawknife, Spokeshave, and

t

FIG. 149.

FIG. 150.

Plane. To make a very simple form (Fig. 149), take two sticks, say 8" x i" x i", and halve or notch (see Halving) each piece at the centre (Fig. 150), so that when put together they will form a cross with arms of equal length. Bore a hole through both pieces at the centre to loosely fit the pin upon which the vanes are to turn (see Boring]. Upon the ends of each stick mark diagonal lines (Fig. 150) slanting in opposite directions, or so that, if you revolve the cross edgeways and look in turn upon each of the four ends, the lines will all slant the same way. This

1 You can attach your windmill to a building or set it up on a pole, or you can easily make a small trestle-work tower, built of small sticks, on the top of which you can place the windmill, with a small keg (to represent a hogshead or tank), and thus have a very good imitation of the large mills used for pump- ing water. Small windmills, if you wish to go further into the subject than comes within the scope of this book, can be used to do any light or "play" work by having them turn a bent shaft (or any eccentric movement), connect- ing with a piston-rod or revolving drum ; or various other attachments can be applied, according to your ingenuity.

A Few Toys 1 1 1

is essential, for the next operation is to shave each of the sticks down towards these lines until perhaps £" thick (Fig. 150), and you can readily see that if these vanes are not turned the same way the windmill will not revolve. When this shaping is done fasten the sticks together with brads (see Nailing). The remain- ing part is very simple (Fig. 151), perhaps i' ^ long and £" thick, with the broad vane made thin, as the only object of this is to act as a weather-vane to keep the windmill FIG. 151.

headed toward the wind, and if made thick and heavy the whole affair will not balance well.

The revolving cross you can now fasten with a nail or screw upon the end of the part last made (Fig. 151) so that it will re- volve freely. Find the point at which the whole windmill will balance over your finger or a stick, and bore a vertical hole through the horizontal stick at this point. Through this hole loosely screw or nail the windmill on the end of a stick, slightly rounded to prevent friction (Fig. 151). Sandpaper the whole with rather fine sandpaper (see Sandpaper}.

You can paint in one or more colours, if you wish (see Paint- ing). The vanes can be painted in light and dark bands crossways, causing an appearance, when revolving, of concentric rings (like a target). By FIG. 152. having two axles or spindles (Fig. 152)

two sets of vanes can revolve at once, and, by slanting the vanes of the two sets

in opposite ways, the two will revolve in FIG. 153. ,. / '

contrary directions.

The weather-vane can be made of two pieces (Fig. 153).

A more elaborate affair (Fig. 154) is made on similar principles, but requires more care. The construction is obvious. Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw,

ii2 Wood- Working for Beginners

Plane, Knife, Spokeshave, Drawshave, Rounding Sticks, and look up any other references. The general dimensions of the one illus- trated are: length of main frame (in which spindle turns) 9", height of one end 4^'', height of the other end 2^"; length of weather-vane (from main frame) 10", width at end 4^"; length of revolving fans i', width at ends 2". The spindle is held in the main frame on a slant (Fig. 155) to lessen any tendency to slip out, so the hole through which it passes should have a cor- responding slant (see Boring). The revolving fans or vanes are reduced to round pins at the small ends and fitted tightly into

holes bored in the head of the spindle, all the vanes being turned to have the same slant. Care will be required to bore these holes so that the vanes will be equidistant and re- volve in the same line.

The weather-vane is set in a slanting groove cut

FIG. 154.

FIG. 155.

in the bottom of the main frame (Fig. 155), and fastened with a couple of nails or screws. You can cut this groove by making two saw-kerfs and paring out the wood between with a chisel. The bent nail or wire shown on the top of the spindle in Fig. 154 is to keep the latter from jumping out of the frame from a sudden change of wind. The vanes should all be shaved down until they are quite thin at the ends.

Set up and finish this windmill like the one just described.

A form which is good practice in whittling, and upon which

A Few Toys

you can also exercise your artistic faculties, is the " Happy Jack " shown in Fig. 156. Before beginning work read carefully Mark- ing, Rule, Square, Saw, Knife, Rasp, and File, and look up any other references. Fourteen inches is a good height for the figure itself. The outline of body and head can be sawed from a f " board and the edges trimmed and rounded and the details cut with a knife, or rasp and file can be used for the edges. The arms are made of separate pieces. Bore holes in the outer ends of the arms to hold the paddles (see Boring}. Also bore holes lengthways into the arms, from the ends next the body, and into these holes tightly drive the ends of a stiff metal rod long enough to also pass through the body at the shoul- ders (Fig. 156). Be- fore actually driving this rod into both arms you must bore the hole through the body. The holes in the arms should be smaller than the rod, so that it may drive in tightly without danger of getting loose, but the hole in the body must be larger than the rod, that the latter may revolve easily in it.

Bore in from the cen- FIG-

tre of each shoulder as carefully as you can, until the holes meet, rather than attempt to bore clear through from one

ii4 Wood-Working for Beginners

side, Put in the rod and drive on the arms, but not quite up to the shoulders. In driving on the arms be sure to keep the holes for the paddles in the right positions, so that the pad- [o GToJ dies will be in line as shown — that is, so that when one FIG. 157. points directly upwards the other will point directly downwards. Also bore a hole upwards between the legs for the rod upon which the figure turns, and screw or nail a piece of metal (Fig. 157), with a hole for this rod, on the bottom of the legs (Fig. 156). Fig. 158 shows a way to put on the hat. The paddles can be made from FIG 8 a snmS^e» which will save the labour of tapering the thickness towards the ends. The paddles must be set obliquely, or turned part way around, as in the case of any wind- mill. When set at the proper angles the man will spin around while the paddles are revolving. Sandpaper the whole (see Sandpaper], and paint in various colours (see Painting).

A set of boats to sail around in a circle is not hard to make (Fig. 159). Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, and look up any other references.

Take two sticks from 2' to 4' in length, and from f" to square, of any fairly strong wood. Halve these sticks at the middle (see Halving) and fasten them together in the form of a cross, strengthening the joint (weakened by the halving) by nailing or screw- ing on a piece of board above or below, as shown in Fig. 159. The boats can be whittled from a piece of board on edge and fastened to the ends of the sticks by halving (Fig. 160), FlG- J59-

as well as nails or screws, or they can simply be flat pie-es of board shaped as in Fig. 161 and screwed or nailed on top of the sticks.

A Few Toys

FIG. 160.

FIG. 161.

In the first case the halving had best be done before the sticks

are fastened together. One mast with a simple leg-of-mutton sail

will answer for each boat. A little experimenting

will show you how much to haul in the sheet.

Each boat must, of course, "come about" and

"jibe" once in every rotation of the apparatus.

Sandpaper with rather fine sandpaper (see Sand

paper], and paint as you wish (see Painting).

The whole affair is balanced and pivoted on top

of a pole in the same manner as the windmills just

described, which see.

A steamer with screw propeller can be made from a piece of board on edge, shaped as shown in Fig. 162, a small windmill with short and broad fans (Fig. 163), serving for the screw. Before beginning work

read carefully Mark- ing, Rule, Square, Saw, Knife, Spokeshave, and look up any other ref- erences. This boat must be made of a board so as to give a thin section (Fig. 164), in order that the screw may not be shielded from the wind, for this vessel must always head to windward or the screw will not re- volve. To ensure this the fore and aft sail

mUSt alwa^S be keP* set and the sheet close-

hauled. This sail answers the purpose of the weather-vanes of the windmills just described, It can be macle of tin or

FIG. 162.

n6 Wood-Working for Beginners

any sheet metal, or even of thin wood. The rest of the rigging and the smokestack you can arrange as you wish. The bottom of the rudder can be supported by a little strip extending aft from the keel. For the other details of the work, see the wind- mills already described.

Water-wheels. — An undershot wheel, turned by the water passing beneath (Fig. 165), can be easily made. It can be of any desired size, and of any wood readily worked.

Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, and look up any other ref- erences.

One like Fig. 166 can

FIG. 165. be made by simply nail- ing a set of small boards or paddles in a radial arrange- ment between two disks of wood. A dowel or broomstick will do for the shaft and should be fitted tightly in the hole bored through the wheel (see Boring), but should turn freely in the bearings at the side. It will make a rather neater job to shape the paddles as in Fig. 167, ^ ^ so that when put together the wheel will look like Fig. 1 66, but this is not at all necessary, and it will work just as well to make plain rectangular paddles and FIG 167 s'mply nail tne d'sks on the outside edges (see Nailing]. If you have no saw with which to get out the disks you can have them sawed at the mill, or you can work them

FIG. 166.

A Few Toys

117

out by describing the required circles and sawing a hexagon out- side of the line with a common saw, when the circle can be fin- ished with shave, hatchet, chisel, or knife (see Paring). Divide the circumference of each disk into as many parts as there are paddles and draw lines on the side to the centre, by which to nail the paddles in the right position. Start the nails on these lines and drive them nearly through before placing the paddles in position. Then nail one disk to the paddles, turn the wheel over and nail on the other disk. It is essential to a neat job that the paddles should all be of the same width. First make one edge straight. From this edge gauge the desired width on all the pieces (see Gauge] and saw or plane or trim, with knife, chisel, or shave, exactly to the line. If you make the paddles as shown in the cut, first square lines across at equal distances from one end (Fig. 167), and with a gauge set at a point equal to the thickness of the disks make lines parallel to each edge, and with the saw or saw and chisel, or even a knife, remove the pieces marked (see Paring) .

The overshot wheel (Fig. 168) is harder to make, but is a

I

FIG. 168. FIG. 169.

livelier wheel. It is put together upon the same principle as the wheel just shown, except that the paddles, which do

n8 Wood-Working for Beginners

not project beyond the circumference of the disks, are not placed radially, but so that, with the addition of another set inserted to connect them, they form buckets.

To lay off the lines for the buckets, divide the circumference

of each disk as before, and from the centre describe a small circle, as shown in Fig. 169. From the points on the circumference draw lines tangent to the small circle. These lines will give the positions for the bottoms of the buckets. To complete the buckets mark from the circumference equal dis- tances on these lines, and from these last points draw lines as ab to the next points on the circumfer- ence. First, nail together with only the bottoms of the buckets (on the lines ca). Then fit in the other pieces, to complete the buckets, on the lines ab. The ends of these last pieces should properly be bevelled (see Bevel- ling) to make a fairly tight joint. The rest of the work is the same as for the undershot wheel. A larger form (but harder to make) is suggested in Fig. 170. See note under Windmills, above.

Play Village.— It is capital fun for several young people to design and build a miniature village, and it is certainly an instructive and quite inexpensive pastime. Such a vil- lage, planned and made recently by a family group of half a dozen youngsters, and facetiously named " Totlet Town," was constructed entirely of old boxes and packing-cases of

FIG. 170.

120 Wood-Working for Beginners

all sizes up to three feet long, waste pieces of board, shingles, etc. ; but when painted and arranged in a corner of the lawn, with dirt roads, and paths, small evergreen shade trees and hedges, well-sweeps, miniature fences, and other accessories,

„ it made so pretty a

picture as to be the ad- miration of all who saw it. If you have as good a time in mak- ing such a village as these young people did, the experiment will be a success. You can easily think up many additions to the suggestions here given.

The buildings were made by s e le c t i n g boxes of the desired proportions, sawing out spaces for the doors, adding the FlG- I?I- roofs and any other

alterations. The chimneys were made of blocks painted red. The doors were made of pieces of board and hinged with leather. Bay-windows and the like were made of blocks of the required shape nailed to the boxes. The windows and blinds were represented by painting. Some of the roofs were shingled with pieces of shingles. A sugges- tion for a light-house is shown in Fig. 171.

Considerable care in the use of the tools is called for to make these buildings neatly. Much of the effect depends,

A Few Toys

121

also, upon the care with which the painting is done (see Painting), and the taste used in the selection of the colours. Brighter colours are suitable for a little village of this sort than would be in good taste for real houses. White with green blinds is good, of course ; or yellow can be used. The roofs should be painted. Red roofs are very effective.

Before beginning work, read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, Nailing, Withdrawing Nails, etc.

FIG. 172.

Dolls' House. — The house shown in Fig. 172 is quite easily made, and a shallow affair like this has the advantage

122 Wood-Working for Beginners

of being more convenient than a deep one about arranging the contents.

Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, and look up any other references.

Pine and whitewood are suitable, or any wood can be used that is not hard to work.

It can be made ot any desired size. Three or four feet wide and a little higher in the middle will probably be suitable for ordinary cases, and twelve or fifteen inches will be a good depth (from front to back).

The construction is plain. The roof and sides are to be cut from dressed stock of uniform width, and from £" to ^" in thick- ness.

Carefully true one edge, if it is not already true, and get out the bottom board, then the upright sides, and then the roof. The bevels at the highest point of the roof and where the roof joins the sides you must mark with the bevel (taking the slant from your drawing), or you can find it by arranging two strips to cross at the desired angle and marking the bevel by them (see levelling}. To saw these bevels requires much care. Draw lines by the square on both sides, as well as the angle on the edge, and putting each board in the vise saw carefully and steadily.

The three floors should be narrower than the outside of the house by just the thickness of the stock to be used for the back, and rectangular openings must be sawed from one of the back corners at the head of the stairs to allow the dolls to pass from one story to another. If the sides of the house are 14" wide, make these floors 13^" wide, arid use £" or f " stock for the back. Also mark and saw out the windows. To do this, first bore a series of holes inside of the line (see Boring] and cut out what- ever wood may be necessary until you make a slot in which to start the saw. Any roughness left from the holes can be trimmed with knife, chisel, or file (see Paring). Nail these parts

A Few Toys

123

FIG. 173.

together, just as in making a box, carefully sighting across the face to see that the front and back do not wind, or use winding-sticks (q. v.). Also test with the square to see that the sides are at right angles with the bottom. Get out stock for the back carefully (with the boards running up and down) so that the boards will be square at the bottom, and when these pieces are fitted in place to form the back they will ensure the house being square. The slant by which to cut the top of the back can be laid off by measurement from your working drawing or the back can be put in place and the lines marked directly from the under side of the roof. When fitted, nail the back securely in place, first cutting the windows as before. Then fit in the upright partitions, first cutting the doorways. The staircase can be made easily if you have, or can saw from the corner of a larger piece, a triangular strip which can be cut in short sec- tions to use for the steps. Nail these to a thin strip of board (from the under side) and fasten the whole in position (Fig. 173). The chimney can be made of a block with a notch sawed to fit the roof, or it can be made of four pieces, box-fashion. Glass for the windows can be held in place by gluing strips of cloth or paper around the edges, or thin strips can be nailed around with fine brads. Thin strips can be nailed around the window openings on the outside, if you wish.

All the pieces should be neatly planed and scraped before putting together, and, when entirely put together, the whole should be carefully sandpapered with fine sandpaper. The parts coming on the inside had best be sandpapered before putting to- gether, however, but be sure not to do this until all cutting with the tools has been done. Set all the nails carefully (see Nail- sef). The whole can be painted in one or more colours (see Painting], and portieres, window drapery, etc., can be added

124 Wood-Working for Beginners

according to your taste and the materials at command. The inside can be papered, if preferred.

A more thoroughly workmanlike way is to groove the bottom into the sides, the upright partitions into the floor boards, and to cut rabbets around on the back edge of the sides, roof, and bottom, into which to set the backboards. This involves a good

FIG. 174.

deal more work and care in laying out the work (see Grooving). If you have the pieces got out at a mill it can be easily done, however.

It may be a convenience to screw castors on the bottom. A door (with a door-bell or knocker) can be added to the front of the hall, if thought best.

A house which can be closed is shown in Fig. 174. The con- struction is quite similar to the preceding. A strip must be fastened above and below the large doors, as shown, that they may open without striking either the roof or the floor on which the house stands. The little door, representing the entrance to

A Few Toys 125

the house when closed and shown in the closed half, can be made to open independently and can have a bell or knocker.

If this house is made quite deep (from front to back) it can easily be divided lengthways by a partition and made into a double house, the back side being made to open in the same way as the side here shown.

CHAPTER VIII

HOUSES FOR ANIMALS

THE sizes and shapes of these houses and cages will de- pend upon the animals for which they are built and the places you have to put them. Frequently they can be built to advantage against the side of a building, or a fence, or in a corner, and boxes can be utilised in various ways.

Make the houses, cages, and runways as large as you can afford, for there is much more danger of the pets being cramped and crowded than of their having too much room.

Wire netting or wire cloth (held in place by staples) should be freely used, as ventilation is very important for the health and comfort of the animals. Special openings should always be made for cleaning the houses or cages in case all parts cannot be conveniently reached from the doors, for cleanliness is of the utmost importance in all such struct- ures. The floors of the larger houses should always slant or have holes provided for drainage. Covering the floors with sheets of zinc will promote cleanliness. In the smaller cages removable pans or trays can often be used (Fig. 190). Houses and cages with wooden floors should always be raised from the ground on posts, blocks, or stones, to avoid dampness. Clean sand scattered over the floor and fre- quently renewed will contribute much to the cleanliness of the cages. The bedding should also be changed frequently.

In the case of those animals which use their teeth for gnawing, the corners and angles can be protected by tacking