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YOUR MIND

AND HOW TG USE IT

A MANUAL OF PRACTICAL PSYCHOLOGY

BY

WILLIAM WALKER ATKINSON

It is not enough merely to have a sound mind — one must also learn how to use it, if he would become mentally efficient.

PUBLISHED BY

THE ELIZABETH TOWNE CO.,

HOLYOKE. MASS.

L. N. Fowler & Co., London.

Copyright, 1911. ELIZABETH TOWNE.

Copyrighted in the United States and England.

Contents.

Chapter					Page
I.	What is the Mind 5
11.	The Mechanism of Mental States	11
III.	The Great Nerve Centers	17
IV.	Consciousness			24
V.	Attention .				29
VI.	Perception .				36
VII.	Memory.				45
VIII.	Memory (continued)				54
IX.	Imagination .				62
X.	The Feelings				72
XL	The Emotions				79
XII.	The Instinctive Emotions			. 88
XIII.	The Passions .			96
XIV.	The Social Emotions			. 104
XV.	The Religious Emotions .			. Ill
XVI.	The Esthetic Emotions .			. 117
XVII.	Thr Intellectual Emotions			. 125
XVIII.	The Role of the Emotions			. 131
XIX.	The Emotions and Happiness .	«		. 136
XX.	The Intellect .			» 143
XXL	Conception ....			. 151
XXII.	Classes of Concepts .			, 158
XXIII.	Judgments ....			. 164
^XXIV.	Primary Laws of Thought			. 171
r XXV.	Reasoning			, 176
XXVI.	Inductive Reasoning .			, 181
XXVII.	Deductive Reasoning \ .			. 186
xxvm.	Fallacious Reasoning * .			> 193
XXIX.	The Will . . . .			. 201
XXX.	Will-Training . . .			. 213
XXXI.	Will-Tonic .	• 4			, 219

CHAPTER I.

What is the Mind ?

PSYCHOLOGY is generally considered to be the science of mind, although more properly it is the science of mental states — thoughts, feel- ings, and acts of volition. It was formerly the custom of writers on the subject of psychology to begin by an attempt to define and describe the nature of mind, before proceeding to a consideration of the subject of the various mental states and activities. But more recent authorities have rebelled against this demand, and have claimed that it is no more reasonable to hold that psychology should be held to an explanation of the ultimate nature of mind than it is that physical science be held to an explanation of the ultimate nature of matter. The attempt to explain the ultimate nature of either is futile — no actual necessity exists for explana- tion in either case. Physics may explain the phenom- ena of matter, and psychology the phenomena of mind, without regard to the ultimate nature of the substance of either.

The science of physics has progressed steadily during the. past century, notwithstanding the fact that the

6 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

theories regarding the ultimate nature of matter have been revolutionized during that period. The facts of the phenomena of matter remain, notwithstanding the change of theory regarding the nature of matter itself. Science demands and holds fast to facts, regarding theories as but working hypotheses at the best. Some one has said that ^'theories are but the bubbles with which the grown-up children of science amuse them- selves/^ Science holds several well-supported, though opposing, theories regarding the nature of electricity, but the facts of the phenomena of electricity, and the application thereof, are agreed upon by the disputing theorists. And so it is with psychology; the facts re- garding mental states are agreed upon, and methods of developing mental powers are effectively employed, without regard to whether mind is a product of the brain, or the brain merely an organ of the mind. The fact that the brain and nervous system are employed in the phenomena of thought is conceded by all, and that is all that is necessary for a basis for the science of psychology.

Disputes regarding the ultimate nature of mind are now generally passed over to the philosophers and meta- physicians, while psychology devotes its entire attention to studying the laws of mental activities, and to dis- covering methods of mental development. Even phi-

YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT. 7

losophy is beginning to tire of the eternal *^Svhy" and is devoting its attention to the ^^how'^ phase of things. The pragmatic spirit has invaded the field of philos- ophy, expressing itself in the words of Prof. William James, who said: ^Tragmatism is the attitude of looking away from first things, principles, categories, supposed necessities; and of looking forward toward last things, fruits, consequences, facts/' Modern psy- chology is essentially pragmatic in its treatment of the subject of the mind. Leaving to metaphysics the old arguments and disputes regarding the ultimate nature of mind, it bends all its energies upon discovering the laws of mental activities and states, and developing methods whereby the mind may be trained to perform better and more work, to conserve its energies, to con- centrate its forces. To modern psychology the mind is something to be used, not merely something about which to speculate and theorize. While the metaphy- sicians deplore this tendency, the practical people of the world rejoice.

Mind Defined.

Mind is defined as "the faculty or power whereby thinking creatures feel, think, and will.'' This defini- tiojci -is inadequate and circular in nature, but this is unavoidable, for mind can be defined only in its own

8 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

terms and only by reference io. its own processes. Mind, except in reference to its own activities, cannot be de- fined or conceived. It is known to itself only through its activities. Mind without mental states is a mere abstraction — a word without a corresponding mental image or concept. Sir William Hamilton expressed the matter as clearly as possible, when he said : "What we mean by mind is simply that which perceives, thinks, feels, wjllS;, a,iid_desires^^^ Without the perceiving, thinking, feeling, willing, and desiring, it is impos- sible to form a clear conception or mental image of mind; deprived of its phenomena it becomes the merest abstraction.

^Think About That Which Thinks.^'

Perhaps the simplest method of conveying the idea of the existence and nature of the mind is that attrib- uted to a celebrated German teacher of psychology who was wont to begin his course by bidding his students think of something, his desk, for example. Then he would say, "Now think of that which thinks about the desk/' Then, after a pause, he would add, "This thing which thinks about the desk, and about which you are now thinking, is the subject matter of our study of psychology.^^ The professor could not have said more had he lectured for a month.

YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT. 9

Professor Gordy has well said on this point: "The mind must either be that tvhich thinks, feels, and wills, or it must be the thoughts, feelings, and acts of will of which we are conscious — mental facts, in one word. But what can we know about that which thinks, feels, and wills, and what can we find out about it? Where is it? You will probably say, in the brain. But, if you are speaking literally, if you say that it is in the brain, as a pencil is in the pocket, then you must mean that it takes up room, that it occupies space, and that would make it very much like a material thing. In truth, the more carefully you consider it, the more plainly you will see what thinking men have known for a long time — that we do not know and cannot learn anything about the thing which thinks, and feels, and wills. It is beyond the range of human knowledge. The 'books which define psychology as the science of mind have not a word to say about that which thinks, and feels, and wills. They are entirely taken up with these thoughts and feelings and acts of the v/ill, — mental facts, in a word, — trying to tell us what they are, and to arrange them in classes, and tell us the cir- cumstances or conditions under which they exist. It seems to me that it would be better to define psychology as the science of the experiences, phenomena, or facts of the mind, soul, or self — of mental facts, in a word/'

10 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT,

In view of the facts of the case, and following the example of the best of the modern authorities, in this book we shall leave the consideration of the question of the ultimate nature of mind to the metaphysicians, and shall confine ourselves to the mental facts, the laws governing them, and the best methods of governing and using them in ^^the business of life/^

The classification and method of development to be followed in this book is as follows : —

I. The mechanism of mental states, i. e,, the brain, nervous system, sense organs, etc.

II. The fact of Consciousness and its planes.

III. Mental processes or faculties, i. e., (1) Sensa- tion and Perception; (2) Representation, or Imagina- tion and Memory; (3) Feeling or Emotion; (4) Intellect, or Reason and Understanding; (5) Will or Volition.

Mental states depend upon the physical mechanism for manifestation, whatever may be the ultimate nature of mind. Mental states, whatever their special char- acter, will be found to fit into one of the above five general classes of mental activities.

CHAPTEK II

The Mechanism of Mental States.

THE mechanism of mental states — the mental machinery by means of which we feel, think, and will — consists of the brain, nervous system, and the 'organs of sense. No matter what may be the real nature of mind, — ^no matter what may be the theory held regarding its activities, — it must be ad- mitted that the mind is dependent upon this mechanism for the manifestation of what we know as mental states. Wonderful as is the mind, it is seen to be dependent upon this physical mechanism for the expression of its activities. And this dependence is not upon the brain alone, but also upon the entire nervous system.

The best authorities agree that the higher and more complex mental states are but an evolution of simple sensation, and that they are dependent upon sensation for their raw material of feeling and thought. There- fore it is proper that we begin by a consideration of the machinery of sensation. This necessitates a previous consideration of the nerves.

The Nerves.

The body is traversed by an intricate system of

12 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

nerves, which has been likened to a great telegraph system. The nerves transmit sensations from the vari- ous parts of thF^dy to the great receiving office of the brain. They also ser^e to transmit the motor im- pulses from the brain to 4lhii^arious parts of the body, which impulses result in motion of appropriate parts of the body. There are also other nerves with which we have no concern in this book, but which perform certain physiological functions, such as digestion, secre- tion, excretion, and circulation. Our chief concern, at this point, is with the sensory nerves.

The sensory nerves convey the impressions of the outside world to the brain. The brain is the great cen- tral station of the sensory nerves, the latter having countless sending stations in all parts of the body, the "wires'^ terminating in the skin. When these nervous terminal stations are irritated or excited, they send to the brain messages calling for attention. This is true not only of the nerves of touch or feeling, but also of those concerned with the respective senses of sight, smell, taste, and hearing. In fact, the best authorities hold that all the five senses are but an evolution of the primary sense of touch or feeling.

The Sense of Touch. The nerves of the sense of touch have their ending

YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT. 13

in the outer covering or skin of the body. They report contact with other physical objects. By means of these reports we are aware not only of coj^t with the out- side object^ but also of maliy facts concerning the nature of that object;, a^f^r instance^ its degree of hardness, roughness, etc., an^ its temperature. Some of these nerve ends are very sensitive, as, for example, those of the tip of the tongue and finger ends, while others are comparatively lacking in sensitiveness, as, for illustration, those of the back. Certain of these sen- sory nerves confine themselves to reporting contact and degrees of pressure, while others concern themselves solely with reporting the degrees of temperature of the objects with which their ends come in contact. Some of the latter respond to the higher degrees of heat, while others respond only to the lower degrees of cold. The nerves of certain parts of the body respond more readily and distinctly to temperature than do those of other parts. To illustrate, the nerves of the cheek are quite responsive to heat impressions.

The Sense of Sight.

The nerves of the sense of sight terminate in the complex optical apparatus which in popular terminol- ogy is known as ''the eye.'' What is known as ''the retina'' is a very sensitive nervous membrane which

14 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

lines the inner, back part of the eye, and in which the fibers of the optic nerve terminate. The optical instru- ment of the eye conveys the focused light vibrations to the nerves of the retina, from which the impulse is transmitted to the brain. . But, contrary to the popular notion, the nerves of the eye do not gauge distances, nor form inferences of any kind; that is distinctly the work of the mind. The simple office of the optical nerves consists in reporting color and degrees of intensity of the light waves.

The Sense of Hearing.

The nerves of the sense of hearing terminate in the inner part of the ear. The tympanum, or ^^ear drum,'' receives the sound vibrations entering the cavities of the ear, and, intensifying and adapting them, it passes them on to the ends of the auditory nerve in the internal ear, which conveys the sensation to the brain. The auditory nerve reports to the brain the degrees of pitch, intensity, quality, and harmony, respectively, of the sound waves reaching the tympanum. As is well known, there are certain vibrations of sound which are too low for the auditory nerve to register, and others too high for it to record, both classes, however, capable of being recorded by scientific instruments. It is also regarded as certain that some of the lower animals are

YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT. 15

conscious of sound vibrations which are not registered by the human auditory nerves.

The Sense of Smell.

The nerves of the sense of smell terminate in the mucous membrane of the nostrils. In order that these nerves report the odor of outside objects^ actual contact of minute particles of the object with the mucous mem- brane of the nostrils is necessary. This is possible only by the passage through the nostrils of air containing these particles; mere nearness to the nostril will not suffice. These particles are for the most part composed of tenuous gases. Certain substances affect the olfac- tory nerves much more than do others, the difference arising from the chemical composition of the substance. The olfactory nerves convey the report to the brain.

The Sense of Taste.

The nerves of the sense of taste terminate in the tongue, or rather in the tiny cells of the tongue which are called ^^taste buds.^' Substances taken into the mouth chemically affect these tiny cells, and an impulse is transmitted to the gustatory nerves, which then re- port the sensation to the brain. The authorities claim that taste sensations may be reduced to five general classes, viz.: sweet, bitter, sour, salty, and "hot."

16 YOUB MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

There are certain nerve centers having important offices in the production and expression of mental states, located in the skull and in the spinal column — the brain and the spinal cord — which we shall consider in the following chapter.

CHAPTER III.

The Great Nerve Centers.

THE great nerve centers which play an important part in the production and expression of men- tal states are those of the brain and spinal cord, respectively.

The Spinal Cord.

The spinal cord is that cord or rope of nerve sub- stance which is inclosed in the spinal column or "back- bone/^ It leaves the lower part of the skull and extends downward in the interior of the spinal column for about eighteen inches. It is continuous with the brain, however, and it is difficult to determine where one begins and the other ends. It is composed of a mass of gray matter surrounded by a covering of white matter. From the spinal cord, along its length, emerge thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves which branch out to each side of the body and connect with the various smaller nerves, extending to all parts of the system. The spinal cord is the great central cable of the nervous tele- graphic system, and any injury to or obstruction of it cripples or paralyzes those portions of the body the

18 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

nerves of which enter the spinal cord below the seat of the injury or obstruction. Injuries or obstructions of this kind not only inhibit the sensory reports from the aifected area^ but also inhibit the motor impulses from the brain which are intended to move the limbs or parts of the body.

The Ganglia or ^Tiny Brains/^

What are known as ganglia, or tiny bunches of nerve cells, are found in various parts of the nervous system, including the spinal nerves. These groups of nerve cells are sometimes called ^^little brains/' and perform quite important offices in the mechanism of thought and action. The spinal ganglia receive sensory reports, and issue motor impulses, in many cases, without troubling the central brain regarding the matter. These activi- ties are known as "reflex nervous action.^'

Eeflex Action.

What is known as reflex nervous action is one of the most wonderful of the activities of the nervous and mental mechanism, and the knowledge thereof usually comes as a surprise to the average person, for he is generally under the impression that these activities are possible only to the central brain. It is a fact that not only is the central brain really a trinity of three

YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT. 19

brains, but that, in addition to these, every one has a great number of ^^little brains'' distributed over his nervous system, any and all of which are capable of receiving sensory reports and also of sending forth motor impulses. It is quite worth while for one to become acquainted with this wonderful form of neuro- mental activity.

A cinder enters the eye, the report reaches a gan- glion, a motor impulse is sent forth, and the eyelid closes. The same result ensues if an object approaches the eye but without actually entering it. In either case the person is not conscious of the sensation and motor impulse until the latter has been accomplished. This is reflex action. The instinctive movement of the tickled foot is another instance. The jerking away of the hand burnt by the lighted end of the cigar, or pricked by the point of the pin, is another instance. The involuntary activities, and those known as uncon- scious activities, result from reflex action.

More than this, it is a fact that many activities originally voluntary become what is known as ^^ac- quired reflexes,'' or ^^^motor habits," by means of certain nervous centers acquiring the habit of sending forth certain motor impulses in response to certain sensory reports. The familiar movements of our lives are largely performed in this way, as, for instance, walk-^

20 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

ing, using knife and fork, operating typewriters, ma- chines of all kinds, writing, etc. The squirming of a decapitated snake, the muscular movements of a de- capitated frog, and the violent struggles, fluttering, and leaps of the decapitated fowl, are instances of reflex action. Medical reports indicate that in cases of decapitation even man may manifest similar reflex action in some cases. Thus we may see that we may feel and will by means of our ^^little brains'^ as well as by the central brain or brains. Whatever mind may be, it is certain that in these processes it employs other portions of the nervous system than the central brain.

The Three Brains.

What is known as the brain of man is really a trinity of three brains, known respectively as (1) the medulla oblongata, (2) the cerebellum, and (3) the cerebrum. If one wishes to limit the mental activity to conscious intellectual effort, then and then only is he correct in considering the cerebrum or large brain as ^^the brain.^^

The Medulla Oblongata. — The medulla oblongata is an enlargement of the spinal cord at the base of the brain. Its office is that of controlling the involuntary activities of the body, such as respiration, circulation, assimilation, etc. In a broad sense, its activities may be said to be of the nature of highly developed and com-

YOVB MIND AND HOW TO USE IT. 21

plex reflex activities. It manifests chiefly through the sympathetic nervous system which controls the vital functions. It does not need to call on the large brain in these matters, ordinarily, and is able to perform its tasks without the plane of ordinary consciousness.

The Cerebellum, — The cerebellum, also known as "the little brain/' lies just above the medulla oblon- gata, and just below the rear portion of the cerebrum or great brain. It combines the nature of a purely reflex center on the one hand, with that of "habit mind'' on the other. In short, it fills a place between the activities of the cerebrum and the medulla oblon- gata, having some of the characteristics of each. It is the organ of a number of important acquired reflexes, such as walking, and many other familiar muscular movements, which have first been consciously acquired and then become habitual. The skilled skater, bicy- clist, typist, or machinist depends upon the cerebellum for the ease and certainty with which he performs his movements "without thinking of them." One may be said never to have thoroughly acquired a set of mus- cular movements such as we have mentioned, until the cerebellum has taken over the task and relieved the cerebrum of the conscious effort. One's technique is never perfected until the cerebellum assumes control and direction of the necessary movements and the im-

23 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

pulses are sent forth from below the plane of ordinary consciousness.

The Cerebrum. — The cerebrum, or '^great brain'^ (which is regarded as ^^the brain^' by the average per- son), is situated in the upper portion of the skull, and occupies by far the larger portion of the cavity of the skull. It is divided into two great divisions or hemi- spheres. The best of the modern authorities are agreed that the cerebrum has zones or areas of specialized functioning, some of which receive the sensory reports of the nerves and organs of sense, while others send forth the motor impulses which result in voluntary physical action. Many of these areas or zones have been located by science, while others remain as yet unlocated. The probability is that in time science will succeed in correctly locating the area or zone of each and every class of sensation and motor impulse.

The Cortex.

The area of thought, memory, and imagination has not been clearly located, except that these mental states are believed to have their seat in the cortex or outer thin rind of* gray brain matter which envelopes and cov- ers the mass of brain substance. It is, moreover, consid- ered probable that the higher processes of reasoning are performed in or by the cortex of the frontal lobes. The

YOVR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT. 23

cortex of a person of average intelligence, if spread out on a flat surface, measures about four square feet. The higher the degree of intelligence possessed by a lower animal or human being, as a rule, the deeper and more numerous are the folds or convolutions of the cortex, and the finer its structure. It may be stated as a general rule, with but very few exceptions, that the higher the degree of intelligence in a lower animal or human being, the greater is the area of its cortex in proportion to the size of the brain. The cortex, it must be remembered, is folded into deep furrows or con- volutions, the brain in shape, divisions, and convolu- tions resembling the inner portion of an English walnut. The interior of the two hemispheres of the cerebrum is composed largely of connective nerves which doubt- less serve to produce and maintain the unity of func- tion of the mental processes.

While physiological psychology has performed great work in discovering brain-centers and explaining much of the mechanism of mental processes, it has but touched the most elementary and simple of the men- tal processes. The higher processes have so far defied analysis or explanation in the terms of physiology.

CHAPTER IV.

Consciousness.

THE fact of consciousness is the great mystery of psychology. It is difficult even to define the term, although every person of average in- telligence understands what is sought to be conveyed by it. Webster defines it as ^^knowledge of one^s own existence, sensations, mental operations, etc. ; immediate knowledge or perception of any object, state, or sensa- tion; being aware; being sensible of/^ Another author- ity defines the term as "the state of being aware of one^s sensations; the power, faculty, or mental state of being aware of one's own existence, condition at the moment, thoughts, feelings, and actions/' Halleck's definition is : "That indefinable characteristic of mental states which causes us to be aware of them.''

It will be seen that the idea of "awareness" is the essence of the idea of consciousness. But, at the last, we are compelled to acknowledge that it is impossible to closely define consciousness, for it is something so entirely unique and different from anything else that we have no other terms at all synonymous to it. We can define it only in its own terms, as will be seen by

YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT. 25

reference to the definitions above given. And it is equally impossible to clearly account for its appearance and being. Huxley has well said: "How it is that anything so remarkable as a state of consciousness comes about by the result of irritating nervous tissue, is just as unaccountable as the appearance of the jinnee when Aladdin rubbed his lamp.^^ All that we can ever know regarding the nature of consciousness must be learned from turning the consciousness in ourselves back upon itself — by focusing consciousness upon its own mental operations by means of introspection. By turning in- ward the conscious gaze we may perceive the flow of the stream of thought from its rise from the subcon- scious regions of the mind to its final disappearance in the same region.

It is a common error to suppose that we are directly conscious of objects outside of ourselves. This is im- possible, for there is no direct knowledge of such out- side objects. We are conscious merely of our sensations of, or mental images of, the outside objects. All that it is possible for us to be directly conscious of are our own mental experiences or states. We cannot be di- rectly conscious of anything outside of our own minds. We are not directly conscious of the tree which we see; we are directly conscious merely of the sensation of the nerves arising from the impact of the light waves car-

26 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

vying the image of the tree. We are not directly con- scious of the tree when we touch it and perceive its character in that way; we are directly conscious merely of the sensation reported by the nerves in the finger tips which have come in contact with the tree. We are directly conscious even of our own bodies only in the same way. It is necessary for the mind to experience that of which it may become conscious. We are con- scious only of (1) that which our mind is experiencing at this moment, or (2) that which it has experienced in the past, and which is being re-experienced this mo- ment by the process of the memory, or which is being re-combined or re-arranged this moment by the imag- ination.

Subconscious Planes.

But it must not be thought that every mental state or mental fact is in the field of consciousness. This error has been exploded for many years. The fact is now recognized that the field of consciousness is a very narrow and limited one, and that the great field of mental activity lies outside of its narrow limits. Be- yond and outside of the narrow field of consciousness lies the great subconscious storehouse of memory in which are stored the experiences of the past, to be drawn again into the field of consciousness by an effort of the will in the act of recollection, or by association

YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT. 27

in ordinary remembrance. In that great region, also, the mind manifests many of its activities and performs much of its work. In that great region are evolved the emotions and feelings which play such an impor- tant part in our lives, and which often manifest a vague disturbing unrest long before they rise to the plane of consciousness. In that great region are produced the ideas, feelings, and conceptions which arise to the plane of consciousness and manifest that which men call ^^genius.^^

On the subconscious plane the imagination does much of its work, and startles its owner by presenting him with the accomplished result in the field of conscious- ness. In the subconscious field is performed that pe- culiar process of mental mastication, digestion, and assimilation with which all brain workers are familiar, and which absorbs the raw mental material given it, separates, digests, and assimilates it, and re-presents it to the conscious faculties sometime after as a trans- formed substance. It has been estimated that at least eighty-five per cent, of our mental activities are per- formed below or outside of the field of consciousness. The psychology of to-day is paying much attention to this formerly neglected great area or areas of the mind. The psychology of to-morrow will pay still greater at- tention to it.

28 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

The best of the modern authorities agree that in the great field of subconscious mentation is to be found the explanation of much that is unexplainable otherwise. In fact, it is probable that before long consciousness will be regarded as a mere focusing of attention upon mental states, and the objects of consciousness merely as that portion of the contents of the mind in the field of mental vision created by such focusing.

^0463

CHAPTER V. Attention.

INTIMATELY connected with the object of con- sciousness is that process of the mind which we call ^^attention/^ Attention is generally defined as ^'the application of the mind to a mental state/^ It is often referred to as ^^concentrated consciousness/' but others have ventured the somewhat daring con- jecture that consciousness itself is rather the result of attention, instead of the latter being an incident of consciousness. We shall not attempt to discuss this question here, except to state that consciousness depends very materially upon the degree of attention bestowed upon its object. The authorities place great impor- tance upon the intelligent direction of the attention, and hold that without this the higher forms of knowl- edge are impossible.

It is the common belief that we feel, see, hear, taste, or smell whenever objects affecting those senses come in contact with the organs of sense governing them. But this is only a partial truth. The real truth is that we become conscious of the report of these senses only when the attention is directed toward the sensa- tion, voluntarily or involuntarily. That is to say, that

30 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

in many cases although the sense nerves and organs report a disturbance, the mind does not become con- sciously aware of the report unless the attention is directed toward it either by an act of will or else by reflex action. For instance, the clock may strike loudly, and yet we may not be conscious of the fact, for we are concentrating our attention upon a book; or we may eat the choicest food without tasting it, for we are listening intently to the conversation of our charming neighbor. We may fail to perceive some startling oc- currence happening under our very eyes, for we are buried in deep thought concerning something far re- moved from the present scene. There are many cases on record showing that one may be so interested in speaking, thinking, or acting that he will not experi- ence pain that would otherwise be intolerable. Writers have forgotten their pain in the concentrated interest bestowed upon their work; mothers have failed to feel pain when their infants required urgent attention; orators have been so carried away by their own elo- quence that they have failed to feel the pricking of the pin by means of which their friends have sought to attract their attention. Not only perception and feeling depend largely upon attention, but the proc- esses of reasoning, memory, and even of will, depend upon attention for much of their manifestation.

YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT. 31

Psychologists divide attention into two general classes, viz.: (1) voluntary attention and (2) involun- tary attention.

Voluntary attention is attention directed by the will to some object of our own more or less deliberate selec- tion. It requires a distinct effort of the will in order to focus the attention in this way, and many persons are scarcely aware of its existence, so seldom do they manifest it. Voluntary attention is the result of train- ing and practice, and marks the man of strong will, concentration, and character. Some authorities go so far as to say that much of that which is commonly called ^Vill power'^ is really but a developed form of voluntary attention, the man of ^^strong will" holding before him the one idea which he wishes to realize.

Involuntary attention, often called ^^reflex attention," is attention called forth by a nervous response to some sense stimulus. This is the common form of attention, and is but the same form which is so strongly mani- fested by children whose attention is caught by every new object, but which cannot be held for any length of time by a familiar or uninteresting one.

It is of the utmost importance that one should cul- tivate his power of voluntary attention. Not only is the will power strengthened and developed in this way, but every mental faculty is developed by reason thereof.

32 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

The training of the voluntary attention is the first step in mental development.

Training the Attention.

That the voluntary attention may be deliberately trained and developed is a fact which many of the world^s greatest men have proved for themselves. There is only one way to train and develop any mental power of faculty — and that is hy practice and use. By prac- tice, interest may be given to objects previously unin- teresting, and thus the use of the attention develops the interest which further holds it. Interest is the natural road over which attention travels easily, but interest itself may be induced by concentrated attention. By studying and examining an object, the attention brings to light many new and novel features regarding the thing, and these produce a new interest which in turn attracts further and continued attention.

There is no royal road to the development of volun- tary attention. The only true method is work, prac- tice, and use. You must practice on uninteresting things, the primary interest being your desire to develop the power of voluntary attention. But as you begin to attend to the uninteresting thing you will become interested in the task for its own sake. Take some object and "place your mind upon it." Think of its

YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT. 33

nature, where it came from, its use, its associations, its probable future, of things related to it, etc., etc. Keep the attention firmly upon it, and shut out all outside ideas. Then, after a little practice of this kind, lay- aside the object for the time being, and take it up again the next day, endeavoring to discover new points of interest in it. The main thing to be sought is to hold the thing in your mind, and this can be done only by discovering features of interest in it. The interest- loving attention may rebel at this task at first, and will seek to wander from the path into the green pastures which are found on each side thereof. But you must bring the mind back to the task, again and again.

After a time the mind will become accustomed to the drill, and will even begin to enjoy it. Give it some variety by occasionally changing the objects of exam- ination. The object need not always be something to be looked at. Instead, select some subject in history or literature, and "run it down,^' endeavoring to bring to light all the facts relating to it that are possible to you. Anything may be used as the subject or object of your inquiry; but what is chosen must be held in the field of conscious attention firmly and fixedly. The habit once acquired, you will find the practice most fascinating. You will invent new subjects or objects of inquiry, investigation, and thought, which in them-

34 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

selves will well repay you for your work and time. But never lose sight of the main point — the develop- ment of the power of voluntary attention.

In studying the methods of developing and training the voluntary attention, the student should remember that any exercise which develops the will, will result in developing the attention; and, likewise, any exercise which develops the voluntary attention will tend to strengthen the will. The will and attention are bo closely bound together that what affects one also influ- ences the other. This fact should be borne in mind, and the exercises and practices based upon it.

In practicing concentration of voluntary attention, it should be remembered that concentrating consists not only of focusing the attention upon a given object or subject, but also of the shutting out of impressions from other objects or subjects. Some authorities advise that the student endeavor to listen to one voice among many, or one instrument among the many of a band or orches- tra. Others advise the practice of concentrating on the reading of a book in a room filled by persons engaged in conversation, and similar exercises. Whatever aids in narrowing the circle of attention at a given moment tends to develop the power of voluntary attention.

The study of mathematics and logic is also held to be an excellent practice in concentration of voluntary at-

YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT. 35

tention, inasmuch as these studies require close con- centration and attention. Attention is also developed by «Tiy Rf^TijyjYi— QT^^ whiVh flpTnaTirlR anahj.^is nf a whole into its parts^ and then the synthesis or building up of a whole from its scattered parts. Each of the senses should play a part in the exercises, and in addi- tion to this the mind should be trained to concentrate upon some one idea held within itself — some mental image or abstract idea existing independently of any ob- ject of immediate sense report.

CHAPTER VI. Perception.

IT is a common mistake that we perceive everything that is reported to the mind by the senses. As a matter of fact we perceive but a very small portion of the reports of the senses. There are thou- sands of sights reported by our eyes, sounds reported by our ears, smells reported by our nostrils, and eon- tacts reported by our nerves of touch, every day of our lives, but which are not perceived or observed by the mind. We perceive and observe only when the atten- tion, reflex or voluntary, is directed to the report of the senses, and when the mind interprets the report. While perception depends upon the reports of the senses for its raw material, it depends entirely upon the ap- plication of the mind for its complete manifestation.

The student usually experiences great difficulty in distinguishing between sensation and perception. A sensation is a simple report of the senses, which is received in consciousness. Perception is the thought arising from the feeling of the sensation. Perception usually combines several sensations into one thought or percept. By sensation the mind feels; by perception

YOUB MIND AND HOW TO USE IT. 37

it knows that it feels, and recognizes the object causing the sensation. Sensation merely brings a report from outside objects, while perception identifies the report with the object which caused it. Perception inievprets the reports of sensation. Sensation reports a flash of light, from above; perception interprets the light as starlight, or moonlight, or sunlight, or as the flash of a meteor. Sensation reports a sharp, pricking, painful contact; perception interprets it as the prick of a pin. Sensation reports a red spot on a green background; perception interprets it as a berry on a bush.

Moreover, while we may perceive a simple single sensation, our perceptions are usually of a group of sen- sations. Perception is usually employed in grouping sensations and identifying them with the object or ob- jects causing them. In its identification it draws upon whatever memory of past experiences the mind may possess. Memory, imagination, feeling, and thought are called into play, to some extent, in every clear per- ception. The infant has but feeble perception, but as it gains experience it begins to manifest perceptions and form percepts. Sensations resemble the letters of the alphabet, and perception the forming of words and sentences from the letters. Thus c, a, and t symbolize sensations, while the word ^^cat,'' formed from them, symbolizes the perception of the object

38 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

It is held that all knowledge begins with sensation; that the mental history of the race or individual begins with its first sensation. But, while this is admitted, it must be remembered that sensation simply provides the simple, elementary, raw material of thought. The first process of actual thought, or knowledge, begins with perception. From our percepts all of our higher con- cepts and ideas are formed. Perception depends upon association of the sensation with other sensations pre- viously experienced; it is based upon experience. The greater the experience, the greater is the possibility of perception, all else being equal.

When perception begins, the mind loses sight of the sensation in itself, for it identifies it as a quality of the thing producing it. The sensation of light is thought of as a quality of the star; the pricking sensation is thought of as a quality of the pin or chestnut bur; the sensation of odor is thought of as a quality of the rose. In the case of the rose, the several sensations of sight, touch, and smell, in their impression of the quali- ties of color, shape, softness, and perfume, are grouped together in the percept of the complete object of the flower.

A percept is ^^that which is perceived; the object of the act of perception.^' The percept, of course, is a mental state corresponding with its outside object. It

YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT, 39

is a combination of several sensations which are re- garded as the qualities of the outside object, to which are combined the memories of past experiences, ideas, feelings, and thoughts. A percept, then, while the simplest form of thought, is seen to be a mental state. The formation of a percept consists of three gradual stages, viz.: (1) The attention forms definite con- scious sensations from indefinite nervous reports; (2) the mind interprets these definite conscious sensations and attributes them to the outside object causing them; (3) the related sensations are grouped together, their unity perceived, and they are regarded as qualities of the outside object.

The plain distinction between a sensation and a per- cept may be fixed in the mind by remembering the following: A sensation is a feeling; a percept is a simple thought identifying one or more sensations. A sensation is merely the conscious recognition of an excitation of a nerve end; a percept resulta-fxcm a distinct mental process regarding the sensation.

Developing Perception.

It is of the utmost importance that we develop and train our powers of perception. For our education de- pends very materially upon our perceptive power. What matters it to us if the outside world be filled with

40 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

manifold objects, if we do not perceive them to exist! Upon perception depends the material of our mental world. Many persons go through the world without perceiving even the most obvious facts. Their eyes and ears are perfect instruments, their nerves convey accurate reports, but the perceptive faculties of the mind fail to observe and interpret the report of the senses. They see and hear distinctly, but the reports of the senses are not observed or noted by them; they mean nothing to them. One may see many things, and yet observe but few. clit j.s not upon what we see or hear that our stock of knowledge depends,, so-much as it does upon what we perceive, notice, or observe.

Not only is one's stock of practical knowledge largely based upon developed perception, but one's success also depends materially upon the same faculties. In busi- ness and professional life the successful man is usually he who has developed perceptive powers; he who has learned to perceive, observe, and note. The man who perceives and takes mental notes of what occurs in his world is the man who is apt to know things when such knowledge is needed. In this age of ^^book education'^ we find that the young people are not nearly so observ- ant as are those children who had to depend upon the powers of perception for their knowledge. The young Arab or Indian will observe more in an hour than the

YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT. 41

civilized child will in a day. To live in a world of books tends, in many cases, to weaken the powers of observation and perception.

Perception may be developed by practice. Begin by taking notice of the things seen and heard in your usual walks. Keep wide open the eyes of the mind. Notice the faces of people, their walk, their character- istics. Look for interesting and odd things, and you will see them. Do not go through life in a daydream, but keep a sharp lookout for things of interest and value. The most familiar things will repay you for the time and work of examining them in detail, and the practice gained by such tasks will prove valuable in your development of perception.

An authority remarks that very few persons, even those living in the country, know whether a cow's ears are above, below, behind, or in front of her horns; nor whether cats descend trees head first or tail first. Very few persons can distinguish between the leaves of the various kinds of familiar trees in their neighborhood. Comparatively few persons are able to describe the house in which they live, at least beyond the most general features — the details are unknown.

Houdin, the French conjurer, was able to pass by a shop window and perceive every article in it, and then repeat what he had seen. But he acquired this skill

43 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

only by constant and gradual practice. He himself decried his skill and claimed that it was as nothing compared to that of the fashionable woman who can pass another woman on the street and ^Hake in" her entire attire, from head to foot, at one glance, and "be able to describe not only the fashion and quality of the stuffs, but also say if the lace be real or only machine made/^ A former president of Yale is said to have been able to glance at a book and read a quarter of a page at one time.

Any study or occupation which requires analysis will develop the power of perception. Consequently, if we will analyze the things we see, resolving them into their parts or elements, we will likewise develop the percep- tive faculties. It is a good exercise to examine some small object and endeavor to discover as many separate points of perception as possible, noting them on a sheet of paper. The most familiar object, if carefully exam- ined, will yield rich returns.

If two persons will enter into a contest of this kind, the spirit of rivalry and competition will quicken the powers of observation. Those who have had the pa- tience and perseverance to systematically practice exer- cises of this kind, report that they notice a steady improvement from the very start. But even if one does not feel inclined to practice in this way, it will

YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT, 43

be found possible to begin to take notice of the details of things one sees, the expression of persons^ faces, the details of their dress, their tone of voice, the quality of the goods we handle, and the little things especially. Perception, like attention, follows interest; but, like- wise, interest may be created in things by observing their details, peculiarities, and characteristics.

The best knowledge gained by one is that resulting from his own personal perception. There is a nearness and trueness about that which one knows in this way which is lacking in that which he merely believes be- cause he has read or heard it. One can make such knowledge a part of himself. Not only is one's knowl- edge dependent upon what he perceives, but his very character also results from the character of his percepts. The influence of environment is great — and what is environment but things perceived about one? It is not so much what lies outside of one, as what part of it gets inside of one by perception. By directing his at- tention to desirable objects, and perceiving as much of them as is possible, one really builds his own character at will.

The world needs good ^^perceivers'' in all the walks of life. It finds a shortage of them, and is demanding them loudly, being willing to pay a good price for their services. The person who can voluntarily perceive and

44 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

observe the details of any profession, business, or trade will go far in that vocation. The education of children should take the faculty of perception into active con- sideration. The kindergarten has taken some steps in this direction, but there is much more to be done.

CHAPTER VII. Memory.

PSYCHOLOGISTS class as '^representative men- tal processes'' those known as memory and imagination, respectively. The term ^'repre- sentation'' is used in psychology to indicate the processes of re-presentation or presenting again to consciousness that which has formerly been presented to it but which afterward passed from its field. As Hamilton says: "The general capability of knowledge necessarily re- quires that, besides the power of evoking out of uncon- sciousness one portion of our retained knowledge in preference to another, we possess the faculty of repre- senting in consciousness what is thus evoked.''

Memory is the primary representative faculty or power of the mind. Imagination dependsjuponjaem- ory for its material, as we shall see when we consider that faculty. Every mental process which involves the remembrance, recollection, or representation of a sen- sation, perception, mental image, thought, or idea pre- viously experienced must depend upon memory for its material. Memory is the great storehouse of the mind in which are placed the records of previous mental experiences. It is a part of the great subconscious field

46 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

of mental activity, and the greater part of its work is performed below the plane of consciousness. It is only when its results are passed into the field of conscious- ness that we are aware of its existence. We know mem- ory only by its works. Of its nature we know but little, although certain of its principal laws and principles have been discovered.

It was formerly customary to class memory with the various faculties of the mind, but later psychology no longer so considers it. Memory is now regarded as a power of the general mind, manifesting in connection with every faculty of the mind. It is now regarded as belonging to the great subconscious field of menta- tion, and its explanation must be sought there. It is utterly unexplainable otherwise.

The importance of memory cannot be overestimated. iSTot only does a man's character and education depend chiefly upon it, but his very mental being is bound up with it. If there were no memory, man would never progress mentally beyond the mental state of the new- born babe. He would never be able to profit by experi- ence. He would never be able to form clear percep- tions. He would never be able to reason or form judgments. The processes of thought depend for ma- terial upon the memory of past experiences; this mate- rial lacking, there can be no thought.

YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT. 47

Memory has two important general functions, viz. :

(1) The retention of impressions and experiences; and

(2) the reproduction of the impressions and experi- ences so retained.

It was formerly held that the memory retained only a portion of the impressions and experiences originally noted by it. But the present theory is that it retains every impression and experience which is noted by it. It is true that many of these impressions are never reproduced in consciousness, but experiments tend to prove, nevertheless, that the records are still in the memory and that appropriate and sufficiently strong stimuli will bring them into the field of consciousness. The phenomena of somnambulism, dreams, hysteria, delirium, approach of death, etc., show that the sub- conscious mind has an immense accumulation of appar- ently forgotten facts, which unusual stimuli will serve to recall.

The power of the memory to reproduce the retained impressions and experiences is variously called remem- brance, recollection, or memory. This power varies materially in various individuals, but it is an axiom of psychology that the memory of any person may be developed and trained by practice. The ability to recall depends to a great extent upon the clearness and depth of the original impression, which in turn depends upon

48 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

the degree of attention given to it at the time of its occurrence. Recollection is also greatly aided by the law of association^ or the principle whereby one mental fact is linked to another. The more facts to which a given fact is linked, the greater the ease by which it is recalled or remembered. Eecollection is also greatly assisted by use and exercise. Like the fingers, the memory cells of the brain become expert and efficient by use and exercise, or stiff and inefficient by lack of the same.

In addition to the phases of retention and repro- duction, there are two important phases of memory, viz.: (3) Recognition of the reproduced impression or experience; and (4) localization of the impression, or its reference to a more or less definite time and place.

The recognition of the recalled impression is quite important. It is not enough that the impression be retained and recalled. If we are not able to recognize the recalled impression as having been experienced be- fore, the recollection will be of but little use to us in our thought processes ; the purposes of thought demand that we shall be able to identify the recalled impression with the original one. Recognition is really re-cogni- tion— re-knowing. Recognition is akin to perception. The mind becomes conscious of the recalled impression just as it becomes conscious of the sensation. It then

YOUB MIND AND HOW TO USE IT. 49

recognizes the relation of the recalled impression to the original one just as it realizes the relation of the sensa- tion to its object.

The localization of the recalled and recognized im- pression is also important. Even if we recognize the recalled impression, it will be of comparatively little use to us unless we are able to locate it as having hap- pened yesterday, last week, last month, last year, ten years ago, or at some time in the past; and as having happened in our office, house, or in such-and-such a place in the street, or in some distant place. Without the power of localization we should be unable to con- nect and associate the remembered fact with the time, place, and persons with which it should be placed to be of use and value to us in our thought processes.

Detention.

The retention of a mental impression in the memory depends very materially upon the clearness and depth of the original impression. And this clearness and depth, as we have previously stated, depend upon the degree of attention bestowed upon the original impres- sion. Attention, then, is the important factor in the forming and recording of impressions. The rule is: Slight attention, faint record; marked attention, clear and deep record. To fix this fact in the mind, the stu-

50 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

dent may think of the retentive and reproductive phases of memory as a phonographic record. The re- ceiving diaphragm of the phonograph represenis the sense organs, and the recording needle represents the attention. The needle makes the record on the cylinder deep or faint according to the condition of the needle. A loud sound may be recorded but faintly, if the needle is not properly adjusted. And, further, it must be remembered that the strength of the reproduction de- pends almost entirely upon the clearness and depth of the original impression on the cylinder ; as is the record, so is the reproduction. It will be well for the student to carry this symbol of the phonograph in his mind; it will aid him in developing his powers of memory.

In this connection we should remember that atten- tion depends largely upon interest. Therefore we would naturally expect to find that we remember interesting things far more readily than those which lack interest. This supposition is borne out in actual experience. This accounts for the fact that every one remembers a certain class of things better than he does others. One remembers faces, another dates, another spoken con- versation, another written words, and so on. It will be found, as a rule, that each person is interested in the class of things which he most easily remembers. The artist easily remembers faces and details of faces, or

YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT, 51

scenery and details thereof. The musician easily re- calls passages or -bars of mnsic^ often of a most com- plicated nature. The speculator easily recalls the quotations of his favorite stocks. The racing man recalls without difficulty the ^^odds^^ posted on a certain horse on a certain day, or the details of a race which was run many years ago. The moral is: Arouse^ and induce^arv interesiJifL-ihe things ivJiich you wish-4o remember. This interest may be aroused by studying the things in question, as we have suggested in a pre- ceding chapter.

Visualization in Memory.

Many of the best authorities hold that original im- pressions may be made clear and deep, and the process of reproduction accordingly rendered more efficient, by the practice of visualizing the thing to be remembered. By visualizing is meant the formation of a mental im- age of the thing in the imagination. If you wish to remember the appearance of anything, look at it closely, with attention, and then turning away from it endeavor to reproduce its appearance as a mental picture in the mind. If this is done, a particularly clear impression will be made in the memory, and when you recall the thing you will find that you will also recall the clear mental image of it. Of course the greater the number

52 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

of details observed and included in the original mental image, the greater the remembered detail.

Perceptiois^ IX Memory.

jS'ot only is attention necessary in forming clear mem- ory records, but careful perception is also important. Without clear perception there is a lack of detail in the retained record, and the element of association is lack- ing. It is not enough to merely remember the thing itself ; we should also remember what it is, and all about it. The practice of the methods of developing perception, given in a preceding lesson, will tend to develop and train the retentive, reproductive, recogni- tive, and locative powers of the memory. The rule is : The greater the degree of perception accorded a thing, the greater the detail of the retained impression, and the greater the ease of the recollection.

Understanding and Memory.

Another important point in acquiring impressions in memory is this: That the better the understanding of the subject or object, the clearer the impressions regard- ing it, and the clearer the recollection of it. This fact is proved by experiment and experience. A subject which will be remembered only with difficulty under ordinary circumstances will be easily remembered if it

YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT. 53

is fully explained to the person, and accompanied by a few familiar illustrations or examples. It is very diffi- cult to remember a meaningless string of words, while a sentence which conveys a clear meaning may be mem- orized easily. If we understand what a thing is for, its uses and employment, we remember it far more easily than if we lack this understanding. Elbring- haus, who conducted a number of experiments along this line, reports that he could memorize a stanza of poetry in about one tenth the time required to memo- rize the same amount of nonsense syllables. Gordy states that he once asked a capable student of the Johns Hopkins University to give him an account of a lecture to which he had just listened. "I cannot do it,'^ re- plied the student; "it was not logical. ^^ The rule is: The more one knows about a certain thing, the more easily is that thing remembered. This is a point worth noting.

CHAPTEE VIII.

Memory — Continued.

THE subject of memory cannot be touched upon intelligently without a consideration of the Law of Association, one of the important psy- chological principles.

The Law of Association.

What is known in psychology as the Law of Asso- ciation is based on the fact that no idea exists in the mind except in association with other ideas. This is not generally recognized, and the majority of persons will dispute the law at first thought. But the existence and appearance of ideas in the mind are governed by a mental law as invariable and constant as the physical law of gravitation. Every idea has associations with other ideas. Ideas travel in groups, and one group is associated with another group, and so on, until in the end every idea in one's mind is associated directly or indirectly with every other idea. Theoretically, at least, it would be possible to begin with one idea in the mind of a person, and then gradually unwind his entire stock of ideas like the yarn on the ball. Our thoughts

YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT. 55

proceed according to this law. We sit down in a ^^brown study'^ and proceed from one subject to another, until we are unable to remember any connection between the first thought and the last. But each step of the reverie was connected with the one preceding and the one succeeding it. It is interesting to trace back these connections. Poe based one of his celebrated detective stories on this law. The reverie may be broken into by a sudden impression from outside, and we will then proceed from that impression, connecting it with some- thing else already in our experience, and starting a new chain of sequence.

Often we fail to trace the associations governing our ideas, but the chain is there nevertheless. One may think of a past scene or experience without any apparent cause. A little thought will show that something seen, or a few notes of a song floating to the ears, or the fragrance of a flower, has supplied the connecting link between the past and the present. A suggestion of mignonette will recall some past event in which the perfume played a part; some one^s handkerchief, per- haps, carried the same odor. Or an old familiar tune reminds one of some one, something, or some place in the past. A familiar feature in the countenance of a passer-by will start one thinking of some one else who had that kind of a mouth, that shaped nose, or that

56 YOUR MIND^AND HOW TO USE IT.

expression of the eye — and away he will be off in a sequence of remembered experiences. Often the start- ing idea^ or the connecting links, may appear but dimly in consciousness ; but rest assured they are always there. In fact, we frequently accept this law, unconsciously and without realizing its actual existence. For instance, one makes a remark, and at once we wonder, "How did he come to think of that?'^ and, if we are shrewd, we may discover what was in his mind before he spoke.

There are two general classes of association of ideas in memory, viz.: (1) Association of contiguity, and (2) logical association.

Association of contiguity is that form of association depending upon the previous association in time or space of ideas which have been impressed on the mind. For instance, if you met Mr. and Mrs. Wetterhorn and were introduced to them one after the other, thereafter you will naturally remember Mr. W. when you think of Mrs. W., and vice versa. You will naturally remem- ber N*apoleon when you think of Wellington, or Bene- dict Arnold when you think of Major Andre, for the same reason. You will also naturally remember b and c when you think of a. Likewise, you will think of abstract time when you think of abstract space, of thunder when you think of lightning, of colic when you recall green apples, of love making and moonlight nights when you

YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT. 57

think of college days. In the same way we remember things which occurred just before or just after the event in our mind at the moment; of things near in space to the thing of which we are thinking.

Logical association depends upon the relation of likeness or difference between several things thought of. Things thus associated may have never come into the mind at the same previous time, nor are they neces- sarily connected in time and space. One may think of a book, and then proceed by association to think of another book by the same author, or of another author treating of the same subject. Or he may think of a book directly opposed to the first, the relation of dis- tinct difference causing the associated idea. Logical association depends upon inner relations, and not upon the outer relations of time and space. This innerness of relation between things not connected in space or time is discovered only by experience and education. The educated man realizes many points of relationship between things that are thought by the uneducated man to be totally unrelated. Wisdom and knowledge con- sist largely in the recognition of relations between

things.

Association iisr Memory.

It follows from a consideration of the Law of Asso- ciation that when one wishes to impress a thing upon

58 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

the memory he should, as an authority says, ^^Multiply associations; entangle the fact you wish to remember in a net of as many associations as possible, especially those that are logical/^ Hence the advice to place your facts in groups and classes in the memory. As Blackie says: ^^Nothing helps the mind so much as order and classification. Classes are always few, individuals many; to know the class well is to know what is most essential in the character of the individual, and what burdens the memory least to retain/^

Repetition" in Memory.

Another important principle of memory is that the impressions acquire depth and clearness by repetition. Repeat a line of poetry once, and you may remember it ; repeat it again, and your chances of remembering it are greatly increased ; repeat it a sufficient number of times, and you cannot escape remembering it. The illustra- tion of the phonograph record will help you to under- stand the reason of this. The rule is: Oonstant repetition deepens memory impressions; frequent re- viewing and recalling what has been memorized tends to Jceep the records clear and clean, beside deepening the impression at each review.

YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT, 59

General Eules of Memory.

The following general rules will be of service to the student who wishes to develop his memory: —

Making Impressions.

(1) Bestow attention.

(2) Cultivate interest.

(3) Manifest perception.

(4) Cultivate understanding.

(5) Form associations.

(6) Eepeat and review.

Recalling Impressions,

(1) Endeavor to get hold of the loose end of asso- ciation^ and then unwind your memory ball of yarn.

(2) When you recall an impression, send it back with energy to deepen the impression, and attach it to as many new associations as possible.

(3) Practice a little memorizing and recalling each day, if only a line of verse. The memory improves by practice, and deteriorates by neglect and disuse.

(4) Demand good service of your memory, and it will learn to respond. Learn to trust it, and it will rise to the occasion. How can you expect your mem- ory to give good service when you continually abuse it and tell every one of "the wretched memory I have;

60 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

I can never remember anything'^? Your memory is very apt to accept your statements as truth ; our mental faculties have an annoying habit of taking us at our word in these matters. Tell your memory what you expect it to do; then trust it and refrain from abusing it and giving it a bad name.

Final Advice.

Finally, remember this rule: You get out of your memory only that which you place in it. Place in it good, clear, deep impressions, and it will reproduce good, clear, strong recollections. Think of your mem- ory as a phonographic record, and take care that you place the right kind of impressions upon it. In mem- ory you reap that which you have sown. You must give to the memory before you can receive from it. Of one thing you may rest assured, namely, that unless you take sufficient interest in the things to be remem- bered, you will find that the memory will not take sufficient interest in them to remember them. Memory demands interest before it will take interest in the task. It demands attention before it will give attention. It demands understanding before it will give understand- ing. It demands association before it will respond to association. It demands repetition before it will re- peat. The memory is a splendid instrument, but it

YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT. 61

stands on its dignity and asserts its rights. It belongs to the old dispensation — it demands compensation and believes in giving only in equal measure to what it receives. Our advice is to get acquainted with your memory, and make friends with it. Treat it well and it will serve you well. But neglect it, and it will turn its back on you.

CHAPTEE IX.

Imagination.

THE imagination belongs to the general class of mental processes called the representative facul- ties, by which is meant the processes in which there are re-presented, or presented again, to conscious- ness impressions previously presented to it.

As we have indicated elsewhere, the imagination is dependent upon memory for its materials — its records of previous impressions. But imagination is more than mere memory or recollection of these previously experi- enced and recorded impressions. There is, in addition to the re-presentation and recollection, a process of arranging the recalled impressions into new forms and new combinations. The imagination not only gathers together the old impressions, but also creates new com- binations and forms from the material so gathered.

Psychology gives us many hairsplitting definitions and distinctions between simple reproductive imagina- tion and memory, but these distinctions are technical and as a rule perplexing to the average student. In truth, there is very little, if any, difference between simple reproductive imagination and memory, although

YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USF IT. 63

when the imagination indulges in constructive activity a new feature enters into the process which is absent in pure memory operations. In simple reproductive imag- ination there is simply the formation of the mental image of some previous experience — ^the reproduction of a previous mental image. This differs very little from memory, except that the recalled image is clearer and stronger. In the same way in ordinary memory, in the manifestation of recollection, there is often the same clear, strong mental image that is produced in reproductive imagination. The two mental processes blend into each other so closely that it is practically impossible to draw the line between them, in spite of the technical differences urged by the psychologists. Of course the mere remembrance of a person who pre- sents himself to one is nearer to pure memory than to imagination, for the process is that of recognition. But the memory or remembrance of the same person when he is absent from sight is practically that of reproductive imagination. Memory, in its stage of recognition, exists in the child mind before reproduc- tive imagination is manifested. The latter, therefore, is regarded as a higher mental process.

But still higher in the scale is that which is known as constructive imagination. This form of imagina- tion appears at a later period of child mentation, and

64 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

is regarded as a later evolution of mental processes of the race. Gordy makes the following distinction be- tween the two phases of imagination: ^^The difference between reproductive imagination and constructive imagination is that the images resulting from repro- ductive imagination are copies of past experience, while those resulting from constructive imagination are not. * * * To learn whether any particular image, or com- bination of images, is the product of reproductive or constructive imagination, all we have to do is to learn whether or not it is a copy of a past experience. Our memories, of course, are defective, and we may be un- certain on that account; but apart from that, we need be in no doubt whatever.^^

Many persons hearing for the first time the state- ment of psychologists that the imaginative faculties can re-present and re-produce or re-combine only the images which have previously been impressed upon the mind, are apt to object that they can, and frequently do, image things which they have not previously experi- enced. But can they and do they ? Is it not true that what they believe to be original creations of the imag- ination are merely new combinations of original impres- sions ? For instance, no one ever saw a unicorn, and yet some one originally imagined its form. But a little thought will show that the image of the unicorn is

YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT, 65

merely that of an animal having the head, neck, and body of a horse, with the beard of a goat, the legs of a buck, the tail of a lion, and a long, tapering horn, spirally twisted, in the middle of the forehead. Each of the several parts of the unicorn exists in some living animal, although the unicorn, composed of all of these parts, is non-existent outside of fable. In the same way the centaur is composed of the body, legs, and tail of the horse and the trunk, head, and arms of a man. The satyr has the head, body, and arms of a man, with the horns, legs, and hoofs of a goat. The mermaid has the head, arms, and trunk of a woman, joined at the waist to the body and tail of a fish. The mythological ^^devir^ has the head, body, and arms of a man, with the horns, legs, and cloven foot of the lower animal, and a peculiar tail composed of that of some animal but tipped with a spearhead. Each of these characteristics is composed of familiar images of experience. The im- agination may occupy itself for a lifetime turning out impossible animals of this kind, but every part thereof will be found to correspond to something existent in nature, and experienced by the mind of the person cre- ating the strange beast.

In the same way the imagination may picture a familiar person or thing acting in an unaccustomed manner, the latter having no basis in fact so far as the

66 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

individual person or thing is concerned, but being war- ranted by some experience concerning other persons or things. For instance, one may easily form the image of a dog swimming under water like a fish, or climbing a tree like a cat. Likewise, one may form a mental image of a learned, bewigged High Chancellor, or a venerable Archbishop of Canterbury, dressed like a clown, standing on his head, balancing a colored foot- ball on his feet, sticking his tongue in his cheek and winking at the audience. In the same way one may imagine a railroad running across a barren desert, or a steep mountain, upon which there is not as yet a rail laid. The bridge across a river may be imaged in the same way. In fact, this is the way that everything is mentally created, constructed, or invented — the old materials being combined in a new way, and arranged in a new fashion. Some psychologists go so far as to say that no mental image of memory is an exact repro- duction of the original impression; that there are al- ways changes due to the unconscious operation of the constructive imagination.

The constructive imagination is able to ^^tear things to pieces^^ in search for material, as well as to "join things together'^ in its work of building. The impor- tance of the imagination in all the processes of intel- lectual thought is great. Without imagination man

YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT. 67

A

coi^ld not reason or manifest any intellectual process. It ik impossible to consider the subject of thought with- out first regarding the processes of imagination. And yet it\is common to hear persons speak of the imag- ination, as ^if it , were a faculty of mere fancy, useless and without plaiie in the practical world of thought.

. \ I \

Developing the Imaginatioist.

The invagination is capable of development and train- ing. Tlie general rules for development of the imag- ination are practically those which we have stated in connection with the development of the memory. There is the same necessity for plenty of material; for the formation of clear and deep impressions and clear-cut mental images; the same necessity for repeated impres- sion, and the frequent use and employment of the faculty. The practice of visualization, of course, strengthens the power of the imagination as it does that of the memory, the two powers being intimately related. The imagination may be strengthened and trained by deliberately recalling previous impressions and then combining them into new relations. The materials of memory may be torn apart and then re- combined and re-grouped. In the same way one inay> enter into the feelings and thoughts of other persons r by imagining one^s self in their place and endeavoring \

68 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

to act out in imagination the life of such persons. In this way one may build up a much fuller and broader conception of human nature and human motives.

In this place, also, we should caution the student against the common waste of the powers of the imagina- tion, and the dissipation of its powers in idle fancies and daydreams. Many persons misuse their imagina- tion in this way and not only weaken its power for effective work but also waste their time and energy. Daydreams are notoriously unfit for the real, practical

work of life.

Imagination and Ideals.

And, finally, the student should remember that in the category of the imaginative powers must be placed that phase of mental activity which has so much to do with the making or marring of one's life — the formation of ideals. Our ideals are the patterns after which we shape our life. According to the nature of our ideals is the character of the life we lead.

Our ideals are the supports of that which we call character.

It is a truth, old as the race, and now being per- ceived most clearly by thinkers, that indeed "as a man thinketh in his heart so is he.^' The influence of our ideals is perceived to affect not only our character but also our place and degree of success in life. We grow

YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT. 69

to be that of which we have held ideals. If we create an ideal, either of general qualities or else these quali- ties as manifested by some person living or dead, and keep that ideal ever before us, we cannot help develop- ing traits and qualities corresponding to those of our ideal. Careful thought will show that character depends greatly upon the nature of our ideals; therefore we see the effect of the imagination in character building.

Moreover, our imagination has an important bearing on our actions. Many a man has committed an im- prudent or immoral act which he would not have done had he been possessed of an imagination which showed him the probable results of the action. In the same way many men have been inspired to great deeds and achievements by reason of their imagination picturing to them the possible results of certain action. The ^^big things^^ in all walks of life have been performed by men who had sufficient imagination to picture the pos- sibilities of certain courses or plans. The railroads, bridges, telegraph lines, cable lines, and other works of man are the results of the imagination of some men. The good fairy godmother always provides a vivid and lively imagination among the gifts she bestows upon her beloved godchildren. Well did the old philosopher pray to the gods : "And, with all, give unto me a clear and active imagination.^^

70 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

The dramatic values of life depend upon the quality of the imagination. Life without imagination is me- chanical and dreary. Imagination may increase the susceptibility to pain, but it pays for this by increasing the capacity for joy and happiness. The pig has but little imagination, — little pain and little joy, — ^but who envies the pig? The person with a clear and active imagination is in a measure a creator of his world, or at least a re-creator. He takes an active part in the creative activities of the universe, instead of being e mere pawn pushed here and there in the game of life.

Again, the divine gift of sympathy and understand- ing depends materially upon the possession of a good imagination. One can never understand the pain or problems of another unless he first can imagine him- self in the place of the other. Imagination is at the very heart of sympathy. One may be possessed of great capacity for feeling, but owing to his lack of imagina- tion may never have this feeling called into action. The person who would sympathize with others must first learn to understand them and feel their emotions. This he can do only if he has the proper degree of imagina- tion. Those who reach the heart of the people must first be reached by the feelings of the people. And this is possible only to him whose imagination enables him to picture himself in the same condition as others, and

YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT. 71

thus awaken his latent feelings and sympathies and understanding. Thus it is seen that the imagination touches not only our intellectual life but also our emo- tional nature. Imagination is the very life of the soul.

CHAPTER X.

The Feelings.

IN thinking of the mind and its activities we are accustomed to the general idea that the mental processes are chiefly those of intellect^ reason, thought. But, as a fact, the greater part of the mental activities are those concerned with feeling and emotion. The intellect is the youngest child of the mind, and while making its presence strenuously known in the manner of all youngest children so that one is perhaps justified in regarding it as ^'^the whole tiling'^ in the family, nevertheless it really plays but a comparatively small part in the general work of the mental family. The activities of the ^^feeling'^ side of life greatly out- number those of the ^^thinking" side, are far stronger in their influence and effect, as a rule, and, in fact, so color the intellectual processes, unconsciouslj^, as to con- stitute their distinctive quality except in the case of a very few advanced thinkers.

But there is a difference between ^^feeling" and "emo- tion,^^ as the terms are employed in psychology. The former is the simple phase, the latter the complex. Generally speaking, the resemblance or difference is

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akin to that existing between sensation and perception, as explained in a previous chapter. Beginning with the simple, in order later on to reach the complex, we shall now consider that which is known as simple "feel- ing.'^

The term ^^feeling/^ as used in this connection in 3sychology, has been defined as ^*the simple agreeable :>T disagreeable side of any mental state/' These agree- able or disagreeable sides of mental states are quite distinct from the act of knowing, which accompanies them. One may perceive and thus ^^know'^ that another is speaking to him and be fully aware of the words being used and of their meaning. Ordinarily, and so far as pure thought processes are concerned, this would complete the mental state. But we must reckon on the feeling side as well as on the thinking side of the mental state. Accordingly we find that the knowledge of the words of the other person and the meaning thereof results in a mental state agreeable or disagreeable. In the same way the reading of the words of a book, the hearing of a song, or a sight or scene perceived, may result in a more or less strong feeling, agreeable or dis- agreeable. This sense^of^agreeable or disagreeable con- sciousness is the essential characteristic of what we^ call "feeling.^'

It is very difficult to explain feeling except in its own

U YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

terms. We know very well what we mean, or what another means, when it is said that we or he 'Jeels sad/^ or has "a joyous feeling/^ or ^^a feeling of interest/' And yet we shall find it very hard to explain the mental state except in terms of feeling itself. Our knowledge depends entirely upon our previous experience of the feeling. As an authority says : ^^If we have never felt pleasure, pain, fear, or sorrow, a quarto volume cannot make us understand what such a mental state is.'' Every mental state is not distinguished by strong feel- ing. There are certain mental states which are con- cerned chiefly with intellectual effort, and in which all trace of feeling seems to be absent, unless, as some have claimed, the "feeling'' of interest or the lack of same is a faint form of the feeling of pleasure or pain. Habit may dull the feeling of a mental state until it is apparently neutral, but there is generally a faint feeling of like or dislike still left.

The elementary forms of feeling are closely allied with those of simple sensation. But experiments have revealed that there is a distinction in consciousness. It has been discovered that one is often conscious of the "touch" of a heated object before he is of the feeling or pain resulting from it. Psychologists have pointed out another distinction, namely: When we experience a sensation we are accustomed to refer it to the

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outside thing which is the object of it, as when we touch the heated object; but when we experience a feel- ing we instinctively refer it to ourself, as when the heated object gives us pain. As an authority has said : ^^My feelings belong to me; but my sensations seem to belong to the object which caused them/'

Another proof of the difference and distinction be- tween sensation and feeling is the fact that the same sensation will produce different feelings in different persons experiencing the former, even at the same time. For instance, the same sight will cause one person to feel elated, and the other depressed; the same words will produce a feeling of joy in one, and a feeling of sorrow in another. The same sensation will produce different feelings in the same person at different times. An authority well says: "You drop your purse, and you see it lying on the ground as you stoop to pick it up, with no feeling either of pleasure or pain. But if you see it after you have lost it and have hunted for it a long time in vain, you have a pronounced feeling of pleasure.''

There is a vast range of degree and kind in feeling. Gordy says : "All forms of pleasure and pain are called feelings. Between the pleasure which comes from eat- ing a peach and that which results from solving a diffi- cult problem, or learning good news of a friend, or

76 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

thinking of the progress of civilization — ^between the pain that results from a cut in the hand and that which results from the failure of a long-cherished plan or the death of a friend — there is a long distance. But the one group are all pleasures; the other all pains. And, whatever the source of the pleasure or pain, it is alike feeling/^

There are many different kinds of feelings. Some arise from sensations of physical comfort or discomfort ; others from purely physiological conditions; others from the satisfaction of accustomed tastes, or the dis- satisfaction arising from the stimulation of unaccus- tomed tastes; others from the presence or absence of comfort; others from the presence or absence of things or persons for whom we have an affection or liking. Over-indulgence often transforms the feeling of pleas- ure into that of pain ; and, likewise, habit and* practice may cause us to experience a pleasurable feeling from that which formerly inspired feeling of. an opposite kind. Feelings also differ in degree ; that is to say, some things cause us to experience pleasurable feelings of a greater intensity than do others, and some cause us to experi- ence painful feelings of a greater intensity than do others. These degrees of intensity depend more or less upon the habit or experience of the individual. As a general rule, feelings may be classified into (1) those

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arising from physical sensations, and (3) those arising from ideas.

The feelings depending upon physical sensations arise either from inherited tendencies and inclinations or from acquired habits and experience. It is an axiom of the evolutionary school that any physical activity that has been a habit of the race, long continued, be- comes an instinctive pleasure-giving activity in the individual. For instance, the race for many genera- tions was compelled to hunt, fish, travel, swim, etc., in order to maintain existence. The result is that we, the descendants, are apt to find pleasure in the same activi- ties as sport, games, exercise, etc. Many of our tenden- cies and feelings are inherited in this way. To these we have added many acquired habits of physical activ- ity, which follow the same rule, i, e., that habit and practice impart more or less pleasurable feeling. We find more pleasure in doing those things which we can do easily or quite well than in the opposite kind of things.

The feelings depending upon ideas may also arise from inheritance. Many of our mental tendencies and inclinations have come down to us from the past. There are certain feelings that are born in one, without a doubt; that is to say, there is a great capacity for such feelings which will be transformed into manifestation

78 YOUB MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

upon the presentation of the proper stimulus. Other mental feelings depend upon our individual past experi- ence, association, or suggestions from others — upon our past environment, in fact. The ideals of those around us will cause us to experience pleasure or pain, as the case may be, under certain circumstances; the force of suggestion along these lines is very strong indeed. Not only do we experience feelings in response to present sensations, but the recollection of some previous experi- ence will also arouse feeling. In fact, feelings of this kind are closely bound up with memory and imagina- tion. Persons of vivid imagination are apt to feel far more than others. They suffer more, and enjoy more. Our sympathies, which depend largely upon our imaginative power, are the cause of many of our feel- ings of this kind.

Many of the facts which we generally ascribe to feel- ing are really a part of the phenomena of emotion, the latter being the more complex phase of feeling. For the purposes of this consideration we have regarded simple feeling as the raw material of emotion, the rela- tion being compared to that existing between sensation and perception. In our consideration of emotion we shall see the fuller manifestation of feeling, and its more complex expressions.

CHAPTER XL

The E^motions.

As we have seen in the preceding lessons, an emo- tion is the more complex phase of feeling. ^ As a rule an emotion arises from a number of feelings. Moreover, it is of a higher order of mental activity. As we have seen, a feeling may arise either from a physical sensation or from an idea. Emotion, however, as a rule, is dependent upon an idea for its expression, and always upon an idea for its direction and its continuance. Feeling, of course, is the ele- mental spirit of all emotional states, and, as an author- ity has said, is the thread upon which the emotional states are strung.

Halleck says: ^^When representative ideas appear, the feeling in combination with them produces emotion. After the waters of the Missouri combine with another stream, they receive a different name, although they flow toward the gulf in as great volume as before. Suppose we liken the feeling due to sensation to the Missouri River; the train of representative ideas to the Mississippi before its junction with the Missouri. Emo- tion may then be likened to the Mississippi after its

80 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

junction — after feeling has combined with representa- tive ideas- The emotional stream will not be broader and deeper than before. This analogy is employed only to make the distinction clearer. The student must re- member that mental powers are never actually as dis- tinct as two rivers before their union. * * * The student must beware of thinking that we have done Avith feeling when we consider emotion. Just as the waters of the Missouri flow on until they reach the gulf, so does feeling run through every emotional state.^^ In the above analogy the term ^^representative ideas/^ of course, means the ideas of memory and imagination as explained in previous chapters.

There is a close relation between emotion and the physical expression thereof — a peculiar mutual action and reaction between the mental state and the physical action accompanying it. Psychologists are divided re- garding this relation. One school holds that the phys- ical expression follows and results from the mental state. For instance, we hear or see something, and thereupon experience the feeling or emotion of anger. This emotional feeling reacts upon the body and causes an increased heart beat, a tight closing of the lips, a frown and lowered eyebrows, and clinched fists. Or we may perceive something which causes the feeling or emotion of fear, which reacts upon the body and pro-

YOUB MIND AND HOW TO USE IT, 81

duces pallor, raising of the hair, dropping of the jaw, opening of the eyelids, trembling of the legs, etc. Ac- cording to this school, and the popular idea, the mental state precedes and causes the physical expression.

But another school of psychology, of which the late Prof. William James is a leading authority, holds that the physical expression precedes and causes the mental state. For instance, in the cases above cited, the perception of the anger-causing or fear-causing sight first causes a reflex action upon the muscles, ac- cording to inherited race habits of expression. This muscular expression and activity, in turn, is held to react upon the mind and to cause the feeling or emotion of anger or fear, as the case may be. Professor James, in some of his works, makes a forcible argument in sup- port of this theory, and his opinions have influenced the scientific thought of the day upon this subject. Others, however, have sought to combat his theory by equally forcible argument, and the subject is still under lively and spirited discussion in psychological circles.

Without taking sides in the above controversy, many psychologists proceed upon the hypothesis that there is a mutual action and reaction between emotional mental states and the appropriate physical expression thereof, each in a measure being the cause of the other, and each likewise being the effect of the other. For instance, in

82 YOUR MIND AND) HOW TO USE IT.

•

the cases above cited, the perception of the anger-pro- ducing or fear-producing sight causes, almost or quite simultaneously, the emotional mental state of anger or fear, as the case may be, and the physical expression thereof. Then rapidly ensues a series of mental and physical reactions. The mental state acts upon the physical expression and intensifies it. The physical expression in turn reacts upon the mental state and induces a more intense degree of the emotional feeling. And so on, until the mental state and physical expres- sion reach their highest point and then begin to subside from exhaustion of energy. This middle-ground con- ception meets all the requirements of the facts, and is probably more nearly correct than either extreme theory. Darwin in his classic work, ^The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals,^^ has thrown a great light on the subject of the expression of emotion in physical motions. The Florentine scientist, Paolo Mantegazza, added to Darwin's work with ideas of his own and countless examples drawn from his own expe- rience and observation. The work of Frangois Delsarte, the founder of the school of expression which bears his name, is also a most valuable addition to the thought on this subject. The subject of the relation and reaction between emotional feeling and physical expression is a most fascinating one, and one in which we may expect

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interesting and valuable discoveries during the next twenty years.

The relation and reaction above mentioned are inter- esting not only from the viewpoint of theory but also because of their practicable application in emotional de- velopment and training. It is an established truth of psychology that each physical expression of an emo- tional state serves to intensify the latter; it is pouring oil on the fire. Likewise, it is equally true that the repression of the physical expression of an emotion tends to restrain and inhibit the emotion itself.

Halleck says : "If we watch a person growing angry, we shall see the emotion increase as he talks loud, frowns deeply, clinches his fist, and gesticulates wildly. Each expression of his passion is reflected back upon the original anger and adds fuel to the fire. If he resolutely inhibits the muscular expressions of his an- ger, it will not attain great intensity, and it will soon die a quiet death. * * * Not without reason are those persons called cold blooded who habitually restrain as far as possible the expression of their emotion; who never frown or throw any feeling into their tones, even when a wrong inflicted upon some one demands ag- gressive measures. There is here no wave of bodily ex- pression to flow back and augment the emotional state.^^

In this connection we call vour attention to the

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familiar and oft-quoted passage from the works of Prof. William James: ^^Eefuse to express a passion and it dies. Count ten before venting your anger and its occasion seems ridiculous. Whistling to keep up courage is no mere figure of speech. On the other hand, sit all day in a moping posture, sigh and reply to every- thing with a dismal voice, and your melancholy lingers. There is no more valuable precept in moral education than this, as all who have experience know: If we wish to conquer undesirable emotional tendencies in ourselves, we must assiduously, and in the first instance cold-bloodedly, go through the outward movements of those contrary dispositions which we prefer to cultivate. Smooth the brow, brighten the eye, contract the dorsal rather than the ventral aspect of the frame, and speak in a major key, and your heart must be frigid indeed if it does not gradually thaw.'^

Along the same lines Halleck says: ^^Actors have frequently testified to the fact that emotion will arise if they go through the appropriate muscular movements. In talking to a character on the stage, if they clinch the fists and frown, they often find themselves becoming really angry; if they start with counterfeit laughter, they find themselves growing cheerful. A German pro- fessor says that he cannot walk with a schoolgirFs mincing step and air without feeling frivolous.^^

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The wise student will acquire a great control over his emotional nature if he will re-read and study the above statements and quotations until he has grasped their spirit and essence. In those few lines he is given a philosophy of self-control and self-mastery that will be worth much to him if he will but apply it in practice. Patience, perseverance, practice, and will are required, but the reward is great. Even to those who have not the persistency to apply this truth fully, there will be a partial reward if they will use it to the extent of restraining so far as possible any undue physical ex- pression of undesirable emotional excitement.

Some writers seem to regard capacity for great emo- tional excitement and expression as a mark of a rich and full character or noble soul. This is far from be- ing true. While it is a fact that the cultivation of certain emotions tends to create a noble character and a full life, it is equally true that the tendency to ^^gush'' and indulge in hysterical or sentimental excesses is a mark of an ill-controlled nature and a weak, rather than strong, character. Moreover, it is a fact that excess in emotional excitement and expression tends toward the dissipation of the finer and nobler feelings which otherwise would seek an outlet in actual doing and prac- tical action. In the language of the old Scotch engi- neer in the story, they are like the old locomotive which

86 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

^^spends sae much steam at the whustle that she hae nane left to gae by/^

Emotional excitement and expression are largely de- pendent upon habit and indulgence, although there is a great difference, of course, in the emotional nature and tendencies of various persons. Emotions, like physical actions or intellectual processes, become habit- ual by repetition. And habit renders all physical or mental actions easy of repetition. Each time one mani- fests anger, the deeper the mental path is made, and the easier it is to travel that path the next time. In the same way each time that anger is conquered and inhibited, the easier will it be to restrain it the next time. In the same way desirable habits of emotion and expression may be formed.

Another point in the cultivation, training, and re- straint of the emotions is that which has to do with the control of the ideas which we allow to come into the mind. Ideative habits may be formed — are formed, in fact, by the majority of persons. We may cultivate the habit of looking on the bright side of things ; of looking for the best in those we meet; of expecting the best things instead of the worst. By resolutely refusing to give welcome to ideas calculated to arouse certain emo- tions, feelings, passions, desires, sentiments, or similar mental states, we may do much to prevent the arousing

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of the emotion itself. Emotions usually are called forth by some idea, and if we shut out the idea we may pre- vent the emotional feeling from appearing. In this connection the universal rule of psychology may be applied: A mental state may be inhibited or restrained by turning the attention to the opposite mental state.

The control of the attention is really the control of every mental state.

We may use the will in the direction of the control of the attention — the development and direction of voluntary attention — and thus actually control every phase of mental activity. The will is nearest to the ego, or central being of man, and the attention is the chief tool and instrument of the will. This fact cannot be repeated too often. If it is impressed upon the mind it will prove to be useful and valuable in many emer- gencies of mental life. He who controls his attention controls his mind, and in controlling his mind controls himseK.

CHAPTEE XII.

The Instinctive £motions»

MAlsTY attempts to classify the emotions have been made by the psychologists, but the best authorities hold that beyond the purpose of ordinary convenience in considering the subject any classification is scientifically useless by reason of its incompleteness. As James cleverly puts it: ^^Any classification of the emotions is seen to be as true and as natural as any other, if it only serves some pur- pose/^ The difficulty attending the attempted classifi- cation arises from the fact that every emotion is more or less complex, and is made up of various feelings and shades of emotional excitement. Each emotion blends into others. Just as a few elements of matter may be grouped into hundreds of thousands of combinations, so the elements of feeling may be grouped into thou- sands of shades of emotion. It is said that the two elements of carbon and hydrogen form combinations resulting in five thousand varieties of material sub- stance, "from anthracite to marsh gas, from black coke to colorless naphtha.^^ The same thing may be said of the emotional combinations formed from two principal

YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT. 89

elements of feeling. Moreover, the close distinction between sensation and feeling on the one hand, and between feeling and emotion on the other, serves to further complicate the task.

For the purposes of our consideration, let us divide the emotions into five general classes, as follows: (1) Instinctive emotions, (2) social emotions, (3) religious emotions, (4) agsthetic emotions, (5) intellectual emo- tions. We shall new consider each of the above five classes in turn.

The Instinctive Emotions.

Instinct is defined as ^^unconscious, involuntary, or unreasoning prompting to any action,^^ or "the natural unreasoning impulse by which an animal is guided to the performance of any action, without thought of im- proving the method.^^ An authority says: "Instinct is a natural impulse leading animals, even prior to all experience, to perform certain actions tending to the welfare of the individual or the perpetuation of the species, apparently without understanding the object at which they may be supposed to aim, or deliberating as to the best methods to employ. In many cases, as in the construction of the cells of the bee, there is a perfection about the result which reasoning man could not have equaled, except by an application of the higher

90 YOUR MIND AND HOW TO USE IT.

mathematics to direct the operations carried out. Mr. Darwin considers that animals, in time past as now, have varied in their mental qualities, and that those variations are inherited. Instincts also vary slightly in a state of nature. This being so, natural selection can ultimately bring them to a high degree of perfection.^^

It was formerly the fashion to ascribe instinct in the lower animals, and in man, to something akin to "in- nate ideas'^ implanted in each species and thereafter continued by inheritance. But the application of the idea of evolution to the science of psychology has re- sulted in brushing away these old ideas. To-day it holds that that which we call "instinct^^ is the result of gradual development in the course of evolution, the accumulated experience of the race being stored away in the race memory, each individual adding a little thereto by his acquired habits and experiences. Psy- chologists now hold that the lower forms of these race tendencies are closely akin to purely reflex actions, and the higher forms, which are known as "instinctive emo- tions,^^ are phenomena of the subconscious mind result- ing from race memory and race experience.

Clodd says: "Instinct is the higher form of reflex action. The salmon migrates from sea to river; the bird makes its nest or migrates from one zone to an- other by an unvarying route, even leaving its young

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behind to perish; the bee builds its six-sided cell; the spider spins its web; the chick breaks its way through the shell, balances itself, and picks up grains of corn; the newborn babe sucks its mother^s breast — all in virtue of like acts on the part of their ancestors, which, arising in the needs of the creature, and gradually be- coming automatic, have not varied during long ages, the tendency to repeat them being transmitted within the germ from which insect, fish, bird, and man have severally sprung/^

Schneider says: "It is a fact that men, especially in childhood, fear to go into a dark cavern, or a gloomy wood. This feeling of fear arises, to be sure, partly from the fact that we easily suspect that dangerous beasts may lurk in these localities — a suspicion due to stories we have heard and read. But, on the other hand, it is quite sure that this fear at a certain per- ception is also directly inherited. Children who have been carefully guarded from all ghost stories are never- theless terrified and cry if led into a dark place, espe- cially if sounds are made there. Even an adult can easily observe that an uncomfortable timidity steals over him in a lonely wood at night, although he may have the fixed conviction that not the slightest danger is near. This feeling of fear occurs in many men even in their own houses after dark, although it is much

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stronger in a dark cavern or forest. The fact of such instinctive fear is easily explicable when we consider that our savage ancestors through immemorable genera- tions were accustomed to meet with dangerous beasts in caverns^ especially bears, and were for the most part attacked by such beasts during the night and in the woods, and that thus an inseparable association between the perceptions of darkness, caverns, woods, and fear took place, and was inherited/^

James says: /^Nothing is commoner than the re- mark that man differs from lower creatures by the almost total absence of instincts, and the assumption of their work in him by reason. * * * We may confi- dently say that however uncertain man's reactions upon his environment may sometimes seem in comparison with those of the lower mammals, the uncertainty is probably not due to their possession of any principles of action which he lacks. On the contrary, man pos- sesses all the impulses that they have, and a great many more besides, * * * High places cause fear of a pe- culiarly sickening sort, though here again individuals differ. The utterly blind instinctive character of the motor impulses here is shown by the fact that they are almost always entirely unreasonable, but that reason is powerless to suppress them. * * * Certain ideas of supernatural agency, associated with real circumstances,

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produce a peculiar kind of horror. This horror is prob- ably explicable as the result of a combination of simple horrors. To bring the ghostly terror to its maximum, many unusual elements of the dreadful must combine, such as loneliness, darkness, inexplicable sounds, espe- cially of a dismal character, moving pictures half dis- cerned (or, if discerned, of dreadful aspect), and a vertiginous baffling of the expectation. * * * In view of the fact that cadaveric, reptilian, and underground horrors play so specific and constant a part in many nightmares and forms of delirium, it seems not alto- gether unwise to ask whether these forms of dreadful circumstance may not at a former period have been more normal objects of the environment than now. The evolutionist ought to have no difficulty in explain- ing these terrors, and the scenery that provokes them, as relapses into the consciousness of the cave men, a consciousness usually overlaid in us by experiences of a more recent date.'^

Instinctive emotion manifests as an impulse arising from the dim recesses of the feeling or emotional na- ture— an incentive toward a dimly conscious end. It differs from the almost purely automatic nature of certain forms of reflex process, for its beginning is a feeling arising from the subconscious regions, which strives to excite an activity of conscious volition. The

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feeling is from fhe subconscious, but the activity is conscious. The end may not be perceived in conscious- ness, or at least is but dimly perceived, but the action leading to the end is in full consciousness. Instinct is seen to have its origin in the past experiences of the race, transmitted by heredity and preserved in the race memory. It has for its object the preservation of the individual and of the species. Its end is often some- thing far removed in time from the moment, or the welfare of the species rather than that of the individual ; for instance, the caterpillar providing for its future states, or the bird building its nest, or the bees building cells and providing hone)^ for their successors, for very few bees live to partake of the honey which they have gathered and stored — they are animated by ^^the spirit of the hive.*^

The most elementary forms of the instinctive emo- tions are those which have to do with the preservation of the individual, his comfort, and personal physical welfare. This class of emotions comprises what are generally known as purely "selfish'^ feelings, having little or no concern for the welfare of others. In this class we find the emotional feelings which have to do with the satisfaction of hunger and thirst, the securing of comfortable quarters and warm clothing, and the spirit of combat and strife arising from the desire to

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obtain these. These elemental feelings had their birth early in the history of life, and indeed life itself de- pended very materially upon them for its preservation and continuance. It was necessary for the primitive living thing to be ^^selfish/^ When man appeared, only those survived who manifested these feelings strongly; the others were pushed to the wall and perished. Even in our civilization the man below the average in this class of feelings will find it difficult to survive.

CHAPTER XIII. The Passions^

A RISING from the most elemental instinctive / \ emotions^ we find what may be termed "the *^ "^ passions/^ By the term "passion'^ is meant those strong feelings in which the elemental selfish instincts are manifested in relation to other persons, either in the phase of attraction or repulsion. In this class we find the elementary phases of love, and the feelings of hate, anger, jealousy, revenge, etc. This class of emotions usually manifests violently, as com- pared with the other emotions. The passions generally arise from self-preservation^ race preservation and re- production, self-interest, self-aggrandizement, etc., and may be regarded as a more complex phase of the ele- mental instinctive emotions. The elemental instinctive emotions of self-preservation and self-comfort cause the individual to experience and manifest the passional emotions of desire for combat, anger, hate, revenge, etc., Avhile the instinctive emotions leading to reproduction and continuance of the race give rise to the passional emotions of sexual love, jealousy, etc. The desire to attract the other sex increases ambition, vanity, love of display, and other feelings.

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It is only when this class of emotions blends with the higher emotions that the passions become purified and refined. But it must not be forgotten that these emo- tions were very necessary for the welfare of the race in the early stage of its evolution, and that they still play an active part in human life, under the greater or less restraint imposed by civilized society. Nor should it be forgotten that from these emotions have evolved the highest love of one human being for another. From instinctive sexual love and the ^^racial instinct^^ have developed the higher affection of man for woman, and woman for man, in all their beautiful manifestations — and the love of the parent for the child, and the love of the child for the parent. The first manifestation of altruism arises in the love of the living creature for its mate, and in the love of the parents for their off- spring. In certain forms of life where the association of the sexes is merely for the moment, and is not fol- lowed by protection, mutual aid, and companionship, there is found an absence of mutual affection of any kind, the only feeling being an elemental reproductive instinct bringing the male and female together for the moment — an almost purely reflex activity. In the same way, in the cases of certain animals (the rattlesnake, for instance) in which the young are able to protect themselves from birth, there is seen a total absence of

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parental affection or the return thereof. Human love between the sexes, in its higher and lower degrees, is a natural evolution from passional emotion of a low order, due to the growth of social, ethical, moral, and aesthetic emotion arising from the necessities of the increasing complexity and development of human life. The simpler forms of passional emotion are almost entirely instinctive in their manifestation. Indeed, in many cases, there appears to be but little more than a high form of reflex nervous action. The following words of William James give us an interesting view of this fact of life: ^^The cat runs after the mouse, runs or shows fight before the dog, avoids falling from walls and trees, shuns fire and water, not because he has any notion either of life or of death or of self-preservation. He acts in each case separately and simply because he cannot help it; being so framed that when that par- ticular running thing called a mouse appears in his field of vision, he must pursue; that when that partic- ular barking and obstreperous thing called a dog ap- pears there, he must retire if at a distance, and scratch if close by; that he must withdraw his feet from water, and his face from flame, etc. * * * Now, why do the various animals do what seem to us such strange things in the presence of such outlandish stimuli? Why does the hen, for instance, submit herself to the tedium of

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incubating such a fearfully uninteresting set of objects as a nestful of eggs, unless she have some sort of pro- phetic inkling of the result? The only answer is ad hominem. We can only interpret the instinct of brutes by what we know of instincts in ourselves. Why do men always lie down, when they can, on soft beds rather than on soft floors? Why do they sit around a stove on a cold day? Why, in a room, do they place them- selves, ninety-nine times out of a hundred, with their faces toward its middle rather than to the wall? Why does the maiden interest the youth so much that every- thing about her seems more important and significant than anything else in the world? Nothing more can be said than that these are human ways, and that every creature likes its own ways, and takes to following them as a matter of course. Science may come and consider these ways, and find that most of them are useful. But it is not for the sake of their utility that they are followed, but because at the moment of following them we feel that it is the only appropriate and natural thing to do. Not one man in a million, when taking his dinner, ever thinks of its utility. He eats because the food tastes good, and makes him want more. If you should ask him why he wants to eat more of what tastes like that, instead of revering you as a philosopher he will probably laugh at you for a fool.^^

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James continues : ^^t takes, in short, what Berkeley called a mind debauched by learning to carry the proc- ess of making the natural seem strange, so far as to ask the why of any instinctive human act. To the metaphysician alone can such questions arise as : Why do we smile when pleased and not scowl? Why are we unable to talk to a crowd as to a single friend? Why does a particular maiden turn our wits upside down? The common man can only say, 'Of course we smile, of course our heart palpitates at the sight of the crowd, of course we love the maiden — that beautiful soul clad in that perfect form, so palpably and flagrantly made from all eternity to be loved !' And so, probably, does each animal feel about the particular things it tends to do in the presence of particular objects. They, too, are a priori syntheses. To the lion it is the lioness which is made to be loved ; to the bear, the she bear. To the broody hen the notion would seem monstrous that there should be a creature in the world to whom a nest- ful of eggs was not the utterly fascinating, precious, and never-to-be-too-much-sat-upon object which it is to her. Thus we may be sure that however mysterious some animals' instincts may appear to us, our instincts will appear no less mysterious to them. And we may conclude that, to the animal which obeys it, every im- pulse and every step of that instinct shines with its own

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sufficient light, and seems at the moment the only ex- ternally right and proper thing to do. It may be done for its own sake exclusively."

One has very little need, as a rule, to develop the passional emotions. Instinct has taken pretty good care that we shall have our share of this class of feel- ings. But there is a need to train, restrain, govern, and control these emotions, for the conditions which brought about their original being have changed. Our social conventions require that we should subordinate these passional feelings, to some extent at least. Soci- ety insists that we must restrict our love impulses to certain limits and to certain quarters, and that we sub- due our anger and hate, except toward the enemies of our land, the disturbers of public peace, and the men- acers of the social conventions of our time and land. The public welfare requires that we inhibit our fighting impulses, except in cases of self-defense or war. Public policy requires that we keep our ambitions within rea- sonable limits, which limits change from time to time, of course. In short, society has stepped in and insisted that man, as a social being, must not only acquire a social conscience but must also develop sociable emo- tions and inhibit his unsociable ones. The evolution of man's nature has caused him unconsciously to modify his elemental, instinctive, passional emotions, and sub-

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ordinate them to the dictates of social, ethical, moral, and aesthetic feelings and ideals, and to intellectual con- siderations. Even the original elemental instincts of the lower animals have been modified by reason of the social requirements of the pack, herd, or drove, until the modified instinct is now the ruling force.

The general principles of emotional control, restraint^, and mastery, as given in a preceding chapter, are ap- plicable to the particular class of emotions now under consideration here.

(1) By refraining from the physical expression, one may at least partially in- hibit the emotion.

(2) By refusing to create the habit, one may more easily manifest control.

(3) By refusing to dwell upon the idea or mental picture of the exciting object, one may lessen the stimulus.

(4) By cultivating the opposite class of emotions, one may inhibit any class of feeling.

(5) And, finally, by acquiring a con- trol of the attention, by means of the will, one has the reins firmly in hand, and may drive or hold back the steeds of passion as he wills.

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The passions are like fiery horses, useful if well under control, but most dangerous if the control is lost. The ego is the driver, the will his hands, attention the reins, habit the bit, and the passions the horses. To drive the chariot of life under social conditions, the ego must have strong hands (will) to tighten or loosen the reins of attention. He must also employ a well designed and shaped bit of habit. Without strong hands, good reins, and well-adjusted bit, the fiery steeds of passion may gain control and, running away, dash the chariot and its driver over the precipice and on to the jagged rocks below.

CHAPTER XIV. The Social dnotions.

A S man became a social animal he developed new / \ traits of character, new habits of action, -^ -^ new ideals, new customs, and consequently nev/ emotions. Emotions long entertained and long mani- fested by the race become more or less instinctive, and are passed along in the form of either (a) inherited stimulus akin to, but lesser in degree and force than, the more elemental emotions; or (6) of inherited tendency to manifest the acquired emotional feeling upon the presentation of sufficiently strong stimuli. Hence arises that which we have called "the social emotions/^

Under the classification of "the social emotions'^ are those acquired tendencies of action and feeling of the race which are more or less altruistic, and are con- cerned with the welfare of others and one's duties and obligations toward society and our fellow men. In this class are found the emotions which impel us to perform what we consider or feel to be our duty toward our neighbors, and our obligations and duty toward the state, as expressed in its laws, the customs of men of our country, or the ideals of the community. In an-

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other phase it manifests as sympathy, fellow feeling, and ^^kindness'^ in general. In its first phase we find civic virtue, law-abiding inclination, honesty, ^^sqiiare dealing,^^ and patriotism; in its second phase we find sympathy for others, charity, mutual aid, the allevia- tion of poverty and suffering, the erection of asylums for orphans and the aged, hospitals for the sick, and the formation of societies for general charitable work.

In many cases we find the social, ethical, and moral emotions closely allied with religious emotion, and by many these are supposed to be practically identical, but there is a vast difference in spite of their frequent asso- ciation. For instance, we find many persons of high civic virtue, of exalted moral ideals, and manifesting ethical qualities of the most advanced type, who are lacking in the ordinary religious feelings. On the other hand, we too frequently find persons professing great religious zeal, and apparently experiencing the most intense religious emotional feeling, who are de- ficient in social, civic, ethical, and moral qualities, in the best sense of these terms. The aim of all religion worthy of the name, however, is to encourage ethical and moral as well as religious emotions.

We must here make the distinction between those manifesting the actions termed ethical and moral "be- cause they feel that way, and those who merely comply

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with the conventionai requirements because they fear the consequences of their violation. The first class have the true social, ethical, and moral feelings, tastes, ideals, and inclinations; while the second manifest merely the elementary feelings of self-preservation and selfish pru- dence. The first class are ^^good'' because they feel that way and find it natural to be so; while the others are ^^good" merely because they have to be or be pun- ished by legal penalty or public opinion, loss of prestige, loss of financial support, etc.

The social, moral, and ethical emotions are believed to have arisen in the race by reason of the association of individuals in communities and the rise of the neces- sity for mutual aid and forbearance. Even many of the species of the lower animals have social, moral, or eth- ical codes of their own, based on the experience of the species or family, infractions of which they punish severely. In the same way sympathy and the altruistic feelings are supposed to have arisen. The community of interest and understanding in the tribe, family, or clan brought not only the feeling of natural defense and protection but also the finer, inner sympathetic feeling of the pains and sufferings of their associates. This, in the progress of the race, has developed into broader and more complex ideals and feelings.

Theology explains the moral feelings as resulting

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from conscience, which it holds to be a special faculty of the mind, or soul, divinely given. Science, while admitting the existence of the state of feelings which we call ^^conscience,^^ denies its supernatural origin, and ascribes it to the result of evolution, heredity, experi- ence, education, and suggestion. Conscience, according to science, is a compound of intellectual and emotional states. Conscience is not an invariable or infallible guide, but depends entirely upon the heredity, educa- tion, experience, and environment of the individual. It accompanies the moral and ethical codes of the race, which vary with time and with country. Actions which were thought right a century ago are condemned now; likewise, things condemned a century ago are thought right now. What is commended in Turkey is con- demned in England, and vice versa. Moral tastes and ideals, like aesthetic ones, vary with time and country. There is no absolute code which has been always true, in all places. There is an evolution in the ideals of morals and ethics as in everything else, and "conscience'^ and the moral and ethical emotions accompany the changing ideals.

Many of the moral and ethical principles originally arose from necessity or utilitj^, but have since developed into natural, spontaneous feeling on the part of the race. It is held that the race is rapidly developing a

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"'^social conscience" which will cause the wiping out of many social conditions v/hich are now the disgrace of civilization. It is predicted that in time the race will look back upon the existence of poverty in our civiliza- tion as our generation now looks back upon the existence of slavery^ imprisonment for debt, capital punishment for the theft of a loaf of bread, the killing of prisoners of war, etc. It is thought that, in time, wars of con- quest will be deemed as utterly immoral as to-day is regarded the murder of a body of men by a band of pirates or bandits. In the same way the economic slav- ery of to-day will be seen as immoral as now seems the physical slavery of the past. In not far distant time it will seem incredible that society could have ever allowed one of its members to die of hunger in the streets, or of poverty and inattention in the sick room of the hovel. Not only will the ideals and feelings of ethical and moral responsibility change and evolve, but the feelings of personal sympathy will evolve in accord- ance therewith. At least such is the dream and proph- ecy of some of the world's greatest thinkers.

The social, ethical, and moral emotions may be devel- oped by a study of the evolution and meaning of society on the one hand, and the perception of the condition of the lives of less fortunate individuals on the other. The first will awaken new ideas of the history and real

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meaning of social association and mutual intercourse, and will develop a new sense of responsibility, duty, and civic and social pride. The second will awaken understanding and sympathy, and a desire to do what one can to help those who are ^^the under dog,^^ and also to bring about a better state of affairs in general. The study of history and civilization, of sociology and civics, will do much in the first direction. The study of human-kind, and its life problems and condition, will do the same in the second case. In both cases there will be awakened a new sense of ^^right and wrong'^ — a new conception of ^^ought and ought not^^ — regarding one's relations to the race, society, and his fellow beings.

Let no one deceive himself or herself by the smug assumption that the race has entirely emerged from barbarism and is now on the top wave of civilization. The truth, as known to all careful and conscientious thinkers, is that we are but half civilized, if, indeed, that much. Many of our customs and conventions are those of a half-barbarous people. Our ideals are low, our customs often vile. We lack not only high ideals but in many cases we show a lack of sanity in our social conventions. But evolution is moving us slowly ahead. A better day is dawning. The signs are in the air, to be seen by all thoughtful men. Civilization is

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climbing the ladder, aided by the evolution of the social, ethical, and moral emotions and the development of the intellect.

In connection with this phase of the emotions, we invite the student to consider the following excellent words of Professor Davidson in his ^^History of Greek Education": ^^It is not enough for a man to under- stand the conditions of rational life in his own time. He must likewise love these conditions and hate what- ever leads to life of an opposite kind. This is only another way of saying that he must love the good and hate the evil; for the good is simply what conduces to rational or moral life, and the evil simply what leads away from it. It is perfectly obvious, as soon as it is pointed out, that all immoral life is due to a false distribution of affection, which again is often, though by no means always, due to a want of intellectual cul- tivation. He that attributes to anything a value greater or less than it really possesses, in the order of things, has already placed himself in a false relation to it, and will certainly, when he comes to act with reference to it, act immorally .^^

CHAPTER XV. The Religious Amotions.

BY ^^the religious emotions'' is meant that class of emotional feeling arising from the faith and belief in, or consciousness of the presence of, supernatural beings, powers, entities, or forces. This form of emotion is regarded as distinct from the ethical and moral emotions, although frequently found in con- nection therewith. Likewise, it is independent of any- special form of intellectual belief, for it is far more fundamental and often exists without creed, philosophy, or stated belief, the only manifestation in such cases being a ^^feeling'' of the existence of supernatural be- ings, forces, and powers to which man has a relation and to which he owes obedience. To those who may think that this is too narrow a conception of religious emotion we refer the following definition of ^^religion'' from the dictionaries: ^^The acts or feelings which result from the belief of a god, or gods, having superior control over matter, life, or destiny. Eeligion is sub- jective, designating the feelings and acts of men which relate to God; theology is objective, denoting the science which investigates the existence, laws, and attributes

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of God;'^ or (objectively) ^^the outer form and embodi- ment which the inward spirit of a true or a false devo- tion assumes/' (subjectively) ^^the feeling of veneration with which the worshiper regards the Being he adores.'^

Darwin^ in his *^^Descent of Man/' says that the feeling of religious devotion is a highly complex one, consisting of love, complete submission to an exalted and mysterious superior, a strong sense of dependence, fear, reverence, gratitude, hope for the future, and perhaps other elements. He is of the opinion that no man can experience so complex an emotion until ad- vanced in his intellectual and moral faculties to at least a moderately high level. The authorities generally agree with Darwin, although the more recent study of the history of religion has shown that religious feeling has a far more primitive origin than that indicated by Darwin.

It is true that the lower animals are not deemed capable of anything approaching religious feeling, un- less there is a feeling approaching it in the attitude of the dog and horse and other domestic animals toward their masters. But man, as soon as he is able to attribute natural phenomena to a supernatural cause and power, manifests a crude religious feeling and emotion. He begins by believing in, fearing, and wor- shiping natural forces and objects, such as the sun, the

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moon, the wind, thunder and lightning, the ocean, riv- ers, mountains, etc. It is claimed that there is no natural object that has not been deified and worshiped by some people at some time in the history of the race. Later, man acquired the anthropomorphic conception of deities and created many gods in his own image, endowing them with his own attributes, qualities, and characteristics. The mental characteristics and morals of a people can always be ascertained by a knowledge of the average conception of deity held by them. Poly- theism, or the belief in many gods, was succeeded by monotheism, or belief in one god.

Monotheism ranges from the crudest conception of a manlike god to the highest conception of a spiritual Being transcending all human qualities, attributes, or characteristics. Man began by believing in many god things, then in many god persons, then in a one god- person, then in one God who is a spirit, then in One Universal Spirit which is God. It is a far cry from the savage, manlike god of old to the conception of the Universal Spirit of the ^^God-drunken philosopher,^^ Spinoza. The extreme of religious belief is that which holds that ^^there is nothing but God — all else is illu- sion,^' of pantheistic idealism. Buddhism (at least in its original form) discarded the idea of a Supreme Being, and held that Ultimate Reality is but Universal

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Law; hence the accusation that Buddhism is an ^^athe- istic religion/^ although it is one of the world's greatest religions^ having over 400^000,000 followers.

But the beliefs of the religious person may he con- sidered as resulting from intellectual processes; his religious feelings and emotions arise from another part of his mental being. It is the testimony of the author- ities of all religions that religious conviction is an inner experience rather than an intellectual conception. The emotional element is always active in religious mani- festations everywhere. The purely intellectual religion is naught but a philosophy. Eeligion without feeling and emotion is an anomaly. In all true religion there exists a feeling of inner assurance and faith, love, awe, dependence, submission, reverence, gratitude, hope, and perhaps fear. The emotional element must always be present, not necessarily in the form of emotional excess, as in the case of revival hysteria or the dance of the whirling dervishes, but at least in the form of the calm, fervent feeling of ^^that peace which passeth under- standing.^' When religion departs from the emotional phase it becomes merely a ^"^school of philosophy,^' or an ^^ethical culture society.''

The student must not lose sight of the uplifting influence of true religious emotion by reason of his knowledge of its lowly origin. Like the lotus, which

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has its roots in the slimy^ filthy mud of the river, and its stem in the muddy, stagnant, and foul waters thereof, but its beautiful flower unfolded in the clear air and facing the sun, so is religious feeling responsible for some of the most beautiful and uplifting ideals and actions of the race. If its origin and history contain much that is not consistent with the highest ideals of the race to-day, it is not the fault of religion but of the race itself. Eeligion, like all else in the universal manifestation, is under the laws of evolution, growth, and development. What the religion of the future may be, we know not. But the prophets of the race are dreaming visions of a religion as much higher than that of to-day as the latter is higher than the crude fetich- ism of the savage.

The following quotation from John Fiske's ^^Through Nature to God'' is appropriate in this place. Fiske says: ^^My aim is to show that ^that other influence,' that inward conviction, the craving for a final cause, the theistic assumption, is itself one of the master facts of the universe, and as much entitled to respect as any fact in physical nature can possibly be. The argument flashed upon me about ten years ago while reading Herbert Spencer's controversy with Frederic Harrison concerning the nature and reality of religion. Because Spencer derived historically the greater part of modern

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belief in an Unseen World from the savage's primeval world of dreams and ghosts, some of his critics main- tained that logical consistency required him to dismiss the modern belief as utterly false; otherwise he would be guilty of seeking to evolve truth from falsehood. ^By no means/ replied Spencer. ^Contrariwise, the ul- timate form of the religious consciousness is the final development of a consciousness which at the outset contained a germ of truth obscured by multitudinous errors.^ '^ Fiske, in this connection, quotes the Tenny- sonian question: —

^^ ^Who forged that other influence, That heat of inward evidence. By which he doubts against the sense ?' ^'

The religious emotions may be developed by allowing the mind to dwell upon the Power underlying the universe of fleeting, changing forms; by reading prose and poetry in which an appeal is made to the religious instinct; by listening to music which awakens the emo- tion of reverence and awe; and, finally, by meditating upon the inner spirit immanent in every living being. As an old Hindu sage once said: ^^There are many paths by which men arrive at a knowledge of the pres- ence of God, but there is but one goal and destination.''

CHAPTER XVI.

The Aesthetic Cmotions.

BY ^^the aesthetic emotions'^ is meant those emo- tional feelings which are concerned with the perception of beauty or taste, and by reason of which we ^^like'^ or "dislike'' certain perceptions of sensory impressions. In order to get a clearer idea, let us consider what is meant by "beauty'^ and "taste/^

"Beauty'^ is defined as "that quality or assemblage of qualities in an object which gives the eye or the ear intense pleasure; or that characteristic in an object which gratifies the intellect or moral feeling.'^ "Taste" (in this sense of the term) is defined as "nice percep- tion, or the power of perceiving and relishing excellence in human performances; the power of appreciating the finer qualities of art; the faculty of discerning beauty, order, congruity, proportion, symmetry, or whatever constitutes excellence, particularly in the fine arts or literature; the faculty of the mind by which we both perceive and enjoy whatever is beautiful or sublime in the works of nature and art. The possession of taste insures grace and beauty in the works of an artist, and the avoidance of all that is low or mean. It is as

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often the result of an innate sense of beauty or pro- priety as of art education, and no genius can com- pensate for the want of it. * * * Tastes differ so much among individuals, nations, or in different ages and conditions of civilization that it is utterly impossible to set up a standard of taste applicable to all men and to all stages in the evolution of society/^

The aesthetic sense, feeling, and emotion are products of the later stages of the evolution of the mind of man. Their roots, however, may be seen in the crude attempts at decoration and adornment in the savage, and still further back in the tendency of certain birds to adorn their nests or ^'^bowers.^^ Moreover, some sense of beauty must exist in the lower animals, which are influenced thereby in the selection of their mates, the bright plum- age of the birds, and the coloring of the insects and higher animals evidencing the existence of at least a primitive aesthetic sense. Herbert Spencer says that one characteristic of the aesthetic feelings is that they are separated from the functions vitally requisite and necessary to sustain life, and it is not until the latter are reasonably well satisfied that the former begin to manifest in force.

The authorities hold that the basic element concerned in the manifestation of the aesthetic emotional feeling is the sensory element, which consists of the pleasure

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arising from the perception of objects of vision or hear- ing which are deemed beautiful. There is a certain nervous satisfaction which arises from the perception of the sensation of the sight of a beautiful thing, or of the hearing of beautiful sound. Just why certain sights prove agreeable and others disagreeable, or certain sounds pleasant and others unpleasant, is very difficult to determine. Association and habit may have some- thing to do with the beauty of sight object, and there may be natural harmony of vibration in colors as there is in sound. In the case of sounds there is undoubtedly a natural harmony between the vibrations of certain notes of the scale and inharmony between others. Some have held that the secret of the enjoyment of music is found in the natural appreciation of rhythm, as rhythm is a cosmic manifestation evident in everything from great to small. But these theories do not account for the differences existing in the tastes regarding color and music manifested by different individuals, races, and classes of people.

Grant Allen says: "The vulgar are pleased with great masses of color, especially red, orange, and purple, which give their coarse, nervous organization the requi- site stimulus. The refined, with nerves of less caliber, but greater discriminativeness, require delicate com- binations of complementaries and prefer neutral tints

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to the glare of the primary hues. Children and savages love to dress in all the colors of the rainbow/^ In the same way persons of certain types of taste are pleased with ^^rag time'' and cheap^ rollicking songs or dances, while others shudder at these and find delight in the classic productions of the great composers.

There is also the intellectual element to be reckoned with in the aesthetic emotions. The intellect must dis- cover the beauty in certain objects before the emotion is aroused by the perception. Halleck says : "Every time the mind discerns unity amid variety, order, rhythm, proportion, or symmetry, an aesthetic emotion arises. * * * The traveler with a trained intellect will see far more beauty than an ignorant one. In looking at a cathedral, a large part of the aesthetic enjoyment comes from tracing out the symmetry, from comparing part with part. Not until this process is complete will the full beauty of the structure as a whole be perceived. If the traveler knows something of mediaeval architec- ture before starting on his European trip, he will see far more beauty. The opposite of the aesthetic, which we call the ugly, is the unsymmetrical, the disorderly — that in which we' can discover no rhythm, plan, or beauty.''

The element of associative suggestion also enters into the manifestation of aesthetic emotional feeling. The

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mind accepts the suggestion of the beauty of certain styles of art, or the excellence of certain classes of music. There are fashions in art and music, as in clothes, and what is thought beautiful to-day may be deemed hide- ous to-morrow. This is not entirely due to the evolu- tion of taste, for in many cases the old fashions are revived and again deemed beautiful. There is, more- over, the effect of the association of the object of emo- tion with certain events or persons. This association renders the thing popular, and therefore agreeable and beautiful for the time being. The suggestion in a story will often cause the beauty of a certain scene, or the harmony of a certain piece of music, to dawn upon thousands of persons. Some noted person sets the seal of approval upon a certain picture or musical composi- tion and lo ! the multitude calls it beautiful. It must not be supposed, however, that the crowd always coun- terfeits this sense of beauty and excellence which has been suggested to it. On the contrary, genuine aesthetic feeling often results from the discovery so made.

There is style and fashion in the use of words, result- ing from fashion, which gives rise to aesthetic feelings regarding them. These feelings do" not arise from the consideration of the nature of the object expressed by the word ; of two words designating the same thing, one causes disgust and the other at least passive tolerance.

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For instance, in speaking of the sensible moisture which is emitted from the pores of the skin, we may use either of the respective terms ^^sweat'^ or ^^perspiration/^ Both mean the same thing, and have an equally respectable origin. But to many persons the word ^Weaf^ causes unpleasant aesthetic emotion, while the word ^^perspira- tion'^ is accepted without remonstrance. Some persons abhor the term ^Sdctuals," while ^^viands'' or "food'^ are accepted without protest. There is often an un- pleasant, low, vulgar association connected with some words which accounts for the disfavor with which they are received, and which association is absent from the more ^^polite" terms employed to indicate the same thing. But in other cases there is nothing but the simple suggestion of fashion and style to account for the aesthetic acceptance or rejection.

It is possible that some psychologist of the future will establish the truth of the theory now tentatively ad- vanced by a few investigators, namely, that taste and the sense of beauty depend almost entirely upon the element of suggestion, manifested as association, influ- ence of authority, habit, fashion, imitation, etc. It is known that the emotional nature is peculiarly liable to suggestion, and that tastes may be created or destroyed by repeated suggestion under the most favorable cir- cumstances. It is thought likely that if we could trace

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back to its roots every emotion of taste, we would find it arising from some associative, suggestive influence connected with another and more elemental class of emotions.

Eegarding the fact that there is no universal stand- ard of taste or beauty, Halleck says: ^^It has been said that aesthetics cannot be treated in a scientific way because there is no standard of taste. ^De gustibus non est disputandumf (^there is no disputing about tastes') is an old proverb. Of two equally intelligent persons, the one may like a certain book, the other dislike it. * * * While it is true that the standard of taste is a varying one within certain limits, it is no more so than that of morals. As men's nervous systems, education, and associations differ, we may scientifically conclude that their tastes must differ. The greater the uniform- ity in the factors the less does the product vary. On the other hand, within certain limits, the standard of sesthetics is relatively uniform. It is fixed by the ma- jority of intelligent people of any age and country. To estimate the standard by which to judge of the correct- ness of language or of the literary taste of any era, we examine the conversations of the best speakers, the works of the standard writers.^'

The aesthetic emotions may be developed and culti- vated by exercise and practice, and particularly by asso-

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elation and familiarity with beautiful things, and with those who have ^^good taste/' Appreciation of beauty is more or less contagious, up to a certain point of development, at least, and if one wishes to recognize, understand, and appreciate beauty, he should go where beauty is, and where its votaries are gathered. The study of standard works of art, or objects of nature, or the best productions of the composers of music, will do much to develop and unfold one's higher aesthetic feel- ings and understanding.

It is claimed by some of the best authorities that to develop the finer and higher aesthetic feelings and un- derstanding we must learn to find beauty and excellence in things removed from ourselves or our selfish inter- ests. The narrow, selfish emotions kill the aesthetic feelings — the two cannot exist together. The person whose thoughts are centered on himself or herself very rarely finds beauty or excellence in works of art or music. Grant Allen well sums up the subject in the following words : ''Oood taste is the progressive product of progressing fineness and discrimination in the nerves, educated attention, high and 7iohle emotional constitu- tion, and increasing intellectual faculties/^

CHAPTER XVII.

The Intellectual Amotions.

BY ^^the intellectual emotions'^ is meant that class of emotional feeling resulting from the pres- ence of objects of intellectual interest. This class of emotions depends for its satisfaction upon the exercise of the intellectual faculties, from the most simple to the most complex, and including perception, memory, imagination, reason, judgment, and all the logical faculties. Those who are accustomed to employ- ing the mind through voluntary attention, particularly in the direction of creative ideation or constructive imagination, experience these emotions to a greater or less degree.

The exercise of perception, if we are skilled therein, gives us a pleasurable feeling, and if we succeed in mak- ing an interesting or important discovery by reason thereof, we experience a strong degree of emotional satisfaction. Likewise, we experience agreeable feelings when we are able to remember distinctly something which might well have been forgotten, or when we suc- ceed in recalling something which had escaped our memory for the moment. In the same way the exercise

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of the imagination is a source of great pleasure in many cases in the direction of writing, planning, inventing, or other creative processes, or even in the building of air castles. The exercise of the logical faculties gives great pleasure to those in whom these faculties are well developed.

Halleck well says: ^There was probably not a hap- pier moment in Newton^s life than when he had suc- ceeded in demonstrating that the same power which caused the apple to fall held the moon and the planets in their orbits. When Watts discovered that steam might be harnessed like a horse, when an inventor suc- ceeds in perfecting a labor-lightening device, whenever an obscurity is cleared away, the reason for a thing understood, and a baffling instance brought under a general law, intellectual emotion results.^'

The pleasurable feelings we experience upon the read- ing of a good book, or the discovery of real poetry, are forms of intellectual emotion. The same class of emo- tional feeling is aroused when we witness a good play. Among other instances of this class we mention the perception of clever work of any kind, intricate machin- ery, ingenious devices, helpful improvements, or other works of man which indicate the existence of thought and inventive ability in the designer or builder. To appreciate mental work of this kind we must bring a

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mind developed along the same or similar lines. It has well been said that before one can take away anything from a book he must bring something to it. It takes mentality to recognize and appreciate mentality or the work of mentality.

The study of scientific subjects is a source of great pleasure to those who are inclined to such pursuits. To the scientific mind the study of the latest work on the favorite branch gives a joy which nothing else is capable of arousing. To the philosopher the works of other philosophers of the same school give intense satis- faction.

It is claimed that the sense of humor and wit is an intellectual emotion, for it depends upon the detection of the ludicrous features of a happening. Certain psy- chologists have held that the distinctive element of humor is the feeling attendant upon the perception of incongruity ; while that of wit is the feeling of superior- ity on the part of the witty person, and the correspond- ing chagrin of the object of his wit. It would seem, however, that the appreciation of wit must depend upon the intellectual perception of cleverness of expression and the pleasure resulting from the discovery thereof, and that the feeling of humor is aroused principally by reason of the incongruous element; the feeling of self- satisfaction as contrasted with the discomfiture of the

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other person belongs to the more selfish emotions. An authority says: ^^Hnmor is a mental faculty which tends to discover incongruous resemblances between things which essentially differ^ or essential differences between things put forth as the same, the result being internal mirth or an outburst of laughter. Wit does so likewise, but the two are different. Humor has deep human sympathy, and loves men while raising a laugh against their weaknesses. Wit is deficient in sympathy, and there is often a sting in its ridicule. Somewhat contemptuous of mankind, it has not the patience to study tliem thoroughly, but must content itself with noting superficial resemblances or differences. Humor is patient and keenly observant, and penetrates beneath the surface ; while, therefore, the sallies of wit are often one-sided and unfair, those of humor are, as a rule, just and wise.^^

The development and cultivation of the intellectual emotions depend, of course, upon education, training, exercise, and practice. The cultivation of the intellect (which has been referred to, in part, in the previous parts of this book, and which will be again considered in the chapters devoted to the intellect) results in the development and cultivation of the emotions accom- panying intellectual effort. In a general way, however, it may be said that the reading of the best works of

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fiction, science, and philosophy will bring out in time the best form of intellectual enjoyment and feeling. The highest gives the best — that is the rule. The pres- ent chapter should be read and studied in connection with those devoted to the intellect.

Blended Emotions.

As we have said at the beginning of our consideration of the subject of the emotions, the majority of emotions are composed of several feelings, and tend to blend and combine emotional elements. For instance, the emotion of sexual love certainly has its origin in the instinctive feelings of the race, and its motive element is that of passion. But passion is far from being all there is in human sexual love. Above the plane of passion is found the social emotion of companionship, protection, and care; the desire for the welfare of the loved one; the mingling of the love of the parent with that of the mate. Human love manifests many of the altruistic emotions during its course. The welfare of the loved one becomes the chief concern of life, often stronger even than self-preservation. The joy of the loved one becomes the greatest joy, far surpassing the more selfish forms of happiness. Then come the aesthetic feelings, which find satisfaction in the two ^^liking the same things,'^ sympathy and community of feeling being the

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connecting link. The several ideals of the two com- bining, there is produced an idealistic nnion^ which is often called ^^spiritual harmony/^ Finally, there is found the blending of the intellectual emotions, in which harmony there exists one of the highest forms of pleasure satisfaction between two persons of opposite sexes. It is said that the more things that a man and woman ^^like'^ in common, the closer will be their ^^lik- ing^* for each other. ^^I love you because you love the things I love,^^ is no rare thought and expression.

So it is seen that though born in elemental instinct and passion, human sexual love is something far differ- ent in its flowering. And yet without its root it would not be, and cannot be. This is an excellent example of the complex nature of the most common emotions. It may be used as a typical illustration. What is true of it is also true, in a way and in a degree, of every other form of emotion. Therefore in studying a par- ticular emotion, be not too quick to cry, ^^It is this; it is that!^^ but rather seek to say, ^^It is composed of this and that, of this and that!'^ Few, if any, emo- tions are simple ; the majority are very complex. Hence the difficulty of satisfactory classification, and the dan- ger of dogmatic definition.

CHAPTER XVIII.

The Role of the Emotions.

THE average person greatly underestimates the part played by the emotional nature in the mental activities of the individual. He is in- clined to the opinion that, with the exception of the occasional manifestation of some strong emotional feel- ing, the majority of persons go through life using only the reasoning and reflective faculties in deciding the problems of life and guiding the mental course of action. There can be no greater mistake concerning the mental activities. So far from being subordinate to the intellect, the emotional nature in the majority of cases dominates the reasoning faculties. There are but very few persons who are able to detach themselves, even in a small degree, from the feelings, and to decide questions cold-bloodedly by pure reason or intellectual effort. Moreover, there are but few persons whose wills are guided by pure reason; the feelings supply the motive for the majority of acts of will. The intellect, even when used, is generally employed to better carry out the dictates of feeling and desire. Much of our reasoning is performed in order to justify our feelings,

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or to find proofs for the position dictated by our de- sires, feelings, sympathies, prejudices, or sentiments. It has been said that "men seek not reasons but excuses for their actions/'

Moreover, in the elementary processes of the intellect the emotions play an important part. We have seen that attention largely follows interest, and interest re- sults from feeling. Therefore our attention, and that which arises from it, is dependent largely upon the feelings. Thus feeling asserts its power in guarding the very outer gate of knowledge, and determines largely what shall or shall not enter therein. It is one of the constantly-appearing paradoxes of psychology, that while feelings have originally arisen from attention, it is equally true that attention depends largely upon the interest resulting from the feelings. This is read- ily admitted in the case of involuntary attention, which always goes out toward objects of interest and feeling, but is likewise true of even voluntary attention, which we direct to something of greater or more nearly ulti- mate interest than the things of lesser or more imme- diate interest.

Sully says: "By an act of will I may resolve to turn my attention to something — say a passage in a book. But if, after the preliminary process of adjust- ment of the mental eye the object opens up no inter-

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esting phase, all the willing in the world will not pro- duce a calm, settled state of concentration. The will introduces mind and object; it cannot force an attach- ment between them. No compulsion of attention ever succeeded in making a young child cordially embrace and appropriate, by an act of concentration, an unsuit- able and therefore uninteresting object. We thus see that even voluntary interest is not removed from the sway of interest. What the will does is to determine the hind of interest that shall prevail at the moment/^

Again, we may see that memory is largely dependent upon interest in recording and recalling its impres- sions. We remember and recall most easily that which most greatly interests us. In proportion to the lack of interest in a thing do we find difficulty in remembering or recalling it. This is equally true of the imagination, for it refuses to dwell upon that which is not interest- ing. Even in the reasoning processes we find the will balking at uninteresting subjects, but galloping along, pushing before it the rolling chair of interesting intel- lectual application.

Our judgments are affected by our feelings. It is much easier to approve of the actions of some person we like, or whose views accord with our own, than of an individual whose personality and views are distasteful to us. It is very difficult to prevent prejudice, for or

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against, from influencing our judgments. It is also true that we ^^find that for which we look^^ in things and persons, and that which we expect and look for is often dependent upon our feelings. If we dislike a person or thing we are usually able to perceive no end of undesirable things in him or it; while if we are favor- ably inclined we easily find many admirable qualities in the same person or thing. A little change in our feeling often results in the formation of an entirely new set of judgments regarding a person or thing.

Halleck well says : ^^On the one hand the emotions are favorable to intellectual action, since they supply the interest one feels in study. One may feel intensely concerning a certain subject and be all the better stu- dent. Hence the emotions are not, as was formerly thought, entirely hostile to intellectual action. Emo- tion often quickens the perception, burns things indel- ibly into the memory, and doubles the rapidity of thought. On the other hand strong feelings often viti- ate every operation of the intellect. They cause us to see only what we wish to, to remember only what inter- ests our narrow feeling at the time, and to reason from selfish data only. * * * Emotion puts the magnifying end of the telescope to our intellectual eyes where our own interests are concerned, the minimizing end when we are looking at the interest of others. * * * Thought

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IS deflected when it passes through an emotional me^ diunij just as a sunbeam is when it strihes water/*

As for the will, the best authorities hold that it is almost if not entirely dependent upon desire for its motive force. As desire is an outgrowth and develop- ment of feeling and emotion, it is seen that even the will depends upon feeling for its inciting motives and its direction. We shall consider this point at greater de- tail in the chapters devoted to the activities of the will.

We would remind you again, at this point, of the great triangle of the mind, the emotional, ideative, and volitional activities — feeling, thinking, and willing — and their constant reaction upon each other and absolute interdependence. We find that our feelings arise from previous willing and ideation, and are aroused by ideas and repressed by will; again we see that our ideas are largely dependent upon the interest supplied by our feelings, and that our judgments are influenced by the emotive side of our mental life, the will also having its part to play in the matter. We also see that the will is called into activity by the feelings, and often guided or restrained by our thoughts, the will, indeed, being considered as moved entirely by our feelings and ideas. Thus is the trinity of mental forces seen ever in mutual relation — constant action and reaction ever existing be- tween them.

CHAPTER XIX.

The Ctnotions and Happiness.

^^'T TTAPPINESS'^ has been defined by an author- I I ity as "the pleasurable emotion arising -^ -*- from the gratification of all desires ; the enjoyment of pleasure without pain/^ Another has said that ^Tiappiness is the state in which all desires are satisfied/^ But these definitions have been attacked. It is held by many that a state of the absolute satisfac- tion of desire would not be happiness, for happiness consists largely in pleasurable anticipation and imagin- ings which disappear upon the realization of the desire. It is held that absolute satisfaction would be a nega- tive state. Paley expressed a better idea when he said that "any condition may be denominated ^happy' in which the amount or aggregate of pleasure exceeds that of pain, and the degree of happiness depends upon the quantity of this excess.'^

Some have held that an existing contrast between pain and pleasure (the balance being in favor of the latter) is necessary to establish happiness. Be this as it may, it is admitted by all that one^s happiness or unhappiness depends entirely upon one's emotional na-

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ture and the degree of the satisfaction thereof. And it is generally admitted that to be happy is the great aim and object of the life of the majority of persons, — if, indeed, not of every person, — the happiness, of course, depending upon the quality and degree of the emotions forming the person's emotional nature. Thus it is seen that we are dependent upon the emotional side of our mental life in this as in nearly everything else making life worth while.

Theologians have often sought to point out that hap- piness is not the goal of life and living, but human nature has always insisted that happiness is the great- est end, and philosophy has generally supported it. But wisdom shows that happiness is not always dependent upon the pleasure of the moment, for the sacrifice of immediate pleasure frequently results in a much greater happiness in the future. In the same way an imme- diate disagreeable task often gains for us a greater satisfaction in the future. Likewise, it is frequently greater happiness to sacrifice a personal pleasure for the happiness of others than it would be to enjoy the pleasure of the moment at the expense of the pain of the other. There is often a far greater pleasure result- ing from an altruistic action of self-sacrifice than in the performance of the selfish, egoistic act. But, as the subtle reasoner may insist, the result is the same

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— ^the ultimate happiness and satisfaction of the self. This conclusion does not rob the altruistic ac' of its virtue, however, for the person who finds his greatest pleasure in giving pleasure to others is to be con- gratulated— as is the community which shelters him.

There is no virtue in pain, suffering, sacrifice, or unhappiness for its own sake. This illusion of asceti- cism is vanishing from the human mind. Sacrifice on the part of the individual is valuable and valid only when it results in higher present or future happiness for the individual or some one else. There is no virtue in pain, physical or mental, except as a step to a greater good for ourselves or others. Pain at the best is merely nature's alarm and warning of ^^not this way/^ It is also held that pain serves to bring out pleasure by contrast, and is therefore valuable in this way. Be this as it may, no normal individual deliberately seeks ulti- mate pain in preference to ultimate happiness; the greatest ultimate happiness to one's self and to those he loves is the normal and natural goal of the normal person. But the concept of ^^those he loves/' in many cases, includes the race as well as the iminediate family.

Wisdom shows the individual that the greatest happi- ness comes to him who controls and restrains many of his feelings. Dissipation results in pain and unhappi- ness ultimately. The doctrine of thoughtless indulgence

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is unphilosophkal and is contradicted by the experience of the race. Moreover, wisdom shows that the highest happiness comes not from the indulgence of the phys- ical feelings alone, or to excess, but rather from the cultivation, development, and manifestation of the higher feelings — the social, aesthetic, and intellectual emotions. The higher pleasures of life, literature, art, music, science, invention, constructive imagination, etc., yield a satisfaction and happiness keener and more enduring than can possibly the lower forms of feeling. But the human being must not despise any part of his emotional being. Everything has its uses, which are good; and its abuses, which are bad. Every part of one's being, mental and physical, is well to use ; but no part is well used if it uses the individual instead of being itself used.

A recent writer has held that the end and aim of life should not be the pursuit of happiness, but rather the building of character. The obvious answer is that the two are identical in spirit, for to the man who appre- ciates the value of character, its attainment is the great- est happiness ; the wise teach that the greatest happiness comes to him who is possessed of a well-rounded, devel- oped character. Another writer has said that ^^the aim of life should be self-improvement, with a due regard to the interest of others.'^ This is but saying that the

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greatest happiness to the wise man lies in this course. Any one who is wise enough, or great enough, to make these ends the aim and goal of life will find the greatest happiness therefrom. Arnold Bennett advances as a good working philosophy of life: ^^cheerfulness, kindli- ness, and rectitude.^^ Can any one doubt that this course would bring great ultimate happiness?

Happiness consists in that which "contents the spirit,^^ and the latter depends entirely upon the char- acter of the feelings and emotions entertained by one, as weighed in the balance of reason, and as passed upon by judgment and the sense of right action. The great- est degree of happiness, or at least the greatest ratio of pleasure over pain, is obtained by a careful and intel- ligent cultivation of the feeling side of one's being in connection with the cultivation of the intellect and the mastery of the will. To be able to bring the capacity for enjoyment to its highest ; to be able to intelligently choose that which will bring the greatest ultimate hap- piness in accordance with right action; and, finally, to be able to use the will in the direction of holding fast to that which is good and rejecting that which is bad — this is the power of creating happiness. The feelings, the intellect, and the will — ^her^, as ever — combine to manifest the result.

Finally, it must be remembered that all human hap-

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piness consists in part of the ability to bear pain — ^to suffer. There must be the dash of Stoicism in the wise Epicurean. One must learn to pluck from pain, suffering, and unhappiness the secret drop of honey which lies at its heart, and which consists in the knowledge of the meaning and use of pain and the means whereby it may be transmuted into knowledge and experience, from which later happiness may be distilled. To profit by pain, to transmute suffering into joy, to transform present unhappiness into a future greater happiness — this is the privilege of the philos- opher.

«

The mental states and activities known as ^^desire^'

are a direct development of the feeling and emotional phase of the mind and form the motive power of the will. Desire, in fact, may be said to be composed of feeling on one side and will on the other. But the influence of the intellect or reasoning faculties has a most important part to play in the evolution of feel- ing into desire, and in the consequent action of the will by the presentation and weighing of conflicting desires. Therefore, the logical place for the consideration of the activities of the intellect is at this point — ^between emo- tion and will. Accordingly, we shall leave the subject of feeling and emotion for the present, to be taken up

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again in connection with the subject of desire, after we have considered the intellectual processes of the mind. But, as has been indicated, we shall see the presence and influence of the feelings and emotions even in the activities of the intellect.

CHAPTER XX.

The Intellect.

THE class of mental states or processes grouped together under the name of ^^intellectual proc- esses/^ forms the second great division of the mental states, the two others being ^^f eeling^^ and ^Vill/^ respectively.

^^Intellect'^ has been defined as follows: ^^The part or faculty of the human mind by which it knows, as distinguished from the power to feel and to will; the thinking faculty; the understanding;^^ also as "that faculty of the human mind by which it receives or comprehends the ideas communicated to it by the senses or the perception, or other means, as distinguished from the power to feel and to will; the power or faculty to perceive objects in their relations; the power to judge and comprehend; also the capacity for higher forms of knowledge, as distinguished from the power to perceive and imagine.^^

In the preceding chapters we have seen that the individual is able to experience sensations in conscious- ness, and that he is able tr> j^f^jr^gjj^ theTn mentally, the latter being^he first step in intellectual activity. We

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have also seen that he is able to reproduce the percep- tion by means of memory and imagination, and that by means of the latter he is able to re-combine and rearrange the objects of perception. We have also seen that he has what are known as ^^f€elings,^^:wMch depend upon his jrevious experience__and_that of his prngen- itor^. So far the mind has been considered merely as a receiving and reproducing instrument, with the added attachment of the re-combining power of the imagina- tion. Up to this point the mind may be compared to the phonographic cylinder, with an attachment capable of re-combining its recorded impressions. The impres- sions are received and perceived, are stored away, are reproduced, and by the use of the imagination are re-combined.

Up to this point the mind is seen to be more or less of an automatic, instinctive faculty. It may be traced from the purely reflex activity of the lowest forms of life up through the lower animals, step by step, until a very high degree of mental power is perceived in ani- mals like the horse, dog, or elephant. But there is something lacking. There is missing that peculiar power of thinking in symbols and abstract conceptions which distinguishes the human race and which is closely bound up with the faculty of language or expressing thoughts in words. The comparatively high mental

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process of the lower animals is dwarfed by the human faculty of '^thinking/^ And thinking is the manifesta- tion of the intellect.

What is it to think f Strange to say, very few per- sons can answer this question correctly at first. They find themselves inclined to answer the inquiry in the words of the child: ^^Why, to think is to think T Let us see if we can make it plain. The dictionary defini- tion is a little too technical to be of much use to the beginner, but here it is : "To employ any of the intel- lectual powers except that of simple perception through the senses.^^ But what are the "intellectual powers'^ so employed, and how are they employed? Let us see.

Stating the matter plainly in common terms, we may say that "thjnking^^ is the mental process of (1) com- paring our perceptions of things with each other, noting the points of likeness and of difference; (2) classifying them according to the ascertained likeness or difference, and thus tying them up in mental bundles with each set of "things of a kind'' in its own bundle; (3) form- ing the abstract, symbolic mental idea (concept) of each class of things, so grouped, which we may after- ward use as we use figures in mathematical calculations ; (4) using these concepts in order to form inferences, that is, to reason from the known to the unknown, and to form judgments regarding things; (5) comparing

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these judgments and deducing higher judgments from them; and so on.

Without thinking, man would he dependent upon each particular experience for his knowledge, except so far as memory and imagination could instinctively aid him. By thought processes he is enabled to infer that if certain things be true of one of a certain kind of things, the same thing may be expected from others of the same class. As he is able to note points of likeness or difference, he is able to form clearer and truer infer- ences. In addition^ he is able to apply his constructive imagination to the rearrangement and recombination of things whose nature he has discovered, and thus progress along the line of material achievement as well as of knowledge. It must be remembered, however, that the intellect depends entirely for its material upon the perception, which in turn receives its raw material from the senses. The intellect merely groups together the material of perception, makes inferences, draws conclusions from, and forms conclusions regarding, them, and in the case of constructive imagination recombines them in effective forms and arrangement. The intellect is the last in order in the course of mental evolution. It appears last in order in the mind of the child, but it often persists in old age after the feelings have grown dim and the memory weak.

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Concepts.

What is known as the ^^concepf' is the first fruit of the elemental processes of thought. The various im- ages of outside objects are sensed, then perceived, and then grouped according to their likenesses and differ- ences, and the result is the production of concepts. It is difficult to define a concept so as to convey any mean- ing to the beginner. For instance, the dictionaries give the definition as ^^an abstract, general conception, idea, or notion formed in the mind.^^ Not very clear this, is it ? Perhaps we can understand it better if we say that the terms dog, cat, man, horse, house, etc., each ex- presses a concept. Every term expresses a concept; every general name of a thing or quality is a term applied to the concept. We shall see this a little clearer as we proceed.

We form a concept in this way : ( 1 ) We perceive a number of things; (2) then we notice certain qualities possessed by things — certain properties, attributes, or characteristics which make the thing what it is; (3) then we compare these qualities of the thing with the qualities of other things and see that there is a likeness in some cases, in various degrees, and a difference in other cases, in various degrees; (4) then we generalize or classify the perceived things according to their ascer- tained likenesses and differences; (5) then we form a

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general idea or concept embodying each class of thing; and, finally, we give to the concept a term, or name, which is its svmboL

The concept is a general idea of a class of things; the term is the expression of that general idea. The concept is the idea of a class of things ; the term is the label affixed to the thing. To illustrate this last dis- tinction, let ns take the concept and term of ^T)ird/^ for instance. By perception, comparison, and classifi- cation of the qualities of living things we have arrived at the conclusion that there exists a great general class the qualities of which may be stated thus : ^^arm- blooded, feathered, winged, oviparou-s, vertebrate.^^ To this general class of quality-possessing animals we apply the English term ^*^bird.^' The name is merely a sym- bol. In German the term is vogel; in Latin, avis; but in each and every case the general idea or concept above stated, i, e., ^Varm-blooded, feathered, winged, ovipa- rous, vertebrate,^^ is meant. If anything is found having all of those particular qualities, then we know it must be what we call a ^^bird.^' And everything that we call a ^^bird'' must have those qualities. The term '^TDird" is the symbol for that particular combination of quali- ties existing in a thing.

There is a difference between a mental image of the imagination and a concept. The mental image must

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always be of a particular thing, while the concept is always an idea of a general class of things which can- not be clearly pictured in the mind. For instance, the imagination may form the mental picture of any known bird, or even of an imaginary bird, but that bird always will be a distinct, particular bird. Try to form a men- tal picture of the general class of birds — ^how will you do it? Do you realize the difficulty? First, such an image would have to include the characteristics of the large birds, such as the eagle, ostrich, and condor; and of the small birds, such as the wren and humming bird. It must be a composite of the shape of all birds, from the ostrich, swan, eagle, crane, down to the sparrow, swallow, and humming bird. It must picture the par- ticular qualities of birds of prey, water birds, and domestic fowls, as well as the grain eaters. It must exhibit all the colors found in bird life, from the bright- est'reds and greens down to the sober grays and browns. A little thought will show that a clear mental image of such a concept is impossible. What the most of us do, when we think of ^^bird,'"* is to picture a vague, flying shape of dull color; but when we stop to think that the term must also include the waddling duck and the scratching barnyard chicken, we see tJiat our mental image is faulty. The trouble is that the term "bird'' really means "all-bird,'' and we cannot picture an "all-

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bird^^ from the very nature of the case. Our terms, therefore, are like mathematical figures, or algebraic symbols, which we use for ease, speed, and clearness of thinking.

The trouble does not end here. Concepts not only include the general idea of things, but also the general idea of the qualities of things. Thus sweetness, hard- ness, courage, and energy are concepts, but we cannot form a mental image of them by themselves. We may picture a sweet thing, but not sweetness itself. So- you see that a concept is a purely abstract mental idea — a symbol — akin to the figures 1, 2, 3, etc., and used in the same way. They stand for general classes of things. A ^"^term^^ is the verbal and written expression of the general idea or concept. The student is requested to fix these distinctions in his mind, so as to render further understanding of them easy.

CHAPTEE XXI.

Conception.

THE process of conception has been well defined by Gordy as ^^that act of mind by which it forms an idea of a class; or that act of the mind that enables ns to use general names intelligently/^ He adds : ^^It is, of course, understood that I am using the word ^class' to denote an indefinite number of indi- viduals that resemble each other in certain particulars."

Perception.

The first step in conception, as we have seen, is that of perception. It is readily perceived that the char- acter of our intellectual processes depends materially upon the variety, clearness, and accuracy of our per- ceptions. Therefore, again, we would refer our stu- dents to the chapter in which we have stated the importance of clear perception.

Memory.

The future steps of conception depend materially upon the clearness of the memory, as we can classify

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objects only by remembering their qualities beyond the immediate moment of actual, original perception. Therefore, the memory should be strengthened for this as well as other objects.

Abstraction.

The second step in conception is that of the mental abstraction of qualities from the observed thing. That is, we must perceive and then mentally set aside the observed qualities of the thing. For instance, man first perceived the existence of certain qualities in things. He found that a certain number of things possessed some of these qualities in common, while others pos- sessed other qualities in the same way, and thus arose classification from comparison. But both comparison and classification are possible only by abstraction, or the perception of the quality as a 'Hhing'' ; thus, the abstraction of the idea of the quality of sweetness from the idea of sugar. Sweetness is a quality rather than a thing itself. It is something possessed by sugar which helps to make sugar what it is.

Color, shape, size, mental qualities, habits of action — these are some of the qualities first observed in things and abstracted from them in thought. Eedness, sweet- ness, hardness, softness, largeness, smallness, fragrance, swiftness, slowness, fierceness, gentleness, warmness,

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coldness, etc. — these are abstracted qualities of things. Of course these qualities are really never divorced from things, but the mind divorces them in order to make thinking easier. An authority says : ^^ Animals are in- capable of making abstractions, and that is the reason why they cannot develop formal thought. * * * Abstract thought is identical with rational thought, which is the characteristic feature of the thought of speaking beings. This is the reason why abstract thought is upon earth the exclusive property of man, and why brutes are in- capable of abstract thought. The process of naming is the mechanism of abstraction, for names establish the mental independence of the objects named/^

The processes of abstraction depend upon attention — concentrated attention. Attention directed to the quali- ties of a thing tends to abstract the qualities in thought from the thing itself. Mill says : ^^Abstraction is pri- marily the result of attention.^' Hamilton says : ^^At- tention and abstraction are only the same process viewed in different relations.^^ Cultivation of the power of abstraction means principally cultivation of attention. Any mental activity which tends toward analysis or separation of a thing into its parts, qualities, or ele- ments will serve to cultivate and develop the power of abstraction.

The habit of converting qualities into concepts is

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acquired by transforming adjective terms into their corresponding noun terms. For instance, a piece of colored candy possesses the qualities of being round, hard, red, sweet, etc. Transforming these adjective qualities into noun terms we have the concepts of round- ness, hardness, redness, and sweetness, respectively.

Comparison'.

The third step in conception is that of comparison, in which the qualities of several things are compared or examined for likenesses and differences. We find many qualities in which the several things differ, and a few in which there is a likeness. Classes are formed from resemblances or likenesses, while individuals are separated from apparent classes by detection of differ- ences. Finally, it is found that separate things, while having many points of difference which indicate their individuality, nevertheless have a few points of likeness which indicate that they belong to the same general family or class. The detection of likenesses and differ- ences in the qualities of various things is an important mental process. Many of the higher thought processes depend largely upon the ability to compare things prop- erly. The development of attention and perception tends to develop the power of comparison.

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Classification or Generalization.

The fourth step in conception is that of classification or generalization, whereby we place individual things in a mental bundle or class, and then this bundle in com- pany with other bundles into a higher class, and so on. Thus we group all the individual small birds having certain characteristics into a species, then several related species into a larger family, and this into a still larger, until finally we group all the bird families into the great family which we call ^^birds" and of which the simple term "bird'^ expresses the general concept.

Jevons says : ^^We classify things together whenever we observe that they are like each other in any respect, and therefore think of them together. In classifying a collection of objects, we do not merely put together into groups those which resemble each other, but we also divide each class into smaller ones in which the resem- blance is more complete. Thus the class of white sub- stances may be divided into those which are solid, and those which are fluid, so that we get the two minor classes of solid-white and fluid-white substances. It is desirable to have names by which to show that one class is contained in another, and, accordingly, we call the class which is divided into two or more smaller ones the genus, and the smaller ones into which it is divided, the species/^

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Every species is a small family of the individuals composing it, and at the same time is an individual species of the genus just above it ; the genus, in turn, is a family of several species, and at the same time an individual genus in the greater family or genus above it.

The student may familiarize himself with the idea of generalization by considering himself as an individual, John Smith. John represents that unit of generaliza- tion. The next step is to combine John with the other Smiths of his immediate family. Then this family may be grouped with his near blood relations, and so on, until finally all the related Smiths, near and remote, are grouped together in a great Smith family.

Or, in the same way, the family group may be en- larged until it takes in all the white people in a county, then all the white people in the state, then all in the United States; then all the white races, then all the white and other light-skinned races, then all mankind. Then, if one is inclined, the process may be continued until it embraces every living creature from moneron to man. Eeversing the process, living creatures may be divided and subdivided until all mankind is seen to stand as a class. Then the race of man may be divided into sub-races according to color; then the white race may be subdivided into Americans and non- Americans. Then the Americans may be divided into inhabitants of

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the several states, or into Indianans and non-Indianans ; then into the inhabitants of the several counties of Indiana, and thus the Posey Countians are reached. Then the Posey County people are divided into Smiths and non-Smiths; then the Smith family into its con- stituent family groups, and then into the smaller fami- lies, and so on, until the classification reaches one par- ticular John Smith, who at last is found to be an individual — in a class by himself. This is the story of the ascending and descending processes of generaliza- tion.

CHAPTER XXII.

Classes of Concepts.

IN" the preceding chapter we have seen the process of conception — of the forming of concepts. The idea of a general class of things or qualities is a concept. Each concept contains the qualities which are common to all the individuals composing the class^, but not those qualities which pertain only to the minor classes or the individuals. For instance, the concept of ^^bird'^ will necessarily include the common qualities of warm-bloodedness, f eatheredness, wingedness, oviparous- ness, and vertebratedness. But it will not include color, special shape, size, or special features or characteristics of the subfamilies or individuals composing the great class. The class comprises the individuals and sub- classes composing it; the concept includes the general and common qualities which all in the class possess. A percept is the mental image of a particular thing; a concept is the mental idea of the general qualities of a class of things. A percept arises from the perception of a sensation ; a concept is a purely mental, abstract crea- tion, whose only existence is in the world of ideas and

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which has no corresponding individual object in the world of sense.

There are two general classes of concepts, namely: (1) concrete concepts, in which the common qualities of a class of things are combined into one conceptual idea, such as ^^bird/^ of which we have spoken; (2) abstract concepts, in which is combined the idea of some quality common to a number of things, such as ^^sweet- ness^^ or ^^redness/^ Jevons^s well-known rule for terms is an aid in remembering this classification: ^^A con- crete term is the name of a thing; an abstract term is the name of a quality of a thing/'

It is a peculiar fact and rule of concrete concepts that (1) the larger the class of things embraced in a concept, the smaller are its general qualities; and (2) the larger the number of general qualities included in a concept, the smaller the number of individuals em- braced by it. For instance, the term ^^bird^^ embraces a great number of individuals — all the birds that are in existence, in fact, but it has but few general quali- ties, as we have seen. On the contrary, the concept ^^stork^^ has a much larger number of general qualities, but embraces far fewer individuals. Finally, the indi- vidual is reached, and we find that it has more qualities than any class can have; but it is composed of the smallest possible number of individuals, one. The secret

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is this : No two individuals can have as many qualities in common as each has individually^ unless they are precisely alike, vrhich is impossible in nature.

Imperfect Co:n'cepts.

It is said that outside of strictly scientific definitions very few persons agree in their concepts of the same thing. Each has his or her own concept of the partic- ular thing which he or she expresses by the same term. A number of persons asked to define a common term like "love/^ ^'religion/^ ^^faith/^ ^^belief/^ etc., will give such a variety of answers as to cause wonderment. As 'Green says: "My idea or image is mine alone — ^the reward of careless observation if imperfect; of attentive, care- ful, and varied observation if correct. Between mine and yours a great gulf is fixed. N'o man can pass from mine to yours, or from yours to mine. Neither in any proper sense of the term can mine be conveyed to you. Words do not convey thoughts; they are not vehicles of thoughts in any true sense of that term. A word is simply a common symbol which each associates with his own idea or image.^^

The reason of the difference in the concepts of several persons is that very few of our concepts are nearly per- fect; the majority of them are quite imperfect and incomplete. Jevons gives us an idea of this in his

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remarks on classification: "Things may seem to be very much like each other which are not so. Whales, porpoises, seals, and several other animals live in the sea exactly like a fish ; they have a similar shape and are usually classed among fish. People are said to go whale fishing. Yet these animals are not really fish at all, but are much more like dogs and horses and other quadrupeds than they are like fish. They cannot live entirely under water and breathe the air contained in the water like fish, but they have to come to the surface at intervals to take breath. Similarly, we must not class bats with birds because they fly about, although they have what would be called wings; these wings are not like those of birds, and, in truth, bats are much more like rats and mice than they are like birds. Bot- anists used at one time to classify plants according to their size, as trees, shrubs, or herbs, but we now know that a great tree is often more similar in character to a tiny herb than it is to other great trees. A daisy has little resemblance to a great Scotch thistle; yet the botanist regards them as very similar. The lofty grow- ing bamboo is a kind of grass, and the sugar cane also belongs to the same class with wheat and oats.^^

It is a matter of importance that clear concepts should be formed regarding at least the familiar things of life. Tlie list of clear concepts should be added to. from time.

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to time by study, investigation, and examination. The dictionary should be consulted frequently, and a term studied until one has a clear meaning of the concept the term seeks to express. A good encyclopedia (not necessarily an expensive one, in these days of cheap editions) will also prove very useful in this respect. As Halleck says : ^^It must be borne in mind that most of our concepts are subject to change during our entire life ; that at first they are made only in a tentative way ; that experience may show us, at any time, that they have been erroneously formed, that we have abstracted too little or too much, made the class too wide or too narrow, or that here a quality must be added or there one taken away.^^

It is a good practice to make a memorandum of any- thing of which you may hear, but of which you know nothing, and then later to make a brief but thorough investigation of that thing, by means of the dictionary and encyclopedia, and of whatever good works may be obtained on the subject, not leaving it until you feel that you have obtained at least a clear idea of what the thing really means, A half hour each evening de- voted to exercise of this kind will result in a wonderful increase of general information. We have heard of a man who made a practice of reading a short article in the encyclopedia every evening, giving preference to

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subjects generally classed as familiar. In a year he made a noticeable advance in general knowledge as well as habits of thought. In five years he was looked upon by his associates as a man of a remarkably large field of general information and of more than ordinary intel- ligence, which verdict was a just one. As a rule we waste far more time on worthless fiction than we are willing to devote to a little self-improvement of this kind. We shrink at the idea of a general course of instructive reading, little realizing that we can take our study in small installments and at a very little cost in time or labor.

Our concepts form the material which our intellect uses in its reasoning processes. No matter how good a reasoner one may be, unless he has a good supply of general information about the things of which he is reasoning, he will not make much real headway. We must begin at the bottom and build a firm foundation upon which the intellectual structure may be erected. This foundation is composed of facts. These facts are represented by our clear and correct concepts.

CHAPTER XXIII. Judgments.

WE have seen the several steps of the mental process whereby simple sensations are trans- formed into percepts and then into con- cepts or general ideas. The formation of the concept is considered as the first great step in thinking. The second great step in thinking is that of the formation of the ^^judgment.^' The definition of ^^jndgment/^ as the term is used in logicj is ^^the comparing: togetherjin the mind of two ideas of things^ and determining whether they agree or disagre^ejwith each ^thejr^ or that one of them does or does not belong to the other. Judg- ment is, therefore, (a) affirmative or (6) negative, as (a) ^Snow is white,' or (&) ^AU white men are not Europeans/ '^

What in logic is called a ^^proposition'' is the ex- pression in words of a logical judgment. Hyslop defined the term ^^proposition" as follows: ^^Any affirmation or denial of an agreement between two con- ceptions." For instance, we compare the concepts ^^sparrow" and "bird" and find that there is an agree- ment, and that the former belongs to the latter; this

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mental process is a judgment. We then announce the judgment in the proposition: ^^The sparrow is a bird/' In the same way we compare the concepts ^^bat'^ and "bird/' find that there is a disagreement, and form the judgment that neither belongs to the other, which we express in the proposition: "The bat is not a bird/' Or we may form the judgment that "sweetness" is a quality of "sugar/' which we express in the proposi- tion: "Sugar is sweet." Likewise, we may form the judgment which results in the proposition: "Vinegar is not sweet."

While the process of judgment is generally consideredr as constituting the second great step of thinking, com- ing after the formation of the concept, and consisting of the comparing of concepts, it must be remembered that the act of judging is far more elementary than this, for it is found still farther back in the history of thought processes. By that peculiar law of paradox which we find everywhere operative in mind processes, the same process of forming judgments which is used in comparing concepts also has been used in forming the same concepts in the stage of comparison. In fact, the result_of all comparison^^iigh or low, must be a judgment.

Halleck says: "Judgment is necessary in forming concepts. When we decide that a quality is or is not

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common to a class, we are really judging. This is an- other evidence of the complexity and unified action of the mind/' Brooks says: ^^The power of judgment is of great value in its products. It is involved in or accompanies every act of the intellect, and thus lies at the foundation of all intellectual activity. It operates directly in every act of the understanding, and even aids the other faculties of the mind in completing their activities and products. * * * Strictly speaking, every intelligent act of the mind is accompanied with a judg- ment. To know is to discriminate and, therefore, to judge. Every sensation or cognition involves a knowl- edge and so a judgment that it exists. The mind can- not think at all without judging; to think is to judge. Even in forming the notions which judgment com- pares, the mind judges. Every notion or concept im- plies a previous act of judgment to form it; in forming a concept we compare the common attributes before we unite them, and comparison is judgment. It is thus true that ^Every concept is a contracted judgment; every judgment an expanded concept.^ '^